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{{Short description|Largest naval formation of warships controlled by a single leader}}
{{Short description|Largest naval formation of warships controlled by a single leader}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2023}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2023}}
[[Image:Fleet 5 nations.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A rare occurrence of a 5-country multinational fleet, during [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in the Oman Sea. In four descending columns, from left to right: {{ship|Italian frigate|Maestrale|F 570|2}}, {{ship|French frigate|De Grasse|D 612|2}}; {{USS|John C. Stennis}}, {{ship|French aircraft carrier|Charles de Gaulle||2}}, {{ship|French frigate|Surcouf||2}}; {{USS|Port Royal|CG-73|6}}, {{HMS|Ocean|L12|6}}, {{USS|John F. Kennedy|CV-67|6}}, {{HNLMS|Van Amstel|F831|6}} ; and {{ship|Italian destroyer|Luigi Durand de la Penne||2}}]]
[[Image:Fleet 5 nations.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A rare occurrence of a 5-country multinational fleet, during [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in the Oman Sea. In four descending columns, from left to right: {{ship|Italian frigate|Maestrale|F 570|2}}, {{ship|French frigate|De Grasse|D 612|2}}; {{USS|John C. Stennis}}, {{ship|French aircraft carrier|Charles de Gaulle||2}}, {{ship|French frigate|Surcouf||2}}; {{USS|Port Royal|CG-73|6}}, {{HMS|Ocean|L12|6}}, {{USS|John F. Kennedy|CV-67|6}}, {{HNLMS|Van Amstel|F831|6}} ; and {{ship|Italian destroyer|Luigi Durand de la Penne||2}}]]A '''naval fleet''' is the largest operational formation of [[warship]]s in a [[navy]], typically under a single command and organized for strategic missions. While modern fleets are permanent, multi-role forces (e.g., [[carrier strike group]]s), historical fleets were often ad hoc assemblies for specific campaigns.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Archives |first=The National |title=The National Archives - Homepage |url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/help-with-your-research/research-guides/medieval-maritime-personnel-and-ships/ |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=The National Archives |language=en-GB}}</ref> The term "fleet" can also synonymously refer to a nation’s entire navy, particularly in smaller maritime forces.<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english-thesaurus/fleet#fleet__3 FLEET Synonyms | Collins English Thesaurus]</ref>
{{Naval units}}


A '''fleet''' or '''naval fleet''' is a large [[formation (military)|formation]] of [[warship]]s – the largest formation in any [[navy]] – controlled by one leader.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fleet|title=Definition of FLEET|website=www.merriam-webster.com|access-date=8 April 2018}}</ref> A fleet at [[sea]] is the direct equivalent of an [[Field army|army]] on land.
Fleets have shaped geopolitics since antiquity—from the [[trireme]] fleets of [[Athens]] to the nuclear-powered carrier groups of today—enabling power projection, trade protection, and deterrence.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mahan |first=A. T. (Alfred Thayer) |title=The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783 |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/13529/pg13529-images.html |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/13529/13529-h/13529-h.htm |language=en}}</ref> Multinational fleets, such as [[NATO|NATO’s]] Standing Maritime Groups, demonstrate their continued diplomatic-military role.<ref>{{Cite web |last=NATO |title=NATO's maritime activities |url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_70759.htm |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=NATO |language=en}}</ref>


==Purpose==
==Historical development==
In the modern sense, fleets are usually, but not necessarily, permanent formations and are generally assigned to a particular [[ocean]] or [[sea]]. Most fleets are named after that ocean or sea, but the convention in the [[United States Navy]] is to use numbers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DeSimone |first=Danielle |date=8 October 2021 |title=How Many Navy Fleets Does the U.S. Have? And Other Facts About One of the World's Biggest Navies |url=https://www.uso.org/stories/3152-how-many-navy-fleets-does-the-u-s-have-and-other-facts-about-one-of-the-world-s-biggest-navies |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20241218133545/https://www.uso.org/stories/3152-how-many-navy-fleets-does-the-u-s-have-and-other-facts-about-one-of-the-world-s-biggest-navies |archive-date=18 December 2024 |access-date=18 December 2024 |website=United Service Organizations}}</ref>


A fleet is typically commanded by an [[fleet admiral|admiral]], who is often also a [[commander in chief]]. Still, many fleets have been or are commanded by [[vice admiral]]s or [[rear admiral]]s. Most fleets are divided into several [[Squadron (naval)|squadrons]], each under a subordinate admiral. Those squadrons, in turn, are often divided into divisions. In the [[Age of Sail]], Royal Navy fleets were divided into van, center, and rear squadrons, named after each squadron's place in the [[line of battle]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Talbot |first=Melvin |date=May 1938 |title=The Battleship: Her Evolution and Her Present Place in the Scheme of Naval War |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1938/may/battleship-her-evolution-and-her-present-place-scheme-naval-war |access-date=18 December 2024 |website=U.S. Naval Institute}}</ref> In more modern times, the squadrons are typically composed of homogeneous groups of the same class of [[warship]], such as [[battleship]]s or [[cruiser]]s.
=== Ancient and medieval fleets ===
The earliest organized naval fleets emerged in the Eastern Mediterranean and East Asia, where maritime trade routes and coastal warfare necessitated centralized naval power.


