Timeline of Jerusalem: Difference between revisions

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==Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian period==
==Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian period==
* 733 BCE: According to the Bible, Jerusalem becomes a vassal of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Crouch|first=C. L.|title=Israel and the Assyrians: Deuteronomy, the Succession Treaty of Esarhaddon, and the Nature of Subversion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xd3PBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|date=1 October 2014|publisher=SBL Press|isbn=978-1-62837-026-3|quote=Judah's reason(s) for submitting to Assyrian hegemony, at least superficially, require explanation, while at the same time indications of its read-but-disguised resistance to Assyria must be uncovered... The political and military sprawl of the Assyrian empire during the late Iron Age in the southern Levant, especially toward its outer borders, is not quite akin to the single dominating hegemony envisioned by most discussions of hegemony and subversion. In the case of Judah it should be reiterated that Judah was always a vassal state, semi-autonomous and on the periphery of the imperial system, it was never a fully-integrated provincial territory. The implications of this distinction for Judah's relationship with and experience of the Assyrian empire should not be underestimated; studies of the expression of Assyria's cultural and political powers in its provincial territories and vassal states have revealed notable differences in the degree of active involvement in different types of territories. Indeed, the mechanics of the Assyrian empire were hardly designed for direct control over all its vassals' internal activities, provided that a vassal produced the requisite tribute and did not provoke trouble among its neighbors, the level of direct involvement from Assyria remained relatively low. For the entirety of its experience of the Assyrian empire, Judah functioned as a vassal state, rather than a province under direct Assyrian rule, thereby preserving at least a certain degree of autonomy, especially in its internal affairs. Meanwhile, the general atmosphere of Pax Assyriaca in the southern Levant minimized the necessity of (and opportunities for) external conflict. That Assyrians, at least in small numbers, were present in Judah is likely - probably a qipu and his entourage who, if the recent excavators of Ramat Rahel are correct, perhaps resided just outside the capital - but there is far less evidence than is commonly assumed to suggest that these left a direct impression of Assyria on this small vassal state... The point here is that, despite the wider context of Assyria's political and economic power in the ancient Near East in general and the southern Levant in particular, Judah remained a distinguishable and semi-independent southern Levantine state, '''part of but not subsumed by the Assyrian empire''' and, indeed, benefitting from it in significant ways.}}</ref><ref name=Historyfiles>Chronology of the [http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsMiddEast/CanaanIsraelites.htm Israelite Tribes] from The History Files (historyfiles.co.uk)</ref> after [[Ahaz]] of Judah appeals to [[Tiglath Pileser III]] of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] to protect the city from [[Pekah]] of [[Northern Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Rezin]] of [[Aram Damascus|Aram]]. Tiglath Pileser III subsequently conquers most of the [[Levant]]. At around this time, the [[Siege of Gezer (c. 733 BC)|Siege of Gezer]], 20 miles west of Jerusalem, is recorded on a stone relief at the Assyrian royal palace in [[Nimrud]].
* 733 BCE: According to the Bible, Jerusalem becomes a vassal of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]]<ref>{{cite book
* c. 712 BCE: The [[Siloam Tunnel]] is built in order to keep water from the [[Gihon Spring]] inside the city. According to the Bible the tunnel was built by King [[Hezekiah]] in preparation for a siege by the Assyrians, along with an expansion of Jerusalem's fortifications across the [[Tyropoeon Valley]] to enclose the hill today known as [[Mount Zion#Change in meaning|Mount Zion]].<ref name="BenDov1985 p.34">Ben-Dov, Meir. 1985. ''In the Shadow of the Temple''. New York, New York: Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., pp. 34–35. {{ISBN|0-06-015362-8}}</ref>
|last=Crouch
