Political correctness: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 08:50, 20 November 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "Redirect hatnote". Template:Use dmy dates Political correctness (adjectivally "politically correct"; commonly abbreviated to P.C.) is a term used to describe language,^[1]^[2]^[3] policies,^[4] or measures that are intended to avoid perceived offense or disadvantage to members of particular groups in society.^[5]^[6]^[7] Since the late 1980s, the term has been used to describe a preference for inclusive language and avoidance of language or behavior that can be seen as excluding, marginalizing, or insulting to groups of people disadvantaged or discriminated against, particularly groups defined by ethnicity, sex, gender, sexual orientation, or disability. In public discourse and the media,^[4]^[8]^[9] the term’s use is generally pejorative, with an implication that these policies are excessive or unwarranted.^[10]^[11] It can also be humorous, or ironic in nature.

The phrase politically correct first appeared in the 1930s, when it was used to describe dogmatic adherence to ideology in totalitarian regimes, such as Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia.^[5] Early usage of the term politically correct by leftists in the 1970s and 1980s was as self-critical satire;^[8] usage was ironic, rather than a name for a serious political movement.^[12]^[13]^[14] It was considered an in-joke among leftists used to satirise those who were too rigid in their adherence to political orthodoxy.^[15] The modern pejorative usage of the term emerged from conservative criticism of the New Left in the late 20th century, with many describing it as a form of censorship.^[16]

Commentators on the political left in the United States contend that conservatives use the concept of political correctness to downplay and divert attention from substantively discriminatory behavior against disadvantaged groups.^[17]^[18]^[19] They also argue that the political right enforces its own forms of political correctness to suppress criticism of its favored constituencies and ideologies.^[20]^[21]^[22] In the United States, the term has played a major role in the culture war between liberals and conservatives.^[23]

Conceptual background

Several researchers describe political correctness not only as a political label but also as a practice of linguistic reform aimed at reducing exclusionary or derogatory expressions in public language, often in line with egalitarian or inclusive norms.^[24] Geoffrey Hughes and Norman Fairclough both note that these language reforms are intertwined with broader social efforts to reshape public discourse and social relations.^[25]

History

Early-to-mid 20th century

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". In the early-to-mid 20th century, the phrase politically correct was used to describe strict adherence to a range of ideological orthodoxies within politics. In 1934, The New York Times reported that Nazi Germany was granting reporting permits "only to pure 'Aryans' whose opinions are politically correct".^[5]

The term political correctness first appeared in Marxist–Leninist vocabulary following the Russian Revolution of 1917. At that time, it was used to describe strict adherence to the policies and principles of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, that is, the party line.^[26] Later in the United States, the phrase came to be associated with accusations of dogmatism in debates between communists and socialists. According to American educator Herbert Kohl, writing about debates in New York in the late 1940s and early 1950s.

The term "politically correct" was used disparagingly, to refer to someone whose loyalty to the CP line overrode compassion, and led to bad politics. It was used by Socialists against Communists, and was meant to separate out Socialists who believed in egalitarian moral ideas from dogmatic Communists who would advocate and defend party positions regardless of their moral substance.
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1970s

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". In the 1970s, the American New Left began using the term politically correct.^[12] In the essay The Black Woman: An Anthology (1970), Toni Cade Bambara said that "a man cannot be politically correct and a [male] chauvinist, too". William Safire records this as the first use in the typical modern sense.^[27] The term political correctness was believed to have been revived by the New Left through familiarity in the West with Mao's Little Red Book, in which Mao stressed holding to the correct party line. The term rapidly began to be used by the New Left in an ironic or self-deprecating sense.^[28]

Thereafter, the term was often used as self-critical satire. Debra L. Shultz said that "throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the New Left, feminists, and progressives... used their term 'politically correct' ironically, as a guard against their own orthodoxy in social change efforts".^[8]^[12]^[13] PC is used in the comic book Merton of the Movement, by Bobby London, which was followed by the term ideologically sound, in the comic strips of Bart Dickon.^[12]^[29] In her essay "Toward a feminist Revolution" (1992) Ellen Willis said, "In the early eighties, when feminists used the term 'political correctness', it was used to refer sarcastically to the anti-pornography movement's efforts to define a 'feminist sexuality'."^[14]

Stuart Hall suggests one way in which the original use of the term may have developed into the modern one:

According to one version, political correctness actually began as an in-joke on the left: radical students on American campuses acting out an ironic replay of the Bad Old Days BS (Before the Sixties) when every revolutionary groupuscule had a party line about everything. They would address some glaring examples of sexist or racist behaviour by their fellow students in imitation of the tone of voice of the Red Guards or Cultural Revolution Commissar: "Not very 'politically correct', Comrade!"^[15]

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1980s and 1990s

Allan Bloom's The Closing of the American Mind, a book first published in 1987,^[30] heralded a debate about political correctness in American higher education in the 1980s and 1990s.^[8]^[31]^[32] Professor of English literary and cultural studies at CMU Jeffrey J. Williams wrote that the "assault on ... political correctness that simmered through the Reagan years, gained bestsellerdom with Bloom's Closing of the American Mind".^[33] According to Z.F. Gamson, Bloom's book "attacked the faculty for 'political correctness'".^[34] Sociologist Anthony Platt says the "campaign against 'political correctness'" was launched by Bloom's book in 1987.^[35]

An October 1990 New York Times article by Richard Bernstein is credited with popularizing the term.^[36]^[37]^[38]^[39]^[40] At this time, the term was mainly being used within academia: "Across the country the term p.c., as it is commonly abbreviated, is being heard more and more in debates over what should be taught at the universities."^[41] Nexis citations in "arcnews/curnews" reveal only seventy total citations in articles to "political correctness" for 1990; but one year later, Nexis records 1,532 citations, with a steady increase to more than 7,000 citations by 1994.^[39]^[42] In May 1991, The New York Times had a follow-up article, according to which the term was increasingly being used in a wider public arena:

What has come to be called "political correctness", a term that began to gain currency at the start of the academic year last fall, has spread in recent months and has become the focus of an angry national debate, mainly on campuses, but also in the larger arenas of American life.
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The previously obscure far-left term became common currency in the lexicon of the conservative social and political challenges against progressive teaching methods and curriculum changes in the secondary schools and universities of the U.S.^[10]^[44] Policies, behavior, and speech codes that the speaker or the writer regarded as being the imposition of a liberal orthodoxy, were described and criticized as politically correct.^[17] In May 1991, at a commencement ceremony for a graduating class of the University of Michigan, then U.S. President George H. W. Bush used the term in his speech: "The notion of political correctness has ignited controversy across the land. And although the movement arises from the laudable desire to sweep away the debris of racism and sexism and hatred, it replaces old prejudice with new ones. It declares certain topics off-limits, certain expression off-limits, even certain gestures off-limits."^[45]^[46]^[47]

After 1991, its use as a pejorative phrase became widespread amongst conservatives in the US.^[10] It became a key term encapsulating conservative concerns about the left in cultural and political debates extending beyond academia. Two articles on the topic in late 1990 in Forbes and Newsweek both used the term "thought police" in their headlines, exemplifying the tone of the new usage, but it was Dinesh D'Souza's Illiberal Education: The Politics of Race and Sex on Campus (1991) which "captured the press's imagination".^[10] These trends were at least in part a response to multiculturalism and the rise of identity politics, with movements such as feminism, gay rights movements and ethnic minority movements. That response received funding from conservative foundations and think tanks such as the John M. Olin Foundation, which funded several books such as D'Souza's.^[8]^[17]

Herbert Kohl, in 1992, commented that a number of neoconservatives who promoted the use of the term "politically correct" in the early 1990s were former Communist Party members, and, as a result, familiar with the Marxist use of the phrase. He argued that in doing so, they intended "to insinuate that egalitarian democratic ideas are actually authoritarian, orthodox, and Communist-influenced, when they oppose the right of people to be racist, sexist, and homophobic".^[4]

During the 1990s, conservative and right-wing politicians, think tanks, and speakers adopted the phrase as a pejorative descriptor of their ideological enemies, especially in the context of the culture wars about language and the content of public-school curricula. Roger Kimball, in Tenured Radicals, endorsed Frederick Crews's view that PC is best described as "Left Eclecticism", a term defined by Kimball as "any of a wide variety of anti-establishment modes of thought from structuralism and poststructuralism, deconstruction, and Lacanian analyst to feminist, homosexual, black, and other patently political forms of criticism".^[48]^[33]