Since many smaller [[navy|navies]] contain a single fleet, the term ''the fleet'' is often synonymous with ''the navy''.
==== Mediterranean ====


Multinational fleets are not uncommon in naval history. For example, several nations made up the [[Holy League (Mediterranean)|Holy League]] [[Battle of Lepanto order of battle|fleet]] at the [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)|Battle of Lepanto]] in 1571,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jerry |first=Brotton |date=5 February 2020 |title=The battle of Lepanto: when Ottoman forces clashed with Christians |url=https://www.historyextra.com/period/tudor/lepanto-naval-battle-ottoman-christians-1571/ |access-date=18 December 2024 |website=History Extra}}</ref> and a Franco-Spanish fleet faced the British [[Royal Navy]] at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]] in 1805.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 December 2024 |title=Battle of Trafalgar |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Trafalgar-European-history |access-date=18 December 2024 |website=Britannica}}</ref> In modern times, [[NATO]] has formed standing combined fleets and operations from several national navies such as [[Operation Active Endeavour]].
* [[Phoenicia]]ns (1500–300 BCE): Established the first permanent war fleets, using [[bireme]]s to dominate Levantine trade routes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |title=The Phoenicians - Master Mariners |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/897/the-phoenicians---master-mariners/ |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref> Their shipbuilding techniques were later adopted by Greek city-states.
* [[Classical Greece]]: The Athenian-led [[Delian League]] relied on triremes—oared warships with bronze rams—to defeat Persia at [[Battle of Salamis|Salamis]] (480 BCE) and maintain [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] hegemony.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |title=Trireme |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/trireme/ |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Roman Republic|Rome]]: The [[Classis Britannica]] patrolled Britain’s coasts,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Classis Britannica - The British Fleet |url=https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/military/military-units-of-roman-britain/classis/ |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=Roman Britain |language=en-GB}}</ref> while the [[Battle of Actium]] (31 BCE) demonstrated Rome’s transition from ad hoc fleets to permanent provincial squadrons.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mark |first=Joshua J. |title=Battle of Actium |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Actium/ |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref>


==Modern fleets==
==== East Asia ====
<!-- Probs talk about how battleships fell out of favor here -->
Modern fleets combine [[Surface combatant|surface warships]], [[submarine]]s, support ships, and ship-based aircraft to conduct naval operations at sea. The largest naval powers operate [[aircraft carrier]]s as their fleets' primary capital ships, with battleships having become obsolete since the Second World War.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Axe |first=David |date=28 November 2015 |title=Why Did Battleships Become Obsolete? |url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/the-ultimate-weapon-no-more-why-did-battleships-become-14462 |website=The National Interest}}</ref> These formations are typically organised as [[carrier battle group]]s, with the task force centred around the aircraft carrier and its complement of aircraft. Modern fleets such as these (and those without carriers) are generally understood to be [[Blue-water navy|blue water]], or oceanic, [[Green-water navy|green water]], or [[littoral]] fleets as opposed to [[Brown-water navy|brown water]] or coastal/riverine forces. The fleets of larger navies are usually divided into smaller numbered or named fleets based on geographic operating areas or administrative groupings of the same type of ships.


Modern fleets are usually administrative units. Individual [[task force]]s are formed to conduct specific operations.
* [[China]]: The [[Han dynasty]] (206 BCE–220 CE) deployed riverine fleets to suppress rebellions,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-01 |title=The Flaming Ships of Red Cliffs |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2023/february/flaming-ships-red-cliffs |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=U.S. Naval Institute |language=en}}</ref> while the [[Ming treasure voyages]] (1405–1433) under Zheng He projected power as far as East Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asia for Educators {{!}} Columbia University |url=https://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1000ce_mingvoyages.htm |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=afe.easia.columbia.edu}}</ref>
* [[Japan]]: The [[Mongol invasions of Japan|Mongol invasions]] (1274–1281) spurred Kamakura Japan to develop coastal defense fleets, though naval power remained secondary to samurai warfare.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-20 |title=The Battle of Bun'ei: The First Mongol Invasion of Japan |url=https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/c13702/ |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=nippon.com |language=en}}</ref>


In fictional literary works and/or media, most notably in [[science fiction]], the term 'fleet' has also been used for a group of space-faring vessels used for interstellar travel.
==== Medieval Europe ====
 
* Byzantium: The [[dromon]], equipped with [[Greek fire]], secured Byzantine dominance until the 12th century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |title=Greek Fire |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Fire/ |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Vikings]]: Their [[longship]] fleets enabled raids from Newfoundland to the [[Caspian Sea]] (793–1066 CE).<ref>{{Cite web |last=root |date=2014-06-08 |title=Viking Ships for War, Trade and Exploration |url=https://www.historyonthenet.com/viking-ships-for-war-trade-and-exploration |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=History |language=en-US}}</ref>
 
=== Age of Sail (1500-1850) ===
The transition from oar-powered [[galley]]s to wind-driven sailing warships revolutionized naval warfare, enabling global empires and standardized fleet tactics.
 