* 712 BCE: [[Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem]] – Jerusalem pays further tribute to the Neo-Assyrian Empire after the [[Assyrian Empire#Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]] King [[Sennacherib]] laid [[Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem|siege to the city]].
|first=Carly Lorraine
|title=Israel and the Assyrians: Deuteronomy, the Succession Treaty of Esarhaddon, and the Nature of Subversion
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xd3PBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18
|date=2014-10-01
|publisher=SBL Press
|isbn=978-1-62837-026-3
|quote=Judah's reason(s) for submitting to Assyrian hegemony, at least superficially, require explanation, while at the same time indications of its read-but-disguised resistance to Assyria must be uncovered... The political and military sprawl of the Assyrian empire during the late Iron Age in the southern Levant, especially toward its outer borders, is not quite akin to the single dominating hegemony envisioned by most discussions of hegemony and subversion. In the case of Judah it should be reiterated that Judah was always a vassal state, semi-autonomous and on the periphery of the imperial system, it was never a fully-integrated provincial territory. The implications of this distinction for Judah's relationship with and experience of the Assyrian empire should not be underestimated; studies of the expression of Assyria's cultural and political powers in its provincial territories and vassal states have revealed notable differences in the degree of active involvement in different types of territories. Indeed, the mechanics of the Assyrian empire were hardly designed for direct control over all its vassals' internal activities, provided that a vassal produced the requisite tribute and did not provoke trouble among its neighbors, the level of direct involvement from Assyria remained relatively low. For the entirety of its experience of the Assyrian empire, Judah functioned as a vassal state, rather than a province under direct Assyrian rule, thereby preserving at least a certain degree of autonomy, especially in its internal affairs. Meanwhile, the general atmosphere of Pax Assyriaca in the southern Levant minimized the necessity of (and opportunities for) external conflict. That Assyrians, at least in small numbers, were present in Judah is likely - probably a qipu and his entourage who, if the recent excavators of Ramat Rahel are correct, perhaps resided just outside the capital - but there is far less evidence than is commonly assumed to suggest that these left a direct impression of Assyria on this small vassal state... The point here is that, despite the wider context of Assyria's political and economic power in the ancient Near East in general and the southern Levant in particular, Judah remained a distinguishable and semi-independent southern Levantine state, '''part of but not subsumed by the Assyrian empire''' and, indeed, benefitting from it in significant ways.
}}</ref><ref name=Historyfiles>{{cite web
|title=Chronology of the Israelite Tribes
|work=The History Files (historyfiles.co.uk)
|url=http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsMiddEast/CanaanIsraelites.htm
}}</ref> after [[Ahaz]] of Judah appeals to [[Tiglath Pileser III]] of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] to protect the city from [[Pekah]] of [[Northern Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Rezin]] of [[Aram Damascus|Aram]]. Tiglath Pileser III subsequently conquers most of the [[Levant]]. At around this time, the [[Siege of Gezer (c. 733 BC)|Siege of Gezer]], {{convert|20|mi}} west of Jerusalem, is recorded on a stone relief at the Assyrian royal palace in [[Nimrud]].{{fact|date=June 2025}}
* c. 712 BCE: The [[Siloam Tunnel]] is built in order to keep water from the [[Gihon Spring]] inside the city. According to the Bible, the tunnel was built by King [[Hezekiah]] in preparation for a siege by the Assyrians, along with an expansion of Jerusalem's fortifications across the [[Tyropoeon Valley]] to enclose the hill today known as [[Mount Zion#Change in meaning|Mount Zion]].<ref name="BenDov1985 p.34">{{cite book
|last=Ben-Dov
|first=Meir
|date=1985
|title=In the Shadow of the Temple
|location=New York, New York
|publisher=Harper & Row Publishers, Inc.
|pages=34–35
|isbn=0-06-015362-8
}}</ref>