Liberal commentators have argued that the conservatives and reactionaries who used the term did so in an effort to divert political discussion away from the substantive matters of resolving societal discrimination,^[49]^[50]^[51] such as racial, social class, gender, and legal inequality, against people whom conservatives do not consider part of the social mainstream.^[8]^[18]^[52] Jan Narveson wrote that "that phrase was born to live between scare-quotes: it suggests that the operative considerations in the area so called are merely political, steamrolling the genuine reasons of principle for which we ought to be acting...".^[9] Commenting in 2001, one such British journalist,^[53]^[54] Polly Toynbee, said "the phrase is an empty, right-wing smear, designed only to elevate its user",^[55] and in 2010 she wrote "the phrase 'political correctness' was born as a coded cover for all who still want to say Paki, spastic, or queer".^[56] Another British journalist, Will Hutton,^[57]^[58]^[59]^[60] wrote in 2001:^[61]

Political correctness is one of the brilliant tools that the American Right developed in the mid–1980s, as part of its demolition of American liberalism.... What the sharpest thinkers on the American Right saw quickly was that by declaring war on the cultural manifestations of liberalism – by levelling the charge of "political correctness" against its exponents – they could discredit the whole political project.
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Glenn Loury wrote in 1994 that to address the subject of "political correctness" when power and authority within the academic community is being contested by parties on either side of that issue, is to invite scrutiny of one's arguments by would-be "friends" and "enemies". Combatants from the left and the right will try to assess whether a writer is "for them" or "against them".^[62] Geoffrey Hughes suggested that debate over political correctness concerns whether changing language actually solves political and social problems, with critics viewing it less about solving problems than imposing censorship, intellectual intimidation and demonstrating the moral purity of those who practice it. Hughes also argues that political correctness tends to be pushed by a minority rather than an organic form of language change.^[63]

Right-wing political correctness

"Political correctness" is a label typically used to describe liberal or left-wing terms and actions but rarely used for analogous attempts to mold language and behavior on the right.^[64] Alex Nowrasteh of the Cato Institute referred to the right's own version of political correctness as "patriotic correctness".^[65]

As a socio-linguistic phenomenon

In subsequent academic scholarship, some scholars have examined political correctness as a form of linguistic and moral reform rather than as a coherent political ideology. Linguist Geoffrey Hughes described political correctness as “liberal in its aims but often illiberal in its practices,” identifying a tension between its reformist intentions and its perceived coerciveness.^[66] Similarly, Norman Fairclough has analyzed political correctness as part of a broader discourse of linguistic and moral reform, in which “changing language practices is part of changing social relations” and “critical awareness of language” is linked to the pursuit of “fairness and inclusiveness.”^[67]

Public perceptions and self-censorship

Public opinion research suggests that the term “politically correct” continues to function as a reference point in contemporary debates about acceptable expression. A 2021 YouGov poll reported by the BBC found that 57% of respondents said they self-censor their views on issues such as immigration, particularly when their opinions are “deemed at the less politically correct end of the spectrum.”^[68] These findings indicate that the concept is widely understood by the public as relating to perceived social norms governing acceptable or inclusive language.

Contemporary analyses have connected these perceptions to broader concerns about self-censorship, social sanctioning, and contested norms of speech in public life.^[69]^[70]

Institutional language reform

One example of an institutional language-guidance policy that drew public attention occurred in 2017, when Cardiff Metropolitan University issued a set of recommended alternatives to terms such as “mankind,” “manpower,” and “housewife.” The guidance, which the university described as part of its inclusivity standards, was reported by BBC News, The Independent, and The Telegraph as part of broader debates about political correctness in UK higher education.

The episode prompted discussion among commentators and academics about whether such measures represented reasonable linguistic modernization or unnecessary overcorrection.^[71]^[72]^[73]

Usage

The modern pejorative usage of the term emerged from conservative criticism of the New Left in the late 20th century. This usage was popularized by a number of articles in The New York Times and other media throughout the 1990s,^[36]^[37]^[38]^[41]^[43]^[74] and was widely used in the debate surrounding Allan Bloom's 1987 book The Closing of the American Mind.^[8]^[30]^[31] The term gained further currency in response to Roger Kimball's Tenured Radicals (1990),^[8]^[17]^[48] and conservative author Dinesh D'Souza's 1991 book Illiberal Education.^[8]^[10]^[17]^[75] Supporters of politically correct language have been pejoratively referred to as the "language police".^[76]

Education

Modern debate on the term was sparked by conservative critiques of perceived liberal bias in academia and education,^[8] and conservatives have since used it as a major line of attack.^[10]

Preliminary research published in 2020 indicated that students at a large U.S. public university generally felt instructors were open-minded and encouraged free expression of diverse viewpoints; nonetheless, most students worried about the consequences of voicing their political opinions, with "[a]nxieties about expressing political views and self-censorship ... more prevalent among students who identify as conservative".^[77]^[78]

As a conspiracy theory

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Some conservative commentators in the West argue that "political correctness" and multiculturalism are part of a conspiracy with the ultimate goal of undermining Judeo-Christian values. This theory, which holds that political correctness originates from the critical theory of the Frankfurt School as part of a conspiracy that its proponents call "Cultural Marxism".^[79]^[80] The theory originated with Michael Minnicino's 1992 essay "New Dark Age: Frankfurt School and 'Political Correctness'", published in a Lyndon LaRouche movement journal.^[81] In 2001, conservative commentator Patrick Buchanan wrote in The Death of the West that "political correctness is cultural Marxism", and that "its trademark is intolerance".^[82]

Media

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". In the US, the term has been widely used in books and journals, but in Britain the usage has been confined mainly to the popular press.^[83] Many such authors and popular-media figures, particularly on the right, have used the term to criticize what they see as bias in the media.^[9]^[17] William McGowan argues that journalists get stories wrong or ignore stories worthy of coverage, because of what McGowan perceives to be their liberal ideologies and their fear of offending minority groups.^[84] Robert Novak, in his essay "Political Correctness Has No Place in the Newsroom", used the term to blame newspapers for adopting language use policies that he thinks tend to excessively avoid the appearance of bias. He argued that political correctness in language not only destroys meaning but also demeans the people who are meant to be protected.^[85]^[86]^[87]

Authors David Sloan and Emily Hoff claim that in the US, journalists shrug off concerns about political correctness in the newsroom, equating the political correctness criticisms with the old "liberal media bias" label.^[88] According to author John Wilson, left-wing forces of "political correctness" have been blamed for unrelated censorship, with Time citing campaigns against violence on network television in the US as contributing to a "mainstream culture [that] has become cautious, sanitized, scared of its own shadow" because of "the watchful eye of the p.c. police", protests and advertiser boycotts targeting TV shows are generally organized by right-wing religious groups campaigning against violence, sex, and depictions of homosexuality on television.^[89]

Inclusive language

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Inclusive or Equity Language is a language style that avoids expressions that its proponents perceive as expressing or implying ideas that are sexist, racist, or otherwise biased, prejudiced, or insulting to any particular group of people; and instead uses language intended to avoid offense and fulfill the ideals of egalitarianism. This language style is sometimes referred to as a type of "political correctness", either as a neutral description or with negative connotations by its opponents.^[90] At least some supporters deny an association between the two ("Political correctness is focused on not offending whereas inclusive language is focused on honoring people's identities.").^[91]

Satirical use

Political correctness is often satirized, for example in The PC Manifesto (1992) by Saul Jerushalmy and Rens Zbignieuw X,^[92] and Politically Correct Bedtime Stories (1994) by James Finn Garner, which presents fairy tales re-written from an exaggerated politically correct perspective. In 1994, the comedy film PCU took a look at political correctness on a college campus. Other examples include the television program Politically Incorrect, George Carlin's "Euphemisms" routine,Script error: No such module "Unsubst". and The Politically Correct Scrapbook.^[93] The popularity of the South Park cartoon program led to the creation of the term "South Park Republican" by Andrew Sullivan,Script error: No such module "Unsubst". and later the book South Park Conservatives by Brian C. Anderson.^[94] In its Season 19 (2015), South Park introduced the character PC Principal, who embodies the principle, to poke fun at the principle of political correctness.^[95]^[96]

The Colbert Report's host Stephen Colbert often talked, satirically, about the "PC Police".^[97]^[98]

Science

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Groups who oppose certain generally accepted scientific views about evolution, second-hand tobacco smoke, AIDS, climate change, race and other politically contentious scientific matters have used the term political correctness to describe what they view as unwarranted rejection of their perspective on these issues by a scientific community that they believe has been corrupted by liberal politics.^[99]

Notes

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References

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Bernstein, David E. (2003). You Can't Say That! The Growing Threat to Civil Liberties from Antidiscrimination Laws. Cato Institute, 180 pages. Template:ISBN.
Hentoff, Nat (1992). Free Speech for Me – But Not for Thee. HarperCollins. Template:ISBN.
Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur M. (1998). The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society. W.W. Norton, revised edition. Template:ISBN.
Debra L. Schultz (1993). To Reclaim a Legacy of Diversity: Analyzing the "Political Correctness" Debates in Higher Education. New York: National Council for Research on Women. Template:ISBN.
John Wilson (1995). The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on High Education. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. Template:ISBN.