==== Ship design ====
 
* [[Galleon]]s (16th c.): Combined cargo capacity with broadside artillery (e.g., Spanish ''[[Manila galleon]]s'').<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.realmofhistory.com/2022/09/18/galleon-spanish-warship-facts/ |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=www.realmofhistory.com|title=Spanish Galleon: The Definitive Warship of the Atlantic}}</ref>
* [[Ship of the line|Ships of the line]] (17th–18th c.): Multi-decked vessels like Britain’s ''[[HMS Victory]]'' mounted 50–100 guns.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HMS Victory (1765); Warship; First rate 100 gun {{!}} Royal Museums Greenwich |url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/rmgc-object-68937 |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=www.rmg.co.uk}}</ref>
 
==== Tactical innovations ====
 
* [[Line of battle]]: Adopted after the [[Battle of the Downs]] (1639), requiring fleets to fight in disciplined columns.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mahan |first=A. T. (Alfred Thayer) |title=The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783 |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/13529/pg13529-images.html |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/13529/13529-h/13529-h.htm |language=en}}</ref>
* Signaling systems: The Royal Navy’s 1790 ''Signal Book'' enabled complex fleet maneuvers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1790's edition signal book issued by the Admiralty with modification by Sir John Orde. {{!}} Royal Museums Greenwich |url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/collections/archive/rmgc-object-1166526 |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=www.rmg.co.uk}}</ref>
 
==== Major fleet engagements ====
 
* [[Battle of Lepanto|Lepanto]] (1571): Last great galley battle; Holy League’s 200+ ships defeated Ottomans using boarding tactics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Lepanto {{!}} History, Combatants, Location, Significance, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Lepanto |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Battle of Trafalgar|Trafalgar]] (1805): Nelson’s unconventional "breaking the line" tactic crushed Franco-Spanish forces.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-06-07 |title=Battle of Trafalgar {{!}} Summary, Facts, & Significance {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Trafalgar-European-history |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
 
==== Global reach ====
 
* Dutch: Protected trade in the East Indies (e.g., [[Dutch East India Company|VOC’s]] 100+ ship fleet).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Martins |first=Kim |title=Dutch East India Company |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Dutch_East_India_Company/ |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref>
* Chinese ''shachuan'': Ming/Qing coastal fleets countered Japanese ''[[wokou]]'' pirates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sim |first=Teddy |date=2017-01-01 |title=The Maritime Defence of China: Ming General Qi Jiguang and Beyond [(Singapore: Springer, 2017) ISBN-10: 9811041628] |url=https://www.academia.edu/33897753 |journal=Springer}}</ref>
 
=== Industrial Age (1850-1914) ===
[[File:HMS Dreadnought 1906 H61017.jpg|alt=Symbol of naval arms race|thumb|HMS Dreadnought (1906)]]
The [[Industrial Revolution]] fundamentally altered fleet composition and strategy, replacing wooden sailing ships with steam-powered [[Ironclad warship|ironclads]] and [[dreadnought]]s, while enabling global naval dominance by industrialized powers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Warship - Steam, Iron, Armament {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/naval-ship/The-age-of-steam-and-iron |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
 
==== Propulsion transition ====
 
* [[HMS Warrior (1860)|HMS Warrior]] (1860): Britain’s first iron-hulled warship, rendering wooden fleets obsolete.<ref>{{Cite web |title=First Ironclads: HMS Warrior |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/hms-warrior-2361223 |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=ThoughtCo |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Compound steam engine|Triple-expansion engines]] (1880s): Extended operational range (e.g., [[USS Oregon (BB-3)|USS Oregon’s]] 14,000-mile voyage in 1898).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-01 |title=The Race of the USS Oregon |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2020/june/race-uss-oregon |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=U.S. Naval Institute |language=en}}</ref>
 
==== Armament advances ====
 
* [[Breechloader|Breech-loading guns]]: Increased firepower (e.g., French ''[[Canon de 340 mm Modèle 1887 gun|Canon de 340 mm]]'').<ref>{{Cite web |last=Webmaster |first=A. N. Other, NHSA |date=1981-06-27 |title=Naval Hardware - Breech Loaders (Part1) |url=https://navyhistory.au/naval-hardware-breech-loaders-part1/ |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=Naval Historical Society of Australia |language=en-AU}}</ref>
* [[Torpedo]]es (1870s): Forced fleets to adopt anti-torpedo nets and destroyer escorts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=IMarEST |title=The torpedo – more than just a weapon |url=https://www.imarest.org/resource/the-torpedo-more-than-just-a-weapon.html |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=www.imarest.org}}</ref>
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Comparative Table: Ironclad vs. Pre-Industrial Fleets
!Feature
!Wooden sail fleet (1800)
!Industrial fleet (1900)
|-
|Hull material
|Oak timber
|Steel armor (Krupp cemented)
|-
|Armament
|32-pounder smoothbores
|12-inch breech-loading rifles
|-
|Speed
|8 knots (dependent on wind)
|18 knots (steam-powered)
|}
 
==== Strategic shifts ====
 
* Coal stations: Fleets depended on global coaling networks (e.g., Britain’s Stations and Dockyards).
* Naval staffs: Professionalized command (e.g., Germany’s [[German Imperial Admiralty Staff|''Admiralstab'']] vs. Britain’s [[Admiralty War Staff]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Admiral Staff of the Navy / Naval War Command of the Imperial Navy (inventory) - |url=https://archivfuehrer-kolonialzeit.de/index.php/admiralstab-der-marine-seekriegsleitung-der-kaiserlichen-marine-bestand?sf_culture=en |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=archivfuehrer-kolonialzeit.de}}</ref>
 
