Traffic and Environmental Zone: Difference between revisions

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Changing short description from "Security and surveillance cordon" to "Security and surveillance cordon in London"
 
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{{Short description|Security and surveillance cordon in London}}
{{short description|Security and surveillance cordon in London}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
[[File:Moorgate view northeast between Moorgate station and South Place 01.jpg|thumb|right|A checkpoint on Moorgate in July 2014, when it was not staffed. The road narrowing and slowing of traffic are visible.]]
[[File:Moorgate view northeast between Moorgate station and South Place 01.jpg|thumb|right|A checkpoint on [[Moorgate]] in July 2014, when it was not staffed. The road narrowing and slowing of traffic are visible.]]


The '''Traffic and Environmental Zone''', commonly known as the "'''ring of steel'''",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/services/transport-and-streets/traffic-management/Pages/Improving-access-for-cyclists.aspx|title=Improving access for cyclists|publisher=Transport for London|accessdate=31 May 2018}}</ref> is the security and [[surveillance]] cordon consisting of road barriers, checkpoints and several hundred [[Closed-circuit television|CCTV]] cameras surrounding the [[City of London]], the financial district at the heart of [[London|Greater London]]. The measures have been used since the 1990s to deter terrorism and other threats.<ref>City of London Police. "3.2.4 The automated number plate recognition (ANPR) system and the Corporation of London’s traffic and environment zone culminate in what is generally referred to and known as the ‘ring of steel’.</ref><ref name="bbc2003">BBC News (2003-12-08)</ref>
The '''Traffic and Environmental Zone''', commonly known as the "'''ring of steel'''",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/services/transport-and-streets/traffic-management/Pages/Improving-access-for-cyclists.aspx|title=Improving access for cyclists|publisher=Transport for London|access-date=31 May 2018}}</ref> is the security and [[surveillance]] cordon consisting of road barriers, checkpoints and several hundred [[Closed-circuit television|CCTV]] cameras surrounding the [[City of London]], the financial district at the heart of [[Greater London]]. The measures have been used since the 1990s to deter terrorism and other threats.<ref>City of London Police. "3.2.4 The automated number plate recognition (ANPR) system and the Corporation of London’s traffic and environment zone culminate in what is generally referred to and known as the ‘ring of steel’.</ref><ref name="bbc2003">BBC News (2003-12-08)</ref>


==History and purpose==
==History and purpose==
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===Introduction===
===Introduction===
The "ring of steel" measures were introduced by Owen Kelly, then the [[City of London Police]] commissioner, following the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]] bombing campaign in London in the 1980s and early 1990s including attacks within the City such as the [[Baltic Exchange bombing|1992 Baltic Exchange]] and [[1993 Bishopsgate bombing|1993 Bishopsgate]] attacks.<ref name="bbc2003"/> The "Traffic and Environmental Zone" was officially established in 1993.<ref>Corporation of London (1999), "[https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199899/cmselect/cmenvtra/32ii/32145.htm Memorandum by the Corporation of London (IT 134)]", House of Commons Select Committee on Environment, Transport and Regional Affairs</ref>
The "ring of steel" measures were introduced by Owen Kelly, then the [[City of London Police]] commissioner, following the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]] bombing campaign in London in the 1980s and early 1990s, which included attacks within the City such as the [[Baltic Exchange bombing|1992 Baltic Exchange]] and [[1993 Bishopsgate bombing|1993 Bishopsgate]] attacks.<ref name="bbc2003"/> The "Traffic and Environmental Zone" was officially established in 1993.<ref>Corporation of London (1999), "[https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199899/cmselect/cmenvtra/32ii/32145.htm Memorandum by the Corporation of London (IT 134)]", House of Commons Select Committee on Environment, Transport and Regional Affairs</ref>


The term "ring of steel" was borrowed from an earlier stage of [[the Troubles]] when the centre of [[Belfast]] was fortified against attacks; this fortified perimeter was also known as the "ring of steel".<ref>Coaffee (2004), p. 201 (pdf p. 2) first paragraph.</ref>
The term "ring of steel" was borrowed from an earlier stage of [[the Troubles]] when the centre of [[Belfast]] was fortified against attacks; this fortified perimeter was also known as the "ring of steel".<ref>Coaffee (2004), p. 201 (pdf p. 2) first paragraph.</ref>