Template:Discrimination Template:Authority control

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↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d Ruth Perry, (1992), "A Short History of the Term 'Politically Correct'", in Beyond PC: Toward a Politics of Understanding, by Patricia Aufderheide, 1992, Template:ISBN
↑ ^a ^b Schultz citing Perry (1992) p. 16
↑ ^a ^b Willis, Ellen. "Toward a Feminist Revolution", in No More Nice Girls: Countercultural Essays (1992) Wesleyan University Press, Template:ISBN, p. 19.
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↑ Hughes, Geoffrey (2010). Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture, pp. 3–4; Fairclough, Norman (2015). Language and Power (3rd ed.), pp. 4, 109; “political correctness,” Encyclopædia Britannica; “politically correct,” Oxford Dictionaries.
↑ Hughes 2010, pp. 3–4; Fairclough 2015, pp. 4, 109.
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↑ Browne, Anthony (2006). "The Retreat of Reason: Political Correctness and the Corruption of Public Debate in Modern Britain Template:Webarchive". Civitas. Template:ISBN.
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↑ George H. W. Bush, at the University of Michigan (4 May 1991), Remarks at the University of Michigan Commencement Ceremony in Ann Arbor Template:Webarchive, 4 May 1991. George Bush Presidential Library.
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↑ Toynbee, Polly. "Religion Must be Removed from all Functions of State" , The Guardian, 12 December 2001 – Accessed 6 February 2007.
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↑ Hutton, Will. "Words really are important, Mr Blunkett" The Observer, Sunday 16 December 2001 – Accessed 6 February 2007.
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↑ Hughes, Geoffrey (2010). Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture. Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 3–4.
↑ Fairclough, Norman (2015). Language and Power (3rd ed.). Routledge, pp. 4, 109.
↑ BBC News. “YouGov poll: 57% of people say they self-censor on ‘less politically correct’ issues.” 12 November 2021. https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-59703257.
↑ Wilson, John. The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on Higher Education. Duke University Press, 1995.
↑ Narveson, Jan. “Political Correctness: For and Against.” Rowman & Littlefield, 1995.
↑ BBC News. “University gender-neutral language policy criticised.” 3 March 2017. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-south-east-wales-39153731
↑ The Independent. “University bans phrases such as ‘mankind’ and ‘gentleman’s agreement’ in favour of gender-neutral terms.” 3 March 2017. https://www.independent.co.uk/student/news/university-cardiff-metropolitan-bans-phrases-mankind-gentlemans-agreement-genderneutral-terms-free-speech-a7609521.html
↑ The Telegraph. Turner, Camilla. “University bans phrases such as ‘right-hand man’ and ‘gentleman’s agreement’ in favour of gender-neutral terms.” 2 March 2017. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/2017/03/02/university-bans-phrases-right-hand-man-gentlemans-agreement/
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↑ Larson, Jennifer, Mark McNeilly, and Timothy J. Ryan. "Free Expression and Constructive Dialogue at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Template:Webarchive." Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina (5 February 2020).
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↑ Jay, Martin (2010), "Dialectic of Counter-Enlightenment: The Frankfurt School as Scapegoat of the Lunatic Fringe". Salmagundi (Fall 2010–Winter 2011, 168–69): 30–40.
↑ Buchanan, Patrick. The Death of the West, p. 89.
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[Perry-1992a-12] Ruth Perry, (1992), "A Short History of the Term 'Politically Correct'", in Beyond PC: Toward a Politics of Understanding, by Patricia Aufderheide, 1992, Template:ISBN

[SchultzPerry-13] Schultz citing Perry (1992) p. 16

[willis-14] Willis, Ellen. "Toward a Feminist Revolution", in No More Nice Girls: Countercultural Essays (1992) Wesleyan University Press, Template:ISBN, p. 19.

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[WilsonConservativeCorrectness-20] "Conservative Correctness" chapter, in Wilson, John. 1995. The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on Higher Education. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. p. 57.

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[24] Hughes, Geoffrey (2010). Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture, pp. 3–4; Fairclough, Norman (2015). Language and Power (3rd ed.), pp. 4, 109; “political correctness,” Encyclopædia Britannica; “politically correct,” Oxford Dictionaries.

[25] Hughes 2010, pp. 3–4; Fairclough 2015, pp. 4, 109.

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[Browne-40] Browne, Anthony (2006). "The Retreat of Reason: Political Correctness and the Corruption of Public Debate in Modern Britain Template:Webarchive". Civitas. Template:ISBN.

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[45] George H. W. Bush, at the University of Michigan (4 May 1991), Remarks at the University of Michigan Commencement Ceremony in Ann Arbor Template:Webarchive, 4 May 1991. George Bush Presidential Library.

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[55] Toynbee, Polly. "Religion Must be Removed from all Functions of State" , The Guardian, 12 December 2001 – Accessed 6 February 2007.

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[61] Hutton, Will. "Words really are important, Mr Blunkett" The Observer, Sunday 16 December 2001 – Accessed 6 February 2007.

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[66] Hughes, Geoffrey (2010). Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture. Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 3–4.

[67] Fairclough, Norman (2015). Language and Power (3rd ed.). Routledge, pp. 4, 109.

[68] BBC News. “YouGov poll: 57% of people say they self-censor on ‘less politically correct’ issues.” 12 November 2021. https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-59703257.

[69] Wilson, John. The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on Higher Education. Duke University Press, 1995.

[70] Narveson, Jan. “Political Correctness: For and Against.” Rowman & Littlefield, 1995.

[71] BBC News. “University gender-neutral language policy criticised.” 3 March 2017. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-south-east-wales-39153731

[72] The Independent. “University bans phrases such as ‘mankind’ and ‘gentleman’s agreement’ in favour of gender-neutral terms.” 3 March 2017. https://www.independent.co.uk/student/news/university-cardiff-metropolitan-bans-phrases-mankind-gentlemans-agreement-genderneutral-terms-free-speech-a7609521.html

[73] The Telegraph. Turner, Camilla. “University bans phrases such as ‘right-hand man’ and ‘gentleman’s agreement’ in favour of gender-neutral terms.” 2 March 2017. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/2017/03/02/university-bans-phrases-right-hand-man-gentlemans-agreement/

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[77] Larson, Jennifer, Mark McNeilly, and Timothy J. Ryan. "Free Expression and Constructive Dialogue at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Template:Webarchive." Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina (5 February 2020).

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[81] Jay, Martin (2010), "Dialectic of Counter-Enlightenment: The Frankfurt School as Scapegoat of the Lunatic Fringe". Salmagundi (Fall 2010–Winter 2011, 168–69): 30–40.

[82] Buchanan, Patrick. The Death of the West, p. 89.