==== Key fleet actions ====
 
* [[Battle of Lissa (1866)|Battle of Lissa]] (1866): Austrian ironclad fleet defeated Italy using ramming tactics.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1901-12-13 |title=The Naval Campaign of Lissa; Its History, Strategy and Tactics |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1901/april/naval-campaign-lissa-its-history-strategy-and-tactics |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=U.S. Naval Institute |language=en}}</ref>
* [[First Sino-Japanese War|Sino-Japanese War]] (1894): Japan’s modernized fleet annihilated China’s Beiyang Fleet at Yalu River.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of the Yalu River (1894) {{!}} Description, Outcome, & Significance {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Yalu-River-1894 |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
 
==== Colonial fleets ====
 
* "[[Gunboat diplomacy]]": Small fleets projected power (e.g., US Asiatic Squadron in Japan 1853).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gunboat Diplomacy |url=https://diplomacy.state.gov/online-exhibits/diplomacy-is-our-mission/prosperity/gunboat-diplomacy/ |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=The National Museum of American Diplomacy |language=en-US}}</ref>
 
=== Cold War to Present (1945-present) ===
The nuclear revolution and digital technologies transformed fleets into global power-projection systems, dominated by [[Carrier battle group|carrier groups]] and submarines while integrating space and cyber capabilities.
 
==== Fleet revolution (1945-1991) ====
 
===== Nuclear navies =====
 
* [[USS Nautilus (SSN-571)|USS Nautilus]] (1954): First nuclear submarine enabled indefinite underwater patrols, making fleets unstoppable second-strike platforms.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The First Nuclear Submarine: USS Nautilus (SSN-571) |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/uss-nautilus-ssn-571-2361232 |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=ThoughtCo |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Ballistic missile submarine|SSBNs]]: Soviet [[Delta-class submarine|Project 667B]] and US Ohio-class created undersea nuclear deterrents.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1978-06-01 |title=The Wartime Role of Soviet SSBNs |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1978/june/wartime-role-soviet-ssbns |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=U.S. Naval Institute |language=en}}</ref>
 
===== Carrier dominance =====
 
* US "Supercarriers" ([[Forrestal-class aircraft carrier|Forrestal-class]] to [[Nimitz-class aircraft carrier|Nimitz-class]]) projected air power globally (e.g., Gulf War sorties).<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Navy aircraft carriers have projected US military might all over the world for 86 years |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/history-of-us-navy-aircraft-carriers-supercarriers-to-ford-class-2020-10 |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Soviet [[Kiev-class aircraft carrier|''Kiev''-class]]: Hybrid carriers countered NATO with [[P-500 Bazalt|P-500]] missiles.
 
===== Fleet tactics =====
 
* A2/AD Zones: Soviet Bastion Defense protected SSBNs near Murmansk.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-09 |title=Battle of the Bastions |url=https://warontherocks.com/2020/01/battle-of-the-bastions/ |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=War on the Rocks |language=en-US}}</ref>
* US [[A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower|maritime strategy]]: Forward-deployed carrier groups threatened Soviet coasts.<ref>[https://www.maritime.dot.gov/outreach/policy-papers-and-fact-sheets/national-maritime-strategy National Maritime Strategy | MARAD]</ref>
 
==== Post-Cold War (1991-2020) ====
 
===== Expeditionary fleets =====
 
* [[Amphibious ready group|Amphibious Ready Groups]] (ARGs): Critical for [[War on terror|Iraq/Afghanistan]] logistics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thunder and Lightning - The war with Iraq |url=http://public2.nhhcaws.local/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/u/us-navy-in-desert-shield-desert-storm/the-war-with-iraq.html |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=public2.nhhcaws.local |language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Littoral combat ship]]s: Failed to counter Iranian swarm tactics in Persian Gulf.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-20 |title=U.S. Navy's LCS Struggles to Fend Off Swarm Attacks, Tests Show - Maritime and Salvage Wolrd News - Latest Ship Technologies |url=https://marine-salvage.net/en/maritime-news/u-s-navys-lcs-struggles-to-fend-off-swarm-attacks-tests-show/ |access-date=2025-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref>
 
===== China's Rise =====
 
* PLAN Carrier Program: ''Liaoning'' (2012) to ''Fujian'' (2022) challenged US Pacific dominance.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-28 |title=Chinese aircraft carrier challenges US's Pacific war strategy |url=https://www.newsweek.com/china-news-aircraft-carrier-japan-first-island-chain-pacific-ocean-2077854 |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=Newsweek |language=en}}</ref>
* Anti-carrier systems: [[DF-21|DF-21D]] "carrier-killer" missiles forced USN to adopt [[Distributed operations|Distributed Maritime Operations]].<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/IF/PDF/IF12599/IF12599.2.pdf Defense Primer: Navy Distributed Maritime Operations (DMO) Concept]</ref>
 
==== Emerging trends (2020-present) ====
 
===== Hybrid fleets =====
 
* Unmanned vessels: USN’s [[Ghost Fleet Overlord]] and China’s Type 022 drones.
* Space integration: Satellite-linked NIFC-CA targeting (USN) vs. PLA’s ''[[Tianlian]]'' system.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-11 |title=The Navy Must Regain Influence in Space |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2021/february/navy-must-regain-influence-space |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=U.S. Naval Institute |language=en}}</ref>
 