Roads entering the City were narrowed and small [[chicane]]s were created to force drivers to slow down and be recorded by CCTV cameras. These roads typically had a concrete traffic island with a sentry box where police could stand guard and monitor traffic.<ref name="bbc2003"/> City planners call these types of precautions "fortress urbanism".<ref name=Lipton-2005>Lipton (2005-07-24)</ref> Some roads were closed to traffic entirely.<ref>Coaffee, Jon (2003) [https://books.google.com/books?id=TYlCnWzZIdgC&dq=%22roads+closed%22+city+of+london+ring+of+steel&pg=PA176 p.176]</ref> Despite the term "ring of steel", the roadblocks and chicanes were actually created with concrete blocks,<ref name=Lipton-2005/> sometimes plastic coated, that were wedged together.
Roads entering the City were narrowed, and small [[chicane]]s were created to force drivers to slow down and be recorded by CCTV cameras. These roads typically had a concrete traffic island with a sentry box where police could stand guard and monitor traffic.<ref name="bbc2003"/> City planners call these types of precautions "fortress urbanism".<ref name=Lipton-2005>Lipton (2005-07-24)</ref> Some roads were closed to traffic entirely.<ref>Coaffee, Jon (2003) [https://books.google.com/books?id=TYlCnWzZIdgC&dq=%22roads+closed%22+city+of+london+ring+of+steel&pg=PA176 p. 176]</ref> Despite the term "ring of steel", the roadblocks and chicanes were actually created with concrete blocks,<ref name=Lipton-2005/> sometimes plastic-coated, that were wedged together.


Initially the sentry posts were staffed by armed police almost continuously. The ring of steel consisted of plastic cones and on-duty police officers which the locals described as the "ring of plastic".<ref name=Coaffee-204>Coaffee (2004), p.204 (pdf p. 5) second paragraph</ref> It served the purpose of providing a visible sign to the public that the City authorities were taking the threats of more attacks by the IRA seriously.<ref name=Coaffee-204/> This was replaced by more permanent structures consisting of concrete barriers, checkpoints and hundreds of video cameras.<ref name=Lipton-2005/> Following IRA ceasefires the police presence was curtailed.
Initially, the sentry posts were almost continuously staffed by armed police. The ring of steel consisted of plastic cones and on-duty police officers which the locals described as the "ring of plastic".<ref name=Coaffee-204>Coaffee (2004), p. 204 (pdf p. 5) second paragraph</ref> It served the purpose of providing a visible sign to the public that the City authorities were taking the threats of more attacks by the IRA seriously.<ref name=Coaffee-204/> This was replaced by more permanent structures consisting of concrete barriers, checkpoints and hundreds of video cameras.<ref name=Lipton-2005/> Following IRA ceasefires, the police presence was curtailed.
 
=== Late 1990s step-down ===
Staffed checkpoints began to be phased out after the IRA announced a ceasefire in 1994, and were no longer used after the 1990s.<ref name="BBC20161224"/>


=== Attacks outside the ring ===
=== Attacks outside the ring ===
In 1996, the IRA attacked another area of central London by exploding a [[1996 Docklands bombing|bomb at the Docklands]], resulting in two deaths, 39 other casualties and £85 million worth of damage. The attack showed that even if the TEZ were able to hinder attacks inside the City itself, terrorists could instead target other high-value areas such as the Docklands or [[Westminster]].
In 1996, the IRA attacked another area of central London by exploding a [[1996 Docklands bombing|bomb in Docklands]], resulting in two deaths, 39 other casualties and £85 million worth of damage. The attack showed that even if the TEZ were able to hinder attacks inside the City itself, terrorists could instead target other high-value areas such as the Docklands or [[Westminster]].
 
=== Late 1990s step down ===
Staffed checkpoints began to be phased out after the IRA announced a ceasefire in 1994 and were no longer used after the 1990s.<ref name="BBC20161224"/>


=== Early 2000s step up ===
=== Early 2000s step up ===
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===2016 proposals===
===2016 proposals===
Re-introduction of staffed checkpoints, restricted roads, as well as rising street bollards and crash-proof barricades were proposed in December 2016 to combat "hostile vehicle-borne security threat[s]".<ref name="BBC20161224">{{cite news|title=New 'Ring of Steel' planned for London Square Mile|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-38418877|accessdate=24 December 2016|work=BBC|date=24 December 2016}}</ref> The proposals were initially to be implemented by 2022,<ref>{{cite news|title='Ring of steel' to be built in the City to protect London from terror attack|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/ring-of-steel-to-be-built-in-the-city-to-protect-london-from-terror-attack-a3427411.html|accessdate=25 December 2016|work=Evening Standard|date=23 December 2016}}</ref> but as of 2024, no new construction has taken place.  
Re-introduction of staffed checkpoints, restricted roads, as well as rising street bollards and crash-proof barricades were proposed in December 2016 to combat "hostile vehicle-borne security threat[s]".<ref name="BBC20161224">{{cite news |title=New 'Ring of Steel' planned for London Square Mile |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-38418877 |publisher=BBC News |date=24 December 2016 |access-date=24 December 2016}}</ref> The proposals were initially to be implemented by 2022,<ref>{{cite news |title='Ring of steel' to be built in the City to protect London from terror attack |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/ring-of-steel-to-be-built-in-the-city-to-protect-london-from-terror-attack-a3427411.html |work=Evening Standard |date=23 December 2016 |access-date=25 December 2016}}</ref> but as of 2024, no new construction has taken place.  