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 {{Redirect2|Politically correct|Politically incorrect|other uses|Politically Correct (disambiguation)|and|Politically Incorrect (disambiguation)}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}
-{{Discrimination sidebar|Related}}
+'''Political correctness''' (adjectivally "'''politically correct'''"; commonly abbreviated to '''P.C.''') is a term used to describe language,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/politically-correct|title='politically correct' definition|website=[[Cambridge English Dictionary]]|access-date=14 March 2016|archive-date=6 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210406011704/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/politically-correct|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/political_correctness|title=Definition of ''political correctness'' in English|publisher=[[Oxford Dictionaries (website)|Oxford Dictionaries]]|access-date=1 January 2017|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413091703/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/political_correctness}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title='Politically Correct' definition|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/politically%20correct|dictionary=[[Merriam-Webster]]|access-date=7 October 2017|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020073401/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/politically%20correct|url-status=live}}</ref> policies,<ref name=Kohl>{{cite journal|last1=Kohl|first1=Herbert|title= Uncommon Differences: On Political Correctness, Core Curriculum and Democracy in Education|journal=[[The Lion and the Unicorn (journal)|The Lion and the Unicorn]]|date=1992|volume=16|issue=1|pages=1–16|doi=10.1353/uni.0.0216 |s2cid=145173687}}</ref> or measures that are intended to avoid perceived offense or disadvantage to members of particular groups in society.<ref name="Gibson">{{cite news|last1=Gibson|first1=Caitlin|title=How 'politically correct' went from compliment to insult|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/how-politically-correct-went-from-compliment-to-insult/2016/01/13/b1cf5918-b61a-11e5-a76a-0b5145e8679a_story.html|access-date=7 October 2017|agency=[[The Washington Post]]|date=13 January 2016|archive-date=26 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210626145017/https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/how-politically-correct-went-from-compliment-to-insult/2016/01/13/b1cf5918-b61a-11e5-a76a-0b5145e8679a_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Florence">{{cite journal|last1=Florence|first1=Joshua|title=A Phrase in Flux: The History of Political Correctness|journal=[[Harvard Political Review]]|date=30 October 2015|url=http://harvardpolitics.com/united-states/phrase-flux-history-political-correctness/|access-date=7 October 2017|archive-date=22 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200822071043/https://harvardpolitics.com/united-states/phrase-flux-history-political-correctness/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Chow>{{cite news|last1=Chow|first1=Kat|title='Politically Correct': The Phrase Has Gone From Wisdom To Weapon|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2016/12/14/505324427/politically-correct-the-phrase-has-gone-from-wisdom-to-weapon|access-date=7 October 2017|publisher=[[National Public Radio]] ([[NPR]])|date=14 December 2016|archive-date=11 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011171717/https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2016/12/14/505324427/politically-correct-the-phrase-has-gone-from-wisdom-to-weapon|url-status=live}}</ref> Since the late 1980s, the term has been used to describe a preference for [[inclusive language]] and avoidance of language or behavior that can be seen as [[Social exclusion|excluding]], marginalizing, or insulting to groups of people disadvantaged or discriminated against, particularly groups defined by ethnicity, sex, gender, sexual orientation, or disability. In public discourse and the media,<ref name=Kohl/><ref name="Schultz-1993a"/><ref name=Friedman>{{cite book|last1=Friedman|first1=Marilyn|author-link1=Marilyn Friedman|last2=Narveson|first2=Jan|author-link2=Jan Narveson|title=Political correctness: for and against|date=1995|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|location=[[Lanham, Maryland|Lanham]]|isbn=978-0847679867|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lnU9pMbHk0sC|access-date=31 October 2015|archive-date=12 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412192444/https://books.google.com/books?id=lnU9pMbHk0sC|url-status=live}}</ref> the term’s use is generally pejorative, with an implication that these policies are excessive or unwarranted.<ref name="Charles-Wartella"/><ref name=Hughes>{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=Geoffrey|title=Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TDi-l-bsBZoC|at=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Zzw9WabmmVwC&dq=%221975+-+Peter+Fuller%22&pg=PT50 1975 – Peter Fuller]|year=2011|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=978-1444360295|chapter=Origins of the Phrase|access-date=19 November 2020|archive-date=12 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412192446/https://books.google.com/books?id=TDi-l-bsBZoC|url-status=live}}</ref> It can also be humorous, or ironic in nature.
-"'''Political correctness'''" (adjectivally "'''politically correct'''"; commonly abbreviated to '''P.C.''') is a term used to describe language,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/politically-correct|title='politically correct' definition|website=[[Cambridge English Dictionary]]|access-date=14 March 2016|archive-date=6 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210406011704/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/politically-correct|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/political_correctness|title=Definition of ''political correctness'' in English|publisher=[[Oxford Dictionaries (website)|Oxford Dictionaries]]|access-date=1 January 2017|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413091703/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/political_correctness}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title='Politically Correct' definition|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/politically%20correct|dictionary=[[Merriam-Webster]]|access-date=7 October 2017|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020073401/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/politically%20correct|url-status=live}}</ref> policies,<ref name=Kohl>{{cite journal|last1=Kohl|first1=Herbert|title= Uncommon Differences: On Political Correctness, Core Curriculum and Democracy in Education|journal=[[The Lion and the Unicorn (journal)|The Lion and the Unicorn]]|date=1992|volume=16|issue=1|pages=1–16|doi=10.1353/uni.0.0216 |s2cid=145173687}}</ref> or measures that are intended to avoid offense or disadvantage to members of particular groups in society.<ref name="Gibson">{{cite news|last1=Gibson|first1=Caitlin|title=How 'politically correct' went from compliment to insult|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/how-politically-correct-went-from-compliment-to-insult/2016/01/13/b1cf5918-b61a-11e5-a76a-0b5145e8679a_story.html|access-date=7 October 2017|agency=[[The Washington Post]]|date=13 January 2016|archive-date=26 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210626145017/https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/how-politically-correct-went-from-compliment-to-insult/2016/01/13/b1cf5918-b61a-11e5-a76a-0b5145e8679a_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Florence">{{cite journal|last1=Florence|first1=Joshua|title=A Phrase in Flux: The History of Political Correctness|journal=[[Harvard Political Review]]|date=30 October 2015|url=http://harvardpolitics.com/united-states/phrase-flux-history-political-correctness/|access-date=7 October 2017|archive-date=22 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200822071043/https://harvardpolitics.com/united-states/phrase-flux-history-political-correctness/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Chow>{{cite news|last1=Chow|first1=Kat|title='Politically Correct': The Phrase Has Gone From Wisdom To Weapon|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2016/12/14/505324427/politically-correct-the-phrase-has-gone-from-wisdom-to-weapon|access-date=7 October 2017|publisher=[[National Public Radio]] ([[NPR]])|date=14 December 2016|archive-date=11 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011171717/https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2016/12/14/505324427/politically-correct-the-phrase-has-gone-from-wisdom-to-weapon|url-status=live}}</ref> Since the late 1980s, the term has been used to describe a preference for [[inclusive language]] and avoidance of language or behavior that can be seen as [[Social exclusion|excluding]], marginalizing, or insulting to groups of people disadvantaged or discriminated against, particularly groups defined by ethnicity, sex, gender, sexual orientation, or disability. In public discourse and the media,<ref name=Kohl/><ref name="Schultz-1993a"/><ref name=Friedman>{{cite book|last1=Friedman|first1=Marilyn|author-link1=Marilyn Friedman|last2=Narveson|first2=Jan|author-link2=Jan Narveson|title=Political correctness: for and against|date=1995|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|location=[[Lanham, Maryland|Lanham]]|isbn=978-0847679867|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lnU9pMbHk0sC|access-date=31 October 2015|archive-date=12 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412192444/https://books.google.com/books?id=lnU9pMbHk0sC|url-status=live}}</ref> the term is generally used as a [[pejorative]] with an implication that these policies are excessive or unwarranted.<ref name="Charles-Wartella"/><ref name=Hughes>{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=Geoffrey|title=Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TDi-l-bsBZoC|at=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Zzw9WabmmVwC&dq=%221975+-+Peter+Fuller%22&pg=PT50 1975 – Peter Fuller]|year=2011|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=978-1444360295|chapter=Origins of the Phrase|access-date=19 November 2020|archive-date=12 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412192446/https://books.google.com/books?id=TDi-l-bsBZoC|url-status=live}}</ref>