===== Arctic competition =====
 
* Russian [[Northern Fleet]] reactivated Soviet-era bases (e.g., Alexandria Land).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-18 |title=Russia's northernmost base projects its power across Arctic |url=https://apnews.com/article/arctic-europe-russia-business-technology-b67c5b28d917f03f9340d4a7b4642790 |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref>
* US [[United States Second Fleet|2nd Fleet]] reconstituted for North Atlantic.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Fleet size comparison (2025)
!Nation
!Carriers
!SSBNs
!Destroyers
!Unmanned vessels
|-
|USA
|11
|14
|81
|120+
|-
|China
|3
|6
|50
|60+
|-
|Russia
|1
|11
|10
|20+
|}
 
== Composition and organization ==
 
=== Command structure hierarchy ===
Modern naval fleets employ distinct organizational models tailored to strategic needs, ranging from [[Structure of the United States Navy|numbered fleets]] (U.S. system) to geographic commands (commonwealth/European systems).
 
==== National models ====
 
===== United States Navy =====
 
* Numbered fleets:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Numbered Fleets |url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/navy/fleet_n.htm#:~:text=The%20Navy%20is%20currently%20organized%20into%20five%20fleets:,Mediterranean.%20Seventh%20Fleet%20-%20in%20the%20Western%20Pacific. |access-date=2025-06-22 |website=www.globalsecurity.org}}</ref>
** Odd numbers (3rd, 5th, 7th) = [[United States Pacific Fleet|Pacific Fleet]]
** Even numbers (2nd, 4th, 6th) = Atlantic Fleet
** Exception: 10th Fleet ([[United States Cyber Command|Cyber Command]])
* Chain of command:<ref>[https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Military-Units/Navy/ Military Units: Navy]</ref>
** ''Fleet Commander'' (ADM/VADM) → ''Task Force Commander'' (RADM) → ''Task Group Leader''
 
===== Royal Navy =====
 
* Geographic commands:<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Royal Navy Command Structure {{!}} RN Organisation Structure |url=https://www.defenseadvancement.com/resources/the-royal-navy-command-structure/ |access-date=2025-06-22 |website=Defense Advancement |language=en-US}}</ref>
** ''Carrier Strike Group'' (CSG21) → ''Fleet Commander'' (NORTHWOOD HQ).
** Historic fleets (''[[Home Fleet]]'', ''[[Mediterranean Fleet]]'') consolidated into Strike Force (2019).
 
===== People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) =====
 
* Theater commands:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Codings |title=THEATER COMMANDS OF CHINA |url=https://orcasia.org/theater-commands-of-china |access-date=2025-06-22 |website=orcasia.org |language=en}}</ref>
** ''Northern''/''/Eastern/Southern Theater Fleets'' report directly to CMC.
** Unique feature: Political [[commissar]]s equal in rank to operational commanders.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Command ranks by navy
!Role
!USN rank
!RN rank
!PLAN rank
|-
|Fleet commander
|Admiral (O-10)
|Vice-Admiral (OF-8)
|Rear admiral (海军少将)
|-
|Task force lead
|Rear admiral (O-8)
|Commodore (OF-6)
|Senior captain (大校)
|}
 
==== Multinational structures ====
 
===== NATO =====
 
* [[Standing NATO Maritime Group 1|SNMG1/2]] (Surface Groups) rotate command among member states.<ref>[https://shape.nato.int/about/aco-capabilities2/nato-standing-naval-forces#:~:text=The%20Standing%20Naval%20Forces%20are%20under%20the%20control,Standing%20NATO%20Mine%20Countermeasures%20Groups%201%20and%202. SHAPE | NATO Standing Naval Forces]</ref>
* Commanders typically hold [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] (1-star) rank.
 
=== Ship types and roles ===
Modern fleets integrate specialized vessels to fulfill strategic, operational, and tactical objectives. Since World War II, fleets have transitioned from battleship-centered formations to carrier strike groups (CSGs) and submarine-centric forces, with evolving roles for surface combatants and [[auxiliaries]].
 
==== Capital ships ====
 
===== Aircraft carriers =====
 
* Role: Power projection via air dominance (70+ aircraft).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ali |first=Syed Ahmed |date=2025-02-19 |title=Shifting power projection in the Asia-Pacific? |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2529529/shifting-power-projection-in-the-asia-pacific |access-date=2025-06-23 |website=The Express Tribune |language=en}}</ref>
* Examples:
** [[Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carrier|''USN Ford-class'']] (100,000t, EMALS launch).
** ''PLAN Fujian'' (80,000t, electromagnetic catapults).
* Limitations: Vulnerable to [[Hypersonic weapon|hypersonic missiles]] (e.g., Russian ''Zircon'').<ref>{{Cite web |last=Axe |first=David |date=2021-05-29 |title=Aircraft Carrier vs. Hypersonic Missiles: Who the Hell Wins? |url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/reboot/aircraft-carrier-vs-hypersonic-missiles-who-hell-wins-186467/ |access-date=2025-06-23 |website=The National Interest |language=en-US}}</ref>
 
===== Ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) =====
 
* Role: Nuclear deterrent (e.g., ''[[Ohio-class submarine|US Ohio-class]]'' carries 24 [[Trident (missile)|Trident II]] missiles).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mahnken |first=Thomas |date=2020-06-11 |title=The US sea-based nuclear deterrent in a new era |url=https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/the-us-sea-based-nuclear-deterrent-in-a-new-era/ |access-date=2025-06-23 |website=The Strategist |language=en-AU}}</ref>
* [[Stealth technology|Stealth]]: Patrols at <20&nbsp;dB (quieter than ambient sea noise).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sutton |first=H. I. |date=2021-11-03 |title=First Submarine To Use New Stealth Technology |url=https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2021/11/first-submarine-to-use-new-stealth-technology/ |access-date=2025-06-23 |website=Naval News |language=en-US}}</ref>
 
==== Escorts ====
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type
!Role
!Example vessels
|-
|Destroyer
|Air defense (AEGIS systems)
|''Arleigh Burke-class'' (US), ''Type 055'' (China)
|-
|Frigate
|ASW/convoy protection
|''Admiral Gorshkov-class'' (Russia), ''FREMM'' (EU)
|-
|Corvette
|Coastal warfare
|''Visby-class'' (Sweden), ''Kamorta-class'' (India)
|}
 
==== Support vessels ====
 
===== Auxiliaries =====
 
* ''Fast Combat Support Ships'' (e.g., ''[[Supply-class fast combat support ship|USNS Supply-class]]'') provide underway replenishment.<ref>[https://www.navy.mil/Resources/Fact-Files/Display-FactFiles/Article/2174658/fast-combat-support-ships-t-aoe/ Fast Combat Support Ships T-AOE > United States Navy > Displayy-FactFiles]</ref>
* Hospital ships (''[[Mercy-class hospital ship|Mercy-class]]'') comply with [[Geneva Conventions]].<ref>[https://www.msc.usff.navy.mil/Ships/Ship-Inventory/Hospital-Ships/ Hospital Ships]</ref>
 
===== Unmanned =====
 
* [[Sea Hunter|USV ''Sea Hunter'']] (anti-submarine drone).
* PLAN ''Type 022'' (missile boat replacement).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sutton |first=H. I. |date=2021-09-27 |title=This is What a Chinese Stealth Warship Looks Like on Radar |url=https://news.usni.org/2021/09/27/this-is-what-a-chinese-stealth-warship-looks-like-on-radar |access-date=2025-06-23 |website=USNI News |language=en-US}}</ref>
 
== Geopolitical significance ==
 
=== Power projection ===
Naval fleets serve as the primary instrument of global power projection, enabling nations to influence events far beyond their shores through credible [[Argumentum ad baculum|threat of force]], presence operations, and rapid crisis response. This capability rests on three pillars: carrier strike groups, [[Expeditionary warfare|expeditionary forces]], and [[Forward-basing|forward basing]].
 
==== Strategic tools ====
 
===== Carrier Strike Groups (CSGs) =====
 
* Role: Mobile airbases providing 24/7 air superiority (e.g., [[USS Gerald R. Ford|''USS Gerald Ford''<nowiki/>'s]] 160+ sorties/day during 2023 Mediterranean deployment).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lendon |first=Brad |date=2024-01-02 |title=US Navy's largest aircraft carrier returning to US after extended deployment in Mediterranean {{!}} CNN Politics |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/01/politics/uss-gerald-ford-return-mediterranean-hnk |access-date=2025-06-23 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref>
* Deterrence value: A single CSG can cover 4.5 million km² (equivalent to the Indian Ocean’s operational area).
 
===== Amphibious Ready Groups (ARGs) =====
 
* [[Marine expeditionary unit|Marine Expeditionary Units]] (MEUs): Rapid-response forces (e.g., ''31st MEU''’s 2024 [[Taiwan Strait]] patrol).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Japan sends warship through Taiwan Strait for first time |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/26/japan-sends-warship-through-taiwan-strait-for-first-time |access-date=2025-06-23 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref>
* Helicopter carriers: Japan’s ''[[JS Izumo]]'' and France’s ''[[Mistral-class landing helicopter dock|Mistral-class]]'' enable "lightning carrier" operations.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mahadzir |first=Dzirhan |date=2023-11-13 |title=Japanese Izumo-class Warship Headed to East Coast for F-35B Trials |url=https://news.usni.org/2023/11/13/japanese-izumo-class-warship-headed-to-east-coast-for-f-35b-trials-as-u-k-carriers-expand-jsf-capabilities |access-date=2025-06-23 |website=USNI News |language=en-US}}</ref>
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Case studies
!Event
!Fleet assets deployed
!Outcome
|-
|Falklands War (1982)
|RN ''Task Force 317'' (2 carriers, 11 destroyers)
|Recaptured islands in 74 days.
|-
|2014 Crimea Crisis
|Russian ''Black Sea Fleet'' blockade (6 submarines, ''Moskva'' cruiser)
|Secured Sevastopol without combat.
|-
|2023 Red Sea Crisis
|USS ''Dwight D. Eisenhower'' CSG
|Ceasefire; unconfirmed reports of ''Eisenhower'' taking damage
|}
 