* 712 BCE: [[Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem]] – Jerusalem pays further tribute to the Neo-Assyrian Empire after the [[Assyrian Empire#Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]] King [[Sennacherib]] laid [[Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem|siege to the city]].{{fact|date=June 2025}}
* c. 670 BCE: [[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh]], the ruler of Jerusalem, is brought in chains to the Assyrian king, presumably for suspected disloyalty.<ref name=Bright>{{Cite book| title=A History of Israel| first=John | last=Bright| page=311| year=1980 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0VG67yLs-LAC&pg=PA311|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22068-6}}</ref>
* c. 670 BCE: [[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh]], the ruler of Jerusalem, is brought in chains to the Assyrian king, presumably for suspected disloyalty.<ref name=Bright>{{Cite book| title=A History of Israel| first=John | last=Bright| page=311| year=1980 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0VG67yLs-LAC&pg=PA311|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22068-6}}</ref>
* c. 627 BCE: The death of [[Ashurbanipal]] and the successful revolt of [[Nabopolassar]] replaces the Neo-Assyrian Empire with the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]].
* c. 627 BCE: The death of [[Ashurbanipal]] and the successful revolt of [[Nabopolassar]] replaces the Neo-Assyrian Empire with the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]].{{fact|date=June 2025}}
* 609 BCE: Jerusalem becomes part of the Empire of the [[Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt]] after [[Josiah]] of Judah is killed by the army of Pharaoh [[Necho II]] at the [[Battle of Megiddo (609 BC)|Battle of Megiddo]]. Josiah's son [[Jehoahaz of Judah]] is deposed by the Egyptians and replaced as ruler of Jerusalem by his brother [[Jehoiakim]].
* 609 BCE: Jerusalem becomes part of the Empire of the [[Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt]] after [[Josiah]] of Judah is killed by the army of Pharaoh [[Necho II]] at the [[Battle of Megiddo (609 BC)|Battle of Megiddo]]. Josiah's son [[Jehoahaz of Judah]] is deposed by the Egyptians and replaced as ruler of Jerusalem by his brother [[Jehoiakim]].{{fact|date=June 2025}}
* 605 BCE: Jerusalem switches its tributary allegiance back to the Neo-Babylonians after Necho II is defeated by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] at the [[Battle of Carchemish]].
* 605 BCE: Jerusalem switches its tributary allegiance back to the Neo-Babylonians after Necho II is defeated by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] at the [[Battle of Carchemish]].{{fact|date=June 2025}}
* 599–597 BCE: [[Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC)|first Babylonian siege]] – Nebuchadnezzar II crushed a rebellion in the [[Kingdom of Judah]] and other cities in the Levant which had been sparked by the Neo-Babylonians failed invasion of Egypt in 601. [[Jehoiachin]] of Jerusalem deported to [[Babylon]].  
* 599–597 BCE: [[Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC)|first Babylonian siege]] – Nebuchadnezzar II crushed a rebellion in the [[Kingdom of Judah]] and other cities in the Levant which had been sparked by the Neo-Babylonians failed invasion of Egypt in 601 BCE. [[Jehoiachin]] of Jerusalem deported to [[Babylon]].{{fact|date=June 2025}}
* 587–586 BCE: [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|second Babylonian siege]] – Nebuchadnezzar II fought Pharaoh [[Apries]]'s attempt to invade [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. Jerusalem mostly destroyed including the [[First Temple]], and the city's prominent citizens exiled to [[Babylon]] (see [[Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle]]).
* 587–586 BCE: [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|second Babylonian siege]] – Nebuchadnezzar II fought Pharaoh [[Apries]]'s attempt to invade [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. Jerusalem mostly destroyed including the [[First Temple]], and the city's prominent citizens exiled to [[Babylon]] (see [[Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle]]).{{fact|date=June 2025}}
* 582 BCE: [[Gedaliah]] the Babylonian governor of [[Yehud Medinata|Judah]] assassinated, provoking refugees to Egypt and a third deportation.
* 582 BCE: [[Gedaliah]] the Babylonian governor of [[Yehud Medinata|Judah]] assassinated, provoking refugees to Egypt and a third deportation.{{fact|date=June 2025}}