 The phrase ''politically correct'' first appeared in the 1930s, when it was used to describe dogmatic adherence to ideology in [[totalitarian regimes]], such as [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Soviet Russia]].<ref name=Gibson /> Early usage of the term ''politically correct'' by [[leftists]] in the 1970s and 1980s was as self-critical [[satire]];<ref name="Schultz-1993a"/> usage was ironic, rather than a name for a serious [[political movement]].<ref name="Perry-1992a"/><ref name=SchultzPerry>Schultz citing Perry (1992) p. 16</ref><ref name="willis"/> It was considered an in-joke among leftists used to satirise those who were too rigid in their adherence to political [[orthodoxy]].<ref name=Hall/> The modern pejorative usage of the term emerged from [[conservative]] criticism of the [[New Left]] in the late 20th century, with many describing it as a form of [[censorship]].<ref name="Ford">{{cite thesis |last=Ford |first=Becky R. |date=2017 |title=An Empirical Test of the Effects of Political Correctness: Implications for Censorship, Self-Censorship, and Public Deliberation |publication-place=University of California, Santa Barbara |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/12f562b0#author |access-date=11 June 2022 |archive-date=11 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611071318/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/12f562b0#author |url-status=live }}</ref>
 Commentators on the [[political left in the United States]] contend that conservatives use the concept of political correctness to downplay and divert attention from substantively discriminatory behavior against disadvantaged groups.<ref name="Wilson"/><ref name="Messer–Davidow"/><ref name="mink">{{cite news|last1=Mink|first1=Eric|title=Trump's Political-Correctness Con Job|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/eric-mink/trumps-political-correctn_b_12316240.html|work=[[Huffington Post]]|access-date=8 November 2016|date=6 October 2016|archive-date=19 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019083630/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/eric-mink/trumps-political-correctn_b_12316240.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They also argue that the [[political right]] enforces its own forms of political correctness to suppress criticism of its favored constituencies and ideologies.<ref name="WilsonConservativeCorrectness">"Conservative Correctness" chapter, in Wilson, John. 1995. ''[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780822317135 The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on Higher Education].'' Durham, North Carolina: [[Duke University Press]]. p. 57.</ref><ref name=DonWilliams>{{cite web |url=http://www.mach2.com/williams/index.php?t=1&c=20060602120901 |title=Don Williams comments – Dixie Chicks Were Right |access-date=20 May 2017 |website=mach2.com |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402132346/http://www.mach2.com/williams/index.php?t=1&c=20060602120901 }}</ref><ref name="Krugman">{{cite news|last=Krugman|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Krugman|title=The New Political Correctness|url=https://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/26/the-new-political-correctness/|access-date=17 February 2013|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=26 May 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130327082408/https://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/26/the-new-political-correctness/|archive-date=27 March 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> In the United States, the term has played a major role in the [[culture war]] between [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberals]] and [[Conservatism in the United States|conservatives]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/the-personality-of-political-correctness/|title=The Personality of Political Correctness; The idea of political correctness is central to the culture wars of American politics|last=Kaufman|first=Scott Barry|date=20 November 2016|work=[[Scientific American]]|access-date=2 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927222216/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/the-personality-of-political-correctness/|archive-date=27 September 2019}}</ref>
+==Conceptual background==
+Several researchers describe political correctness not only as a political label but also as a practice of linguistic reform aimed at reducing exclusionary or derogatory expressions in public language, often in line with egalitarian or inclusive norms.<ref>Hughes, Geoffrey (2010). Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture, pp. 3–4; Fairclough, Norman (2015). Language and Power (3rd ed.), pp. 4, 109; “political correctness,” Encyclopædia Britannica; “politically correct,” Oxford Dictionaries.</ref> Geoffrey Hughes and Norman Fairclough both note that these language reforms are intertwined with broader social efforts to reshape public discourse and social relations.<ref>Hughes 2010, pp. 3–4; Fairclough 2015, pp. 4, 109.</ref>
 ==History==
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 ===1980s and 1990s===
-[[Allan Bloom]]'s ''[[The Closing of the American Mind]]'', a book first published in 1987,<ref name=Bloom/> heralded a debate about "political correctness" in American higher education in the 1980s and 1990s.<ref name="Schultz-1993a"/><ref name=Robinson2000/><ref name=Kamiya>{{cite journal|last1=Kamiya|first1=Gary|title=Civilization & Its Discontents|journal=[[San Francisco Chronicle Magazine]]|date=22 January 1995|url=http://www.sfgate.com/magazine/article/Civilization-Its-Discontents-3152155.php|access-date=16 November 2015|archive-date=28 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228042025/https://www.sfgate.com/magazine/article/Civilization-Its-Discontents-3152155.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Professor of English literary and cultural studies at [[Carnegie Mellon University|CMU]] Jeffrey J. Williams wrote that the "assault on ... political correctness that simmered through the Reagan years, gained bestsellerdom with Bloom's ''Closing of the American Mind''".<ref name=Williams>{{cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Jeffrey|title=PC Wars: Politics and Theory in the Academy|date=2013|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1136656231|page=11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VaVlAgAAQBAJ|access-date=28 October 2015|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010142522/https://books.google.com/books?id=VaVlAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Z.F. Gamson, Bloom's book "attacked the faculty for 'political correctness'".<ref name=Gamson>{{cite journal |last1= Gamson|first1=Z.F.|title=The Stratification of the Academy|journal= Social Text|date= 1997|volume=51|issue=51|pages=67–73|doi=10.2307/466647|jstor=466647}}</ref> Prof. of Social Work at [[California State University|CSU]] Tony Platt says the "campaign against 'political correctness'" was launched by Bloom's book in 1987.<ref name=Platt>{{cite journal|last1=Platt|first1=Tony|title=Desegregating Multiculturalism: Problems in the Theory and Pedagogy of Diversity Education|journal=Pedagogies for Social Change|via=[[Social Justice (journal)|Social Justice]]|volume=29|issue=4 (90)|url=http://www.socialjusticejournal.org/archive/90_29_4/90_04Platt.pdf|access-date=28 October 2015|archive-date=7 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007175758/http://www.socialjusticejournal.org/archive/90_29_4/90_04Platt.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
+[[Allan Bloom]]'s ''[[The Closing of the American Mind]]'', a book first published in 1987,<ref name=Bloom/> heralded a debate about political correctness in American higher education in the 1980s and 1990s.<ref name="Schultz-1993a"/><ref name=Robinson2000/><ref name=Kamiya>{{cite journal|last1=Kamiya|first1=Gary|title=Civilization & Its Discontents|journal=[[San Francisco Chronicle Magazine]]|date=22 January 1995|url=http://www.sfgate.com/magazine/article/Civilization-Its-Discontents-3152155.php|access-date=16 November 2015|archive-date=28 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228042025/https://www.sfgate.com/magazine/article/Civilization-Its-Discontents-3152155.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Professor of English literary and cultural studies at [[Carnegie Mellon University|CMU]] Jeffrey J. Williams wrote that the "assault on ... political correctness that simmered through the Reagan years, gained bestsellerdom with Bloom's ''Closing of the American Mind''".<ref name=Williams>{{cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Jeffrey|title=PC Wars: Politics and Theory in the Academy|date=2013|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1136656231|page=11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VaVlAgAAQBAJ|access-date=28 October 2015|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010142522/https://books.google.com/books?id=VaVlAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Z.F. Gamson, Bloom's book "attacked the faculty for 'political correctness'".<ref name=Gamson>{{cite journal |last1= Gamson|first1=Z.F.|title=The Stratification of the Academy|journal= Social Text|date= 1997|volume=51|issue=51|pages=67–73|doi=10.2307/466647|jstor=466647}}</ref> Sociologist [[Anthony Platt]] says the "campaign against 'political correctness'" was launched by Bloom's book in 1987.<ref name=Platt>{{cite journal|last1=Platt|first1=Tony|title=Desegregating Multiculturalism: Problems in the Theory and Pedagogy of Diversity Education|journal=Pedagogies for Social Change|via=[[Social Justice (journal)|Social Justice]]|volume=29|issue=4 (90)|url=http://www.socialjusticejournal.org/archive/90_29_4/90_04Platt.pdf|access-date=28 October 2015|archive-date=7 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007175758/http://www.socialjusticejournal.org/archive/90_29_4/90_04Platt.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