==== 21st-century challenges ====
 
* {{Pie chart|CSG Deployments (2024)
| value1 = 45
| label1 = Western Pacific
| color1 = black
| value2 = 25
| label2 = Persian Gulf
| color2 = purple
| value3 = 20
| label3 = Mediterranean
| color3 = gray
| value4 = 10
| label4 = Other
| color4 = lightbrown
}} A2/AD Systems: Chinese [[DF-26]] missiles (4,000&nbsp;km range) threaten CSGs in Western Pacific.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Suciu |first=Peter |date=2024-09-21 |title=China's 'Carrier Killers': How DF-21D and DF-26B Missiles Threaten U.S. Navy |url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/chinas-carrier-killers-how-df-21d-and-df-26b-missiles-threaten-us-navy-207372/ |access-date=2025-06-23 |website=The National Interest |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Cost:  Maintaining a CSG costs $6.5M/day (vs. $1.2M for Russian ''[[Kirov-class battlecruiser|Kirov-class]]'' battlecruiser).<ref>[https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA575866.pdf apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA575866.pdf]</ref>
* Alternatives: UK’s ''"Littoral Strike Groups"'' (smaller, drone-enhanced formations).


==See also==
==See also==

Latest revision as of 00:18, 1 July 2025

Template:Short description Template:More citations needed

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A naval fleet is the largest operational formation of warships in a navy, typically under a single command and organized for strategic missions. While modern fleets are permanent, multi-role forces (e.g., carrier strike groups), historical fleets were often ad hoc assemblies for specific campaigns.[1] The term "fleet" can also synonymously refer to a nation’s entire navy, particularly in smaller maritime forces.[2]

Fleets have shaped geopolitics since antiquity—from the trireme fleets of Athens to the nuclear-powered carrier groups of today—enabling power projection, trade protection, and deterrence.[3] Multinational fleets, such as NATO’s Standing Maritime Groups, demonstrate their continued diplomatic-military role.[4]

Historical development

Ancient and medieval fleets

The earliest organized naval fleets emerged in the Eastern Mediterranean and East Asia, where maritime trade routes and coastal warfare necessitated centralized naval power.

Mediterranean

  • Phoenicians (1500–300 BCE): Established the first permanent war fleets, using biremes to dominate Levantine trade routes.[5] Their shipbuilding techniques were later adopted by Greek city-states.
  • Classical Greece: The Athenian-led Delian League relied on triremes—oared warships with bronze rams—to defeat Persia at Salamis (480 BCE) and maintain Aegean hegemony.[6]
  • Rome: The Classis Britannica patrolled Britain’s coasts,[7] while the Battle of Actium (31 BCE) demonstrated Rome’s transition from ad hoc fleets to permanent provincial squadrons.[8]

East Asia

  • China: The Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) deployed riverine fleets to suppress rebellions,[9] while the Ming treasure voyages (1405–1433) under Zheng He projected power as far as East Africa.[10]
  • Japan: The Mongol invasions (1274–1281) spurred Kamakura Japan to develop coastal defense fleets, though naval power remained secondary to samurai warfare.[11]

Medieval Europe

Age of Sail (1500-1850)

The transition from oar-powered galleys to wind-driven sailing warships revolutionized naval warfare, enabling global empires and standardized fleet tactics.

Ship design

Tactical innovations

  • Line of battle: Adopted after the Battle of the Downs (1639), requiring fleets to fight in disciplined columns.[16]
  • Signaling systems: The Royal Navy’s 1790 Signal Book enabled complex fleet maneuvers.[17]

Major fleet engagements

  • Lepanto (1571): Last great galley battle; Holy League’s 200+ ships defeated Ottomans using boarding tactics.[18]
  • Trafalgar (1805): Nelson’s unconventional "breaking the line" tactic crushed Franco-Spanish forces.[19]

Global reach

  • Dutch: Protected trade in the East Indies (e.g., VOC’s 100+ ship fleet).[20]
  • Chinese shachuan: Ming/Qing coastal fleets countered Japanese wokou pirates.[21]

Industrial Age (1850-1914)

Symbol of naval arms race
HMS Dreadnought (1906)

The Industrial Revolution fundamentally altered fleet composition and strategy, replacing wooden sailing ships with steam-powered ironclads and dreadnoughts, while enabling global naval dominance by industrialized powers.[22]

Propulsion transition

Armament advances

Comparative Table: Ironclad vs. Pre-Industrial Fleets
Feature Wooden sail fleet (1800) Industrial fleet (1900)
Hull material Oak timber Steel armor (Krupp cemented)
Armament 32-pounder smoothbores 12-inch breech-loading rifles
Speed 8 knots (dependent on wind) 18 knots (steam-powered)

Strategic shifts

  • Coal stations: Fleets depended on global coaling networks (e.g., Britain’s Stations and Dockyards).
  • Naval staffs: Professionalized command (e.g., Germany’s Admiralstab vs. Britain’s Admiralty War Staff).[27]

Key fleet actions

Colonial fleets

Cold War to Present (1945-present)

The nuclear revolution and digital technologies transformed fleets into global power-projection systems, dominated by carrier groups and submarines while integrating space and cyber capabilities.