==Persian (Achaemenid) period==
==Persian (Achaemenid) period==
Line 418: Line 440:


===Reunification after 1967===
===Reunification after 1967===
[[File:The west wall and the temple mount.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Temple Mount]] as it appears today. The [[Western Wall]] is in the foreground with the [[Dome of the Rock]] in the background]]
{{stack|[[File:The west wall and the temple mount.jpg|thumb|The [[Temple Mount]] as it appears today. The [[Western Wall]] is in the foreground with the [[Dome of the Rock]] in the background.]]}}
 
* 1967 5–11 June: The [[Six-Day War]]. Israel captures the West Bank (including East Jerusalem), Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights.  
* 1967 5–11 June: The [[Six-Day War]]. Israel captures the West Bank (including East Jerusalem), Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights.  
:* 6 June: The [[Battle of Ammunition Hill]] takes place in the northern part of Jordanian-controlled East Jerusalem.
:* 6 June: The [[Battle of Ammunition Hill]] takes place in the northern part of Jordanian-controlled East Jerusalem.
Line 434: Line 455:
* 2000: Final Agreement between [[Israel]] and [[Palestinian Authority]] is not achieved at the [[2000 Camp David Summit]], with the status of Jerusalem playing a central role in the breakdown of talks.
* 2000: Final Agreement between [[Israel]] and [[Palestinian Authority]] is not achieved at the [[2000 Camp David Summit]], with the status of Jerusalem playing a central role in the breakdown of talks.
* 2000: The [[Second Intifada]] (also known as [[Al-Aqsa Intifada]]) begins two months after the end of the Camp David Summit—[[Ariel Sharon]]'s visit to the [[Temple Mount]] is reported to have been a relevant factor in the uprising.
* 2000: The [[Second Intifada]] (also known as [[Al-Aqsa Intifada]]) begins two months after the end of the Camp David Summit—[[Ariel Sharon]]'s visit to the [[Temple Mount]] is reported to have been a relevant factor in the uprising.
* 2008: Israeli Sephardic Religious Party, [[Shas]], refuses to form part of the government without a guarantee that there will be no negotiations that will lead to a partition of Jerusalem.
* 2008: Israeli Sephardic Religious Party [[Shas]] refuses to form part of the government without a guarantee that there will be no negotiations that will lead to a partition of Jerusalem.
* 2017: December: [[United States|US]] president, [[Donald Trump]], recognizes Jerusalem as the [[capital of Israel]]; this sparks protest by many Palestinians and other Muslims in the region.<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-42265337 |work=BBC News |title=Trump Jerusalem move sparks Israeli-Palestinian clashes |date= 7 December 2017}}</ref>
* 2017: December: [[United States|US]] president [[Donald Trump]] recognizes Jerusalem as the [[capital of Israel]]; this sparks protest by many Palestinians and other Muslims in the region.<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-42265337 |work=BBC News |title=Trump Jerusalem move sparks Israeli-Palestinian clashes |date= 7 December 2017}}</ref>
* 2018: The United States, followed by [[Guatemala]] and [[Paraguay]] become the first three countries to open embassies to Israel in Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/paraguay-becomes-third-country-to-open-embassy-in-jerusalem/|title=Paraguay becomes third country to open embassy in Jerusalem|access-date=2018-05-23|language=en-US}}</ref>
* 2018: The United States, followed by [[Guatemala]] and [[Paraguay]] become the first three countries to open embassies to Israel in Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/paraguay-becomes-third-country-to-open-embassy-in-jerusalem/|title=Paraguay becomes third country to open embassy in Jerusalem|access-date=2018-05-23|language=en-US}}</ref>


Latest revision as of 17:38, 26 June 2025

Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Stack

This is a timeline of major events in the history of Jerusalem; a city that had been fought over sixteen times in its history.[1] During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times.[2]

Chalcolithic

  • 4500–3500 BC: First settlement established near Gihon Spring (earliest archaeological evidence).

Bronze Age: Canaanite city

File:Egypt 1450 BC.svg
New Kingdom at its maximum territorial extent in the 15th century BCE

Iron Age

File:Levant 830.svg
The Levant showing Jerusalem in c. 830 BCE
File:Map of Assyria.png
Neo-Assyrian Empire at its greatest extent
File:Map achaemenid empire en.png
Achaemenid Empire under Darius III

Independent Israelite capital

Jerusalem becomes the capital of the Kingdom of Judah and, according to the Bible, for the first few decades even of a wider united kingdom of Judah and Israel, under kings belonging to the House of David.

Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian period

Persian (Achaemenid) period

  • 516 BCE: The Second Temple is built in the 6th year of Darius the Great.
  • 458 BCE: The third wave of Babylonian returnees is Ezra's Aliyah.
  • 445 BCE: The fourth and final wave of Babylonian returnees is Nehemiah's Aliyah. Nehemiah is the appointed governor of Judah, and rebuilds the Old City walls.
  • 410 BCE: The Great Assembly is established in Jerusalem.
  • 365/364-362 and c. 347 BCE: Judea participates in Egyptian-inspired and Sidonian-led revolts against the Achaemenids, and coins minted in Jerusalem are reflecting the short-lived autonomy.[11][12] Achaemenid general Bagoas is possibly the same as 'Bagoses' in Josephus' Antiquities, who defiles the Temple and imposes taxes on sacrifices performed there.[11][13][14]