 An October 1990 ''[[New York Times]]'' article by [[Richard Bernstein (journalist)|Richard Bernstein]] is credited with popularizing the term.<ref name=Berman1992/><ref name=Smith1999/><ref name=Schwartz/><ref name=Crossroads>{{cite book|editor-last1=Valdes|editor-first1=Francisco|editor-last2=Culp|editor-first2=Jerome McCristal|editor-last3=Harris|editor-first3=Angela P.|title=Crossroads, directions, and a new critical race theory|date=2002|publisher=[[Temple University Press]]|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1566399302|pages=59, 65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCedxQu542UC|access-date=21 October 2015|archive-date=30 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730022119/https://books.google.com/books?id=dCedxQu542UC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Browne">Browne, Anthony (2006). "[https://www.civitas.org.uk/archive/pubs/Browne_cs47.php The Retreat of Reason: Political Correctness and the Corruption of Public Debate in Modern Britain] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503050240/http://www.civitas.org.uk/pubs/Browne_cs47.php|date=3 May 2014}}". Civitas. {{ISBN|1903386500}}.</ref> At this time, the term was mainly being used within academia: "Across the country the term p.c., as it is commonly abbreviated, is being heard more and more in debates over what should be taught at the universities."<ref name=Bernstein/> [[LexisNexis|Nexis]] citations in "arcnews/curnews" reveal only seventy total citations in articles to "political correctness" for 1990; but one year later, Nexis records 1,532 citations, with a steady increase to more than 7,000 citations by 1994.<ref name=Crossroads/><ref name=Cho>{{cite journal|last1=Cho|first1=Sumi|title=Essential Politics|journal=[[Harvard Law Review]]|date=1997 |volume= 433}}</ref> In May 1991, ''The New York Times'' had a follow-up article, according to which the term was increasingly being used in a wider public arena:
@@ Line 35: / Line 38: @@
 {{blockquote|What has come to be called "political correctness", a term that began to gain currency at the start of the academic year last fall, has spread in recent months and has become the focus of an angry national debate, mainly on campuses, but also in the larger arenas of American life.|Robert D. McFadden, "Political Correctness: New Bias Test?", 1991<ref name=McFadden1991 />}}
-The previously obscure far-left term became common currency in the lexicon of the conservative social and political challenges against [[progressive education|progressive teaching methods]] and curriculum changes in the secondary schools and universities of the U.S.<ref name="Charles-Wartella">{{cite journal | title=Media Coverage of the "Political Correctness" Debate |last1=Whitney |first1=D. Charles |last2=Wartella |first2=Ellen |name-list-style=amp | journal=[[Journal of Communication]] | year=1992 | volume=42 | issue=2 |pages=83 | doi = 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1992.tb00780.x }}</ref><ref>{{harvp|D'Souza|1991}}, {{harvp|Berman|1992}}, {{harvp|Schultz|1993}}, {{harvp|Messer-Davidow|1995}}, {{harvp|Scatamburlo|1998}}</ref> Policies, behavior, and speech codes that the speaker or the writer regarded as being the imposition of a liberal orthodoxy, were described and criticized as "politically correct".<ref name="Wilson"/> In May 1991, at a commencement ceremony for a graduating class of the University of Michigan, then U.S. President [[George H. W. Bush]] used the term in his speech: "The notion of political correctness has ignited controversy across the land. And although the movement arises from the laudable desire to sweep away the debris of racism and sexism and hatred, it replaces old prejudice with new ones. It declares certain topics off-limits, certain expression off-limits, even certain gestures off-limits."<ref>[[George H. W. Bush]], at the [[University of Michigan]] (4 May 1991), [http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/papers/1991/91050401.html Remarks at the University of Michigan Commencement Ceremony in Ann Arbor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040516105827/http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/papers/1991/91050401.html |date=16 May 2004 }}, 4 May 1991. [[George Bush Presidential Library]].</ref><ref>
+The previously obscure far-left term became common currency in the lexicon of the conservative social and political challenges against [[progressive education|progressive teaching methods]] and curriculum changes in the secondary schools and universities of the U.S.<ref name="Charles-Wartella">{{cite journal | title=Media Coverage of the "Political Correctness" Debate |last1=Whitney |first1=D. Charles |last2=Wartella |first2=Ellen |name-list-style=amp | journal=[[Journal of Communication]] | year=1992 | volume=42 | issue=2 |pages=83 | doi = 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1992.tb00780.x }}</ref><ref>{{harvp|D'Souza|1991}}, {{harvp|Berman|1992}}, {{harvp|Schultz|1993}}, {{harvp|Messer-Davidow|1995}}, {{harvp|Scatamburlo|1998}}</ref> Policies, behavior, and speech codes that the speaker or the writer regarded as being the imposition of a liberal orthodoxy, were described and criticized as politically correct.<ref name="Wilson"/> In May 1991, at a commencement ceremony for a graduating class of the University of Michigan, then U.S. President [[George H. W. Bush]] used the term in his speech: "The notion of political correctness has ignited controversy across the land. And although the movement arises from the laudable desire to sweep away the debris of racism and sexism and hatred, it replaces old prejudice with new ones. It declares certain topics off-limits, certain expression off-limits, even certain gestures off-limits."<ref>[[George H. W. Bush]], at the [[University of Michigan]] (4 May 1991), [http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/papers/1991/91050401.html Remarks at the University of Michigan Commencement Ceremony in Ann Arbor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040516105827/http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/papers/1991/91050401.html |date=16 May 2004 }}, 4 May 1991. [[George Bush Presidential Library]].</ref><ref>
 {{cite book|last=Aufderheide|first=Patricia|title=Beyond PC: Toward a Politics of Understanding|date=1992|publisher=[[Graywolf Press]]|location=Saint Paul, Minn.|isbn=978-1555971649|page=[https://archive.org/details/beyondpctowardpo00aufd/page/227 227]|url=https://archive.org/details/beyondpctowardpo00aufd/page/227}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Meaghan|first1=Morris|title=New Keywords a Revised Vocabulary of Culture and Society.|date=2013|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|location=[[Hoboken, New Jersey|Hoboken]]|isbn=978-1118725412|url=http://www.springerin.at/dyn/heft_text.php?textid=1599&lang=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118005632/http://www.springerin.at/dyn/heft_text.php?textid=1599&lang=en|archive-date=18 November 2015}}</ref>
@@ Line 45: / Line 48: @@
 Liberal commentators have argued that the conservatives and reactionaries who used the term did so in an effort to divert political discussion away from the substantive matters of resolving societal discrimination,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lauter |first=Paul |date=1993 |title='Political Correctness' and the Attack on American Colleges |journal=The Radical Teacher |issue=44 |pages=34–40 |jstor=20709784 |issn=0191-4847}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Axtell |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ca6-q60ig5kC |title=The Pleasures of Academe: A Celebration & Defense of Higher Education |date=1998-01-01 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-1049-3 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Soldiers of Misfortune: The New Right's Culture War and the Politics of Political Correctness |url=https://archive.org/details/soldiersofmisfor0000scat |url-access=registration |first=Valerie L. |last=Scatamburlo |date=1998 |location=New York|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=9780820430126 }}</ref> such as [[Racism|racial]], [[social class]], [[gender]], and legal inequality, against people whom conservatives do not consider part of the social mainstream.<ref name="Schultz-1993a" /><ref name="Messer–Davidow">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Messer-Davidow |first=E. |date=1995 |title=Manufacturing the Attack on Liberalized Higher Education: The Humanities and Society in the 1990s |editor-first1=C.  |editor-last1=Newfield |editor-first2=R. |editor-last2=Strickland |encyclopedia=After Political Correctness: The Humanities and Society in the 1990s |pages=38–78 |publisher=Westview}}
-</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Culture of Fear: Why Americans Are Afraid of the Wrong Things: Crime, Drugs, Minorities, Teen Moms, Killer Kids, Mutant Microbes, Plane Crashes, Road Rage, & So Much More |first=Barry |last=Glassner |date=5 January 2010 }}</ref> [[Jan Narveson]] wrote that "that phrase was born to live between scare-quotes: it suggests that the operative considerations in the area so called are ''merely'' political, steamrolling the genuine reasons of principle for which we ought to be acting...".<ref name=Friedman/> Commenting in 2001, one such British journalist,<ref name="Tomlinson, Race And Education: Policy And Politics In Britain, p. 161.">{{cite book|last1=Tomlinson|first1=Sally|title=Race and education: policy and politics in Britain|date=2008|publisher=[[Open University Press]]|location=Maidenhead [u.a]|isbn=978-0335223077|page=161|edition=[Online-Ausg.].|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-0jqaa-73mgC&pg=PA161|access-date=5 October 2015|archive-date=30 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730112845/https://books.google.com/books?id=-0jqaa-73mgC&pg=PA161|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Paying Our High Public Officials: Evaluating the Political Justifications of Top Wages in the Public Sector, p. 119">{{cite book|last1=Dekker|first1=Teun J.