Fleet revolution (1945-1991)

Nuclear navies
  • USS Nautilus (1954): First nuclear submarine enabled indefinite underwater patrols, making fleets unstoppable second-strike platforms.[31]
  • SSBNs: Soviet Project 667B and US Ohio-class created undersea nuclear deterrents.[32]
Carrier dominance
Fleet tactics
  • A2/AD Zones: Soviet Bastion Defense protected SSBNs near Murmansk.[34]
  • US maritime strategy: Forward-deployed carrier groups threatened Soviet coasts.[35]

Post-Cold War (1991-2020)

Expeditionary fleets
China's Rise

Emerging trends (2020-present)

Hybrid fleets
  • Unmanned vessels: USN’s Ghost Fleet Overlord and China’s Type 022 drones.
  • Space integration: Satellite-linked NIFC-CA targeting (USN) vs. PLA’s Tianlian system.[40]
Arctic competition
Fleet size comparison (2025)
Nation Carriers SSBNs Destroyers Unmanned vessels
USA 11 14 81 120+
China 3 6 50 60+
Russia 1 11 10 20+

Composition and organization

Command structure hierarchy

Modern naval fleets employ distinct organizational models tailored to strategic needs, ranging from numbered fleets (U.S. system) to geographic commands (commonwealth/European systems).

National models

United States Navy
  • Numbered fleets:[42]
  • Chain of command:[43]
    • Fleet Commander (ADM/VADM) → Task Force Commander (RADM) → Task Group Leader
Royal Navy
  • Geographic commands:[44]
    • Carrier Strike Group (CSG21) → Fleet Commander (NORTHWOOD HQ).
    • Historic fleets (Home Fleet, Mediterranean Fleet) consolidated into Strike Force (2019).
People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN)
  • Theater commands:[45]
    • Northern//Eastern/Southern Theater Fleets report directly to CMC.
    • Unique feature: Political commissars equal in rank to operational commanders.
Command ranks by navy
Role USN rank RN rank PLAN rank
Fleet commander Admiral (O-10) Vice-Admiral (OF-8) Rear admiral (海军少将)
Task force lead Rear admiral (O-8) Commodore (OF-6) Senior captain (大校)

Multinational structures

NATO
  • SNMG1/2 (Surface Groups) rotate command among member states.[46]
  • Commanders typically hold Commodore (1-star) rank.

Ship types and roles

Modern fleets integrate specialized vessels to fulfill strategic, operational, and tactical objectives. Since World War II, fleets have transitioned from battleship-centered formations to carrier strike groups (CSGs) and submarine-centric forces, with evolving roles for surface combatants and auxiliaries.

Capital ships

Aircraft carriers
  • Role: Power projection via air dominance (70+ aircraft).[47]
  • Examples:
    • USN Ford-class (100,000t, EMALS launch).
    • PLAN Fujian (80,000t, electromagnetic catapults).
  • Limitations: Vulnerable to hypersonic missiles (e.g., Russian Zircon).[48]
Ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs)

Escorts

Type Role Example vessels
Destroyer Air defense (AEGIS systems) Arleigh Burke-class (US), Type 055 (China)
Frigate ASW/convoy protection Admiral Gorshkov-class (Russia), FREMM (EU)
Corvette Coastal warfare Visby-class (Sweden), Kamorta-class (India)

Support vessels

Auxiliaries
Unmanned

Geopolitical significance

Power projection

Naval fleets serve as the primary instrument of global power projection, enabling nations to influence events far beyond their shores through credible threat of force, presence operations, and rapid crisis response. This capability rests on three pillars: carrier strike groups, expeditionary forces, and forward basing.

Strategic tools

Carrier Strike Groups (CSGs)
  • Role: Mobile airbases providing 24/7 air superiority (e.g., USS Gerald Ford's 160+ sorties/day during 2023 Mediterranean deployment).[54]
  • Deterrence value: A single CSG can cover 4.5 million km² (equivalent to the Indian Ocean’s operational area).
Amphibious Ready Groups (ARGs)
Case studies
Event Fleet assets deployed Outcome
Falklands War (1982) RN Task Force 317 (2 carriers, 11 destroyers) Recaptured islands in 74 days.
2014 Crimea Crisis Russian Black Sea Fleet blockade (6 submarines, Moskva cruiser) Secured Sevastopol without combat.
2023 Red Sea Crisis USS Dwight D. Eisenhower CSG Ceasefire; unconfirmed reports of Eisenhower taking damage

21st-century challenges

  • Template:Pie chart A2/AD Systems: Chinese DF-26 missiles (4,000 km range) threaten CSGs in Western Pacific.[57]
  • Cost: Maintaining a CSG costs $6.5M/day (vs. $1.2M for Russian Kirov-class battlecruiser).[58]
  • Alternatives: UK’s "Littoral Strike Groups" (smaller, drone-enhanced formations).

See also

References

Template:Sister project Template:Reflist

Template:Authority control

  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ FLEET Synonyms | Collins English Thesaurus
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  32. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  34. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  35. ↑ National Maritime Strategy | MARAD
  36. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  37. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  38. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  39. ↑ Defense Primer: Navy Distributed Maritime Operations (DMO) Concept
  40. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  41. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  42. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  43. ↑ Military Units: Navy
  44. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  45. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  46. ↑ SHAPE | NATO Standing Naval Forces
  47. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  48. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  49. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  50. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  51. ↑ Fast Combat Support Ships T-AOE > United States Navy > Displayy-FactFiles
  52. ↑ Hospital Ships
  53. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  54. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  55. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  56. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  57. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  58. ↑ apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA575866.pdf
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