Hellenistic period

File:Diadoch.png
Kingdoms of the Diadochi and others before the battle of Ipsus, c. 303 BCE
File:Rome-Seleucia-Parthia 200bc.jpg
The Seleucid Empire in c. 200 BCE
File:Hasmoneese rijk.PNG
Hasmonean Kingdom at its greatest extent under Salome Alexandra

Under Alexander, the Ptolemies, and Seleucids

Hasmonean kingdom

Roman period

File:Augusto 30aC - 6dC 55%CS jpg.JPG
Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus, 30BCE – 6CE
File:Pompée dans le Temple de Jérusalem.jpg
Pompey in the Temple, 63 BCE (Jean Fouquet 1470–1475)

Early Roman period

Events from the New Testament (Canonical Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, Epistles -Pauline and Catholic- and the Book of Revelation) offer a narrative regarded by most Christians as Holy Scripture. Much of the narrative lacks historical anchors and Christian apologists have tried to calculate a historical chronology of events without reaching consensual conclusions. All such events and dates listed here are presented under this reservation, and are generally lacking non-sectarian scholarly recognition. They are marked in the list with a cross [†].

File:Giovanni Paolo Pannini 001.jpg
Jesus at the Temple (Giovanni Paolo Pannini c. 1750)
File:Enrique Simonet - Flevit super illam 1892.jpg
"Flevit super illam" (He wept over it); by Enrique Simonet, 1892.
File:Roberts Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem.jpg
The siege of Jerusalem, 70 CE (David Roberts, 1850)

Late Roman period (Aelia Capitolina)

File:Roman Empire 125.png
The Roman empire at its peak under Hadrian showing the location of the Roman legions deployed in 125 CE.

Byzantine period

File:Europe and the Near East at 476 AD.png
Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476
File:St Helena finding the true cross.jpg
Helena finding the True Cross (Italian manuscript, c. 825)
File:Madaba map.jpg
The Madaba Map depiction of sixth-century Jerusalem
File:Church of the Holy Sepulchre by Gerd Eichmann (cropped).jpg
Church of the Holy Sepulchre: Jerusalem is generally considered the cradle of Christianity.[41]

Early Muslim period

Rashidun, Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates

File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg
The expansion of the caliphate under the Umayyads. <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750
File:Shattering isochamend.png
An anachronistic map of the various de facto independent emirates after the Abbasids lost their military dominance (c. 950)

Fatimid and Seljuk rule

Crusader/Ayyubid period

First Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099–1187)

File:The Byzantine Empire, c.1180.PNG
Crusader states in 1180
File:Prise de Jérusalem par les Croisés, le 15 juillet 1099 Emil Signol, Musée du Château Versailles.JPG
The capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders on 15 July 1099
1. The Holy Sepulchre, 2. The Dome of the Rock, 3. Ramparts
File:View and Plan of Jerusalem Fac simile of a Woodout in the Liber Chronicarum Mundi large folio Nuremberg 1493.png
A woodcut of Jerusalem in the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".

Ayyubids and Second Crusader Kingdom

The Crusader defeat at the Battle of Hattin leads to the end of the First Crusader Kingdom (1099–1187). During the Second Crusader Kingdom (1192–1291), the Crusaders can only gain a foothold in Jerusalem on a limited scale, twice through treaties (access rights in 1192 after the Treaty of Jaffa; partial control 1229–39 after the Treaty of Jaffa and Tell Ajul), and again for a last time between 1241 and 1244.[61]

File:Ayyubid Dynasty.svg
Jerusalem under the Ayyubid dynasty after the death of Saladin, 1193
File:Bahri Dynasty 1250 - 1382 (AD).PNG
The Bahri Mamluk Dynasty 1250–1382

Mamluk period

Ottoman period

Early Ottoman period

File:OttomanEmpire1683.png
The Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent in 1683, showing Jerusalem

Late Ottoman period

File:Jerusalem1883.jpg
Map of Jerusalem in 1883
File:Ottoman levant.png
"Independent" Vilayet of Jerusalem shown within Ottoman administrative divisions in the Levant after the reorganisation of 1887–88

British Mandate

File:Sykes-Picot-1916.gif
Zones of French and British influence and control proposed in the Sykes–Picot Agreement
File:Allenby enters Jerusalem 1917.jpg
General Allenby enters Jerusalem on foot out of respect for the Holy City, 11 December 1917

After 1948

Partition into West (Israel) and East (Jordan)

Reunification after 1967

Template:Stack

  • 1967 5–11 June: The Six-Day War. Israel captures the West Bank (including East Jerusalem), Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights.