|title=Paying Our High Public Officials: Evaluating the Political Justifications of Top Wages in the Public Sector|date=2013|publisher=[[Routledge]]|series=Research in Public Administration and Public Policy|isbn=978-1135131265|page=119|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bx9h0XuYSlUC&pg=PA119|access-date=16 October 2015|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010134734/https://books.google.com/books?id=bx9h0XuYSlUC&pg=PA119|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Polly Toynbee]], said "the phrase is an empty, right-wing smear, designed only to elevate its user",<ref>[[Polly Toynbee|Toynbee, Polly]]. [http://society.guardian.co.uk/regeneration/comment/0,7941,617436,00.html "Religion Must be Removed from all Functions of State"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811125942/http://society.guardian.co.uk/regeneration/comment/0,7941,617436,00.html |date=11 August 2007 }}, ''[[The Guardian]]'', 12 December 2001 – Accessed 6 February 2007.</ref> and in 2010 she wrote "the phrase 'political correctness' was born as a coded cover for all who still want to say ''[[Paki (slur)|Paki]]'', ''[[Spastic (word)|spastic]]'', or ''[[queer]]''".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/apr/28/toynbee-equality-bill-welfare|work=[[The Guardian]]|location=London|title=This Bold Equality Push is just what We Needed. In 1997|first=Polly|last=Toynbee|author-link=Polly Toynbee|date=28 April 2009|access-date=22 May 2010|archive-date=5 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105201608/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/apr/28/toynbee-equality-bill-welfare|url-status=live}}</ref> Another British journalist, [[Will Hutton]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Albrow|first1=Martin|title=The global age state and society beyond modernity|date=1997|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=978-0804728706|pages=215|edition=1st|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwmdxMMjOd4C&pg=PA215|access-date=22 October 2015|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729144344/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwmdxMMjOd4C&pg=PA215|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The Economist: Will Hutton, p. 81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbtIAAAAYAAJ|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|publisher=[[Economist Newspaper Limited]]|date=2002|access-date=22 October 2015|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010141432/https://books.google.com/books?id=tbtIAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Gyuris|first1=Ferenc|title=The Political Discourse of Spatial Disparities Geographical Inequalities Between Science and Propaganda|date=2014|publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]]|location=Cham|isbn=978-3319015088|pages=68|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BzG8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA68|access-date=22 October 2015|archive-date=20 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920144856/https://books.google.com/books?id=BzG8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA68|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hutton|first1=Will|author-link=Will Hutton|title=How Good We Can Be: Ending the Mercenary Society and Building a Great Country|date=2015|isbn=978-1408705322|publisher=[[Hachette UK]]|page=80|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=01fXBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT80|access-date=22 October 2015|archive-date=19 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919151104/https://books.google.com/books?id=01fXBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT80|url-status=live}}</ref> wrote in 2001:<ref>[[Will Hutton|Hutton, Will]]. [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/race/story/0,,619644,00.html "Words really are important, Mr Blunkett" ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080131211145/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/race/story/0,,619644,00.html |date=31 January 2008 }} ''[[The Observer]]'', Sunday 16 December 2001 – Accessed 6 February 2007.</ref>
+</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Culture of Fear: Why Americans Are Afraid of the Wrong Things: Crime, Drugs, Minorities, Teen Moms, Killer Kids, Mutant Microbes, Plane Crashes, Road Rage, & So Much More |first=Barry |last=Glassner |date=5 January 2010 }}</ref> [[Jan Narveson]] wrote that "that phrase was born to live between scare-quotes: it suggests that the operative considerations in the area so called are ''merely'' political, steamrolling the genuine reasons of principle for which we ought to be acting...".<ref name=Friedman/> Commenting in 2001, one such British journalist,<ref name="Tomlinson, Race And Education: Policy And Politics In Britain, p. 161.">{{cite book|last1=Tomlinson|first1=Sally|title=Race and education: policy and politics in Britain|date=2008|publisher=[[Open University Press]]|location=Maidenhead [u.a]|isbn=978-0335223077|page=161|edition=[Online-Ausg.].|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-0jqaa-73mgC&pg=PA161|access-date=5 October 2015|archive-date=30 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730112845/https://books.google.com/books?id=-0jqaa-73mgC&pg=PA161|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Paying Our High Public Officials: Evaluating the Political Justifications of Top Wages in the Public Sector, p. 119">{{cite book|last1=Dekker|first1=Teun J.|title=Paying Our High Public Officials: Evaluating the Political Justifications of Top Wages in the Public Sector|date=2013|publisher=[[Routledge]]|series=Research in Public Administration and Public Policy|isbn=978-1135131265|page=119|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bx9h0XuYSlUC&pg=PA119|access-date=16 October 2015|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010134734/https://books.google.com/books?id=bx9h0XuYSlUC&pg=PA119|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Polly Toynbee]], said "the phrase is an empty, right-wing smear, designed only to elevate its user",<ref>[[Polly Toynbee|Toynbee, Polly]]. [https://www.theguardian.com/society/2001/dec/12/communities.comment "Religion Must be Removed from all Functions of State"] , ''[[The Guardian]]'', 12 December 2001 – Accessed 6 February 2007.</ref> and in 2010 she wrote "the phrase 'political correctness' was born as a coded cover for all who still want to say ''[[Paki (slur)|Paki]]'', ''[[Spastic (word)|spastic]]'', or ''[[queer]]''".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/apr/28/toynbee-equality-bill-welfare|work=[[The Guardian]]|location=London|title=This Bold Equality Push is just what We Needed. In 1997|first=Polly|last=Toynbee|author-link=Polly Toynbee|date=28 April 2009|access-date=22 May 2010|archive-date=5 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105201608/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/apr/28/toynbee-equality-bill-welfare|url-status=live}}</ref> Another British journalist, [[Will Hutton]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Albrow|first1=Martin|title=The global age state and society beyond modernity|date=1997|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=978-0804728706|pages=215|edition=1st|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwmdxMMjOd4C&pg=PA215|access-date=22 October 2015|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729144344/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwmdxMMjOd4C&pg=PA215|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The Economist: Will Hutton, p. 81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbtIAAAAYAAJ|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|publisher=[[Economist Newspaper Limited]]|date=2002|access-date=22 October 2015|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010141432/https://books.google.com/books?id=tbtIAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Gyuris|first1=Ferenc|title=The Political Discourse of Spatial Disparities Geographical Inequalities Between Science and Propaganda|date=2014|publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]]|location=Cham|isbn=978-3319015088|pages=68|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BzG8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA68|access-date=22 October 2015|archive-date=20 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920144856/https://books.google.com/books?id=BzG8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA68|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hutton|first1=Will|author-link=Will Hutton|title=How Good We Can Be: Ending the Mercenary Society and Building a Great Country|date=2015|isbn=978-1408705322|publisher=[[Hachette UK]]|page=80|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=01fXBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT80|access-date=22 October 2015|archive-date=19 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919151104/https://books.google.com/books?id=01fXBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT80|url-status=live}}</ref> wrote in 2001:<ref>[[Will Hutton|Hutton, Will]]. [https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2001/dec/16/race.world "Words really are important, Mr Blunkett" ]  ''[[The Observer]]'', Sunday 16 December 2001 – Accessed 6 February 2007.</ref>
 {{blockquote|Political correctness is one of the brilliant tools that the American Right developed in the mid–1980s, as part of its demolition of American liberalism.... What the sharpest thinkers on the American Right saw quickly was that by declaring war on the cultural manifestations of liberalism – by levelling the charge of "political correctness" against its exponents – they could discredit the whole political project.|[[Will Hutton]], "Words Really are Important, Mr Blunkett", 2001}}
-[[Glenn Loury]] wrote in 1994 that to address the subject of "political correctness" when power and authority within the academic community is being contested by parties on either side of that issue, is to invite scrutiny of one's arguments by would-be "friends" and "enemies". Combatants from the left and the right will try to assess whether a writer is "for them" or "against them".<ref name=Loury>{{cite journal|url= http://www.econ.brown.edu/fac/Glenn_Loury/louryhomepage/papers/Loury_Political_Correctness.pdf|last1=Loury|first1=G. C.|author-link=Glenn Loury|title=Self-Censorship in Public Discourse: A Theory of "Political Correctness" and Related Phenomena|journal=[[Rationality and Society]]|date=1 October 1994|volume=6|issue=4|pages=428–61|doi= 10.1177/1043463194006004002|s2cid=143057168|access-date=28 October 2015|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151123003439/http://www.econ.brown.edu/fac/Glenn_Loury/louryhomepage/papers/Loury_Political_Correctness.pdf|archive-date=23 November 2015}}</ref> Geoffrey Hughes suggested that debate over political correctness concerns whether changing language actually solves political and social problems, with critics viewing it less about solving problems than imposing censorship, intellectual intimidation and demonstrating the moral purity of those who practice it. Hughes also argues that political correctness tends to be pushed by a minority rather than an organic form of language change.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=Geoffrey|year=2015|title=An Encyclopedia of Swearing: The Social History of Oaths, Profanity, Foul Language, and Ethnic Slurs in the English-Speaking World|publisher=Routledge|pages=348–349}}</ref>
+[[Glenn Loury]] wrote in 1994 that to address the subject of "political correctness" when power and authority within the academic community is being contested by parties on either side of that issue, is to invite scrutiny of one's arguments by would-be "friends" and "enemies". Combatants from the left and the right will try to assess whether a writer is "for them" or "against them".<ref name=Loury>{{cite journal|url= https://www.econ.brown.edu/fac/Glenn_Loury/louryhomepage/papers/Loury_Political_Correctness.pdf|last1=Loury|first1=G. C.|author-link=Glenn Loury|title=Self-Censorship in Public Discourse: A Theory of "Political Correctness" and Related Phenomena|journal=[[Rationality and Society]]|date=1 October 1994|volume=6|issue=4|pages=428–61|doi= 10.1177/1043463194006004002|s2cid=143057168|access-date=28 October 2015|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151123003439/http://www.econ.brown.edu/fac/Glenn_Loury/louryhomepage/papers/Loury_Political_Correctness.pdf|archive-date=23 November 2015}}</ref> Geoffrey Hughes suggested that debate over political correctness concerns whether changing language actually solves political and social problems, with critics viewing it less about solving problems than imposing censorship, intellectual intimidation and demonstrating the moral purity of those who practice it. Hughes also argues that political correctness tends to be pushed by a minority rather than an organic form of language change.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=Geoffrey|year=2015|title=An Encyclopedia of Swearing: The Social History of Oaths, Profanity, Foul Language, and Ethnic Slurs in the English-Speaking World|publisher=Routledge|pages=348–349}}</ref>
 ===Right-wing political correctness===
 "Political correctness" is a label typically used to describe liberal or left-wing terms and actions but rarely used for analogous attempts to mold language and behavior on the right.<ref name="Adams">{{cite web|last1=Adams|first1=Joshua|title=Time for equal media treatment of 'political correctness'|url=https://www.cjr.org/criticism/political-correctness-journalism.php?curator=MediaREDEF|work=[[Columbia Journalism Review]]|date=12 June 2017|access-date=15 June 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20170831092315/https://www.cjr.org/criticism/political-correctness-journalism.php|archive-date=31 August 2017}}</ref> [[Alex Nowrasteh]] of the [[Cato Institute]] referred to the right's own version of political correctness as "patriotic correctness".<ref name="nowrasteh">{{cite news|last1=Nowrasteh|first1=Alex|title=The right has its own version of political correctness. It's just as stifling.|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2016/12/07/the-right-has-its-own-version-of-political-correctness-its-just-as-stifling/|access-date=19 December 2016|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=7 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20161208211732/https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2016/12/07/the-right-has-its-own-version-of-political-correctness-its-just-as-stifling/|archive-date=8 December 2016}}</ref>
+=== As a socio-linguistic phenomenon ===
+In subsequent academic scholarship, some scholars have examined political correctness as a form of linguistic and moral reform rather than as a coherent political ideology. Linguist Geoffrey Hughes described political correctness as “liberal in its aims but often illiberal in its practices,” identifying a tension between its reformist intentions and its perceived coerciveness.<ref>Hughes, Geoffrey (2010). ''Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture''. Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 3–4.</ref> Similarly, Norman Fairclough has analyzed political correctness as part of a broader discourse of linguistic and moral reform, in which “changing language practices is part of changing social relations” and “critical awareness of language” is linked to the pursuit of “fairness and inclusiveness.”<ref>Fairclough, Norman (2015). ''Language and Power'' (3rd ed.). Routledge, pp. 4, 109.</ref>
+==Public perceptions and self-censorship==
+Public opinion research suggests that the term “politically correct” continues to function as a reference point in contemporary debates about acceptable expression. A 2021 YouGov poll reported by the BBC found that 57% of respondents said they self-censor their views on issues such as immigration, particularly when their opinions are “deemed at the less politically correct end of the spectrum.”<ref>BBC News. “YouGov poll: 57% of people say they self-censor on ‘less politically correct’ issues.” 12 November 2021. https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-59703257.</ref>
+These findings indicate that the concept is widely understood by the public as relating to perceived social norms governing acceptable or inclusive language.
+Contemporary analyses have connected these perceptions to broader concerns about self-censorship, social sanctioning, and contested norms of speech in public life.<ref>Wilson, John. The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on Higher Education. Duke University Press, 1995.</ref><ref>Narveson, Jan. “Political Correctness: For and Against.” Rowman & Littlefield, 1995.</ref>
+===Institutional language reform===
+One example of an institutional language-guidance policy that drew public attention occurred in 2017, when Cardiff Metropolitan University issued a set of recommended alternatives to terms such as “mankind,” “manpower,” and “housewife.” The guidance, which the university described as part of its inclusivity standards, was reported by BBC News, The Independent, and The Telegraph as part of broader debates about political correctness in UK higher education.
+The episode prompted discussion among commentators and academics about whether such measures represented reasonable linguistic modernization or unnecessary overcorrection.<ref>BBC News. “University gender-neutral language policy criticised.” 3 March 2017. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-south-east-wales-39153731</ref><ref>The Independent. “University bans phrases such as ‘mankind’ and ‘gentleman’s agreement’ in favour of gender-neutral terms.” 3 March 2017. https://www.independent.co.uk/student/news/university-cardiff-metropolitan-bans-phrases-mankind-gentlemans-agreement-genderneutral-terms-free-speech-a7609521.html</ref><ref>The Telegraph. Turner, Camilla. “University bans phrases such as ‘right-hand man’ and ‘gentleman’s agreement’ in favour of gender-neutral terms.” 2 March 2017. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/2017/03/02/university-bans-phrases-right-hand-man-gentlemans-agreement/</ref>
 ==Usage==
@@ Line 83: / Line 100: @@
 ===Science===
 {{See also|Politicization of science}}
-Groups who oppose certain generally accepted scientific views about [[evolution]], [[second-hand smoke|second-hand tobacco smoke]], [[AIDS denialism|AIDS]], [[global warming]], [[Race (human categorization)|race]] and other politically contentious scientific matters have used the term ''political correctness'' to describe what they view as unwarranted rejection of their perspective on these issues by a scientific community that they believe has been corrupted by liberal politics.<ref name=Bethell>{{Cite book |last=Bethell |first=Tom |title=The Politically Incorrect Guide to Science |publisher=[[Regnery Publishing]] |location=Washington, D.C. |year=2005 |isbn=978-0895260314 |url=https://archive.org/details/politicallyincor00beth_0 }}</ref>
+Groups who oppose certain generally accepted scientific views about [[evolution]], [[second-hand smoke|second-hand tobacco smoke]], [[AIDS denialism|AIDS]], [[climate change]], [[Race (human categorization)|race]] and other politically contentious scientific matters have used the term ''political correctness'' to describe what they view as unwarranted rejection of their perspective on these issues by a scientific community that they believe has been corrupted by liberal politics.<ref name=Bethell>{{Cite book |last=Bethell |first=Tom |title=The Politically Incorrect Guide to Science |publisher=[[Regnery Publishing]] |location=Washington, D.C. |year=2005 |isbn=978-0895260314 |url=https://archive.org/details/politicallyincor00beth_0 }}</ref>
 ==See also==

Political correctness: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 08:50, 20 November 2025

Contents

Conceptual background

History

Early-to-mid 20th century

1970s

1980s and 1990s

Right-wing political correctness

As a socio-linguistic phenomenon

Public perceptions and self-censorship

Institutional language reform

Usage

Education

As a conspiracy theory

Media

Inclusive language

Satirical use

Science

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

Navigation menu

Political correctness: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 08:50, 20 November 2025

Conceptual background

History

Early-to-mid 20th century

1970s

1980s and 1990s

Right-wing political correctness

As a socio-linguistic phenomenon

Public perceptions and self-censorship

Institutional language reform

Usage

Education

As a conspiracy theory

Media

Inclusive language

Satirical use

Science

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

Navigation menu

Search