Graphical overview of Jerusalem's historical periods

Template:Graphical Overview of Jerusalem's Historical Periods

See also

References

Notes

Template:Reflist

Bibliography

  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

External links

Template:Years in Israel Template:Years in Palestine Template:Timeline of religion

  1. ↑ Steckoll, Solomon H., The gates of Jerusalem, Frederick A. Praeger, New York, 1968, preface
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".. According to Eric H. Cline's tally in Jerusalem Besieged.
  3. ↑ a b c d e Slavik, Diane. 2001. Cities through Time: Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Jerusalem. Geneva, Illinois: Runestone Press, p. 60. Template:ISBN
  4. ↑ Mazar, Benjamin. 1975. The Mountain of the Lord. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., p. 45. Template:ISBN
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ http://studentreader.com/jerusalem/#Edict-of-Cyrus Student Reader Jerusalem: "When Cyrus captured Babylon, he immediately issued the Edict of Cyrus, a decree that those who had been exiled by the Babylonians could return to their homelands and start rebuilding."
  11. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". For the Sidonian revolt of King Tennes.
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book XI, Chapter 7. William Whiston edition, London 1737. Accessed 23 September 2020.
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Josephus The Jewish Wars (1:60)
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Sievers, 142
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ "And when he had ordained five councils (συνέδρια), he distributed the nation into the same number of parts. So these councils governed the people; the first was at Jerusalem, the second at Gadara, the third at Amathus, the fourth at Jericho, and the fifth at Sepphoris in Galilee." Josephus, Ant. xiv 54:
  26. ↑ "Josephus uses συνέδριον for the first time in connection with the decree of the Roman governor of Syria, Gabinius (57 BCE), who abolished the constitution and the then existing form of government of Palestine and divided the country into five provinces, at the head of each of which a sanhedrin was placed ("Ant." xiv 5, § 4)." via Jewish Encyclopedia: Sanhedrin:
  27. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named armstrong
  28. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named sicker
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  32. ↑ H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, pp. 247–248: "Consequently, the province of Judea may be regarded as a satellite of Syria, though, in view of the measure of independence left to its governor in domestic affairs, it would be wrong to say that in the Julio-Claudian era Judea was legally part of the province of Syria."
  33. ↑ A History of the Jewish People, H.H. Ben-Sasson editor, 1976, p. 247: "When Judea was converted into a Roman province [in 6 CE, p. 246], Jerusalem ceased to be the administrative capital of the country. The Romans moved the governmental residence and military headquarters to Caesarea. The centre of government was thus removed from Jerusalem, and the administration became increasingly based on inhabitants of the Hellenistic cities (Sebaste, Caesarea and others)."
  34. ↑ John P. Meier's A Marginal Jew, vol. 1, ch. 11; also H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, Template:ISBN, p. 251: "But after the first agitation (which occurred in the wake of the first Roman census) had faded out, we no longer hear of bloodshed in Judea until the days of Pilate."
  35. ↑ Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen (2010). Turning the Tables on Jesus: The Mandaean View. In Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".(pp94-111). Minneapolis: Fortress Press
  36. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  37. ↑ H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, Template:ISBN, The Crisis Under Gaius Caligula, pp. 254–256: "The reign of Gaius Caligula (37–41) witnessed the first open break between the Jews and the Julio-Claudian empire. Until then—if one accepts Sejanus' heyday and the trouble caused by the census after Archelaus' banishment—there was usually an atmosphere of understanding between the Jews and the empire ... These relations deteriorated seriously during Caligula's reign, and, though after his death the peace was outwardly re-established, considerable bitterness remained on both sides. ... Caligula ordered that a golden statue of himself be set up in the Temple in Jerusalem. ... Only Caligula's death, at the hands of Roman conspirators (41), prevented the outbreak of a Jewish-Roman war that might well have spread to the entire East."
  38. ↑ See also Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities XX, ix, 1.
  39. ↑ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica, III, xxxii.
  40. ↑ Christopher Mackay. "Ancient Rome a Military and Political History" 2007: 230
  41. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  42. ↑ Schaff's Seven Ecumenical Councils: First Nicaea: Canon VII: "Since custom and ancient tradition have prevailed that the Bishop of Aelia [i.e., Jerusalem] should be honored, let him, saving its due dignity to the Metropolis, have the next place of honor."; "It is very hard to determine just what was the "precedence" granted to the Bishop of Aelia, nor is it clear which is the "metropolis" referred to in the last clause. Most writers, including Hefele, Balsamon, Aristenus and Beveridge William Beveridge?] consider it to be Cæsarea; while Zonaras thinks Jerusalem to be intended, a view recently adopted and defended by Fuchs; others again suppose it is Antioch that is referred to."
  43. ↑ Browning, Robert. 1978. The Emperor Julian. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, p. 176. Template:ISBN
  44. ↑ Horn, Cornelia B.; Robert R. Phenix, Jr. 2008. The Lives of Peter the Iberian, Theodosius of Jerusalem, and the Monk Romanus. Atlanta, Georgia: Society of Biblical Literature, p. lxxxviii. Template:ISBN
  45. ↑ The Emperor Justinian and Jerusalem (527–565)
  46. ↑ Hussey, J.M. 1961. The Byzantine World. New York, New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, p. 25.
  47. ↑ Karen Armstrong. 1997. Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths. New York, New York: Ballantine Books, p. 229. Template:ISBN
  48. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  49. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  50. ↑ Ostrogorsky, George. 1969. History of the Byzantine State. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, p. 104. Template:ISBN
  51. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  52. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  53. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  54. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  55. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  56. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  57. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  58. ↑ Singh, Nagendra. 2002. "International Encyclopedia of Islamic Dynasties"'
  59. ↑ Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World
  60. ↑ Runciman, Steven. 1951. A History of the Crusades: Volume 1 The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 279–290. Template:ISBN
  61. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  62. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  63. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  64. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  65. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  66. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  67. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  68. ↑ Jerusalem Timeline From David to the 20th century Template:Webarchive
  69. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  70. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  71. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  72. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  73. ↑ Asali, K.J. Jerusalem in History. Brooklyn, New York: Olive Branch Press, p. 215. Template:ISBN
  74. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  75. ↑ Fisk and King, 'Description of Jerusalem,' in The Christian Magazine, July 1824, p. 220. Mendon Association, 1824.
  76. ↑ Shvarts, Shifra. "Health Services in Eretz Israel (Palestine) in the Nineteenth Century." The Workers' Health Fund in Eretz Israel: Kupat Holim, 1911-1937, Boydell & Brewer, 2002, pp. 7–19. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt7zsv0p.9. Accessed 12 Oct. 2022.
  77. ↑ Shvarts, 2002, p. 10.
  78. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  80. ↑ Mishkenot Sha'ananim Template:Webarchive
  81. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  82. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  83. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". The group assembled at the Wall shouting "the Wall is ours". They raised the Jewish national flag and sang Hatikvah, the Israeli anthem. The authorities had been notified of the march in advance and provided a heavy police escort in a bid to prevent any incidents. Rumours spread that the youths had attacked local residents and had cursed the name of Muhammad.
  84. ↑ Levi-Faur, Sheffer and Vogel, 1999, p. 216.
  85. ↑ Sicker, 2000, p. 80.
  86. ↑ 'The Wailing Wall in Jerusalem Another Incident', The Times, Monday, 19 August 1929; p. 11; Issue 45285; col D.
  87. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  88. ↑ Yoav Gelber, Independence Versus Nakba; Kinneret–Zmora-Bitan–Dvir Publishing, 2004, Template:ISBN, p.104
  89. ↑ "Christians in the Holy Land" Edited by Michael Prior and William Taylor. Template:ISBN. p. 104: Albert Aghazarian "The significance of Jerusalem to Christians". This writer states that "Jews did not own any more than 20% of this quarter" prior to 1948
  90. ↑ "Palestine and Palestinians", p. 117.
  91. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  92. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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