== Number of CCTV cameras ==
== Number of CCTV cameras ==
According to a 2011 [[Freedom of Information Act 2000|Freedom of Information Act]] request, the total number of local government operated CCTV cameras in the City of London was 649.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Price of Privacy: How local authorities spent £515m on CCTV in four years|url=http://www.bigbrotherwatch.org.uk/files/priceofprivacy/Price_of_privacy_2012.pdf|publisher=Big Brother Watch|accessdate=4 February 2015|date=February 2012|page=21}}</ref>
According to a 2011 [[Freedom of Information Act 2000|Freedom of Information Act]] request, the total number of local government–operated CCTV cameras in the City of London was 649.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Price of Privacy: How local authorities spent £515m on CCTV in four years|url=http://www.bigbrotherwatch.org.uk/files/priceofprivacy/Price_of_privacy_2012.pdf|publisher=Big Brother Watch|access-date=4 February 2015|date=February 2012|page=21}}</ref>


The number of surveillance cameras that are part of the TEZ is often wrongly quoted as 500,000.<ref>See, for example, {{cite news|title=Expand New York City's surveillance camera network|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/opinion/bryan-schonfeld-expand-nyc-surveillance-camera-network-article-1.2117122|accessdate=21 May 2015|work=Daily News|date=16 February 2015|mode=cs2}}; {{cite news|title=Police Go Live Monitoring D.C. Crime Cameras|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/02/10/AR2008021002726.html|accessdate=21 May 2015|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=11 February 2008|mode=cs2}}; {{cite book|last1=eds|first1=Giorgio Franceschetti ; Marina Grossi|title=Homeland security threats, countermeasures, and privacy issues|date=2011|publisher=Artech House|location=Boston, Mass.[u.a.]|isbn=9781608071067|page=137|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LjAs2Jrco00C&q=500%2C000+cameras+ring+of+steel+london&pg=PA137|accessdate=21 May 2015|mode=cs2}}; {{cite book|last1=Luppicini|first1=[edited by] Rocci|title=Ethical impact of technological advancements and applications in society|date=2012|publisher=Information Science Reference|location=Hershey, PA|isbn=9781466617742|page=83|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iC5gYV80HtAC&q=500%2C000+cameras+ring+of+steel+london&pg=PA83|accessdate=21 May 2015|mode=cs2}}</ref> This figure relates to [[London|Greater London]], which has an area of 607 sq. mi. (1,572 square km) compared with the square mile (3 square km) of the [[City of London]] that the ring of steel covers. Furthermore, it has been acknowledged for several years that the methodology behind this figure is flawed,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/society/factcheck+how+many+cctv+cameras/2291167|title=FactCheck: how many CCTV cameras?|publisher=Channel 4 News|date=18 June 2008|accessdate=8 May 2009}}</ref> but it has been widely quoted.<ref>See, for example, {{cite news|title=Bloomberg reviews London's 'ring of steel'|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna37087582|access-date=21 May 2015|publisher=Associated Press|date=11 May 2010}}</ref>
The number of surveillance cameras that are part of the TEZ is often wrongly quoted as 500,000.<ref>See, for example, {{cite news|title=Expand New York City's surveillance camera network|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/opinion/bryan-schonfeld-expand-nyc-surveillance-camera-network-article-1.2117122|access-date=21 May 2015|work=Daily News|date=16 February 2015|mode=cs2}}; {{cite news|title=Police Go Live Monitoring D.C. Crime Cameras|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/02/10/AR2008021002726.html|access-date=21 May 2015|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=11 February 2008|mode=cs2}}; {{cite book |editor1-last=Franceschetti |editor1-first=Giorgio |editor2-last=Grossi |editor2-first=Marina |title=Homeland security threats, countermeasures, and privacy issues |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LjAs2Jrco00C&q=500%2C000+cameras+ring+of+steel+london&pg=PA137 |publisher=Artech House |location=Boston, MA [u.a.] |date=2011 |page=137 |access-date=21 May 2015 |isbn=9781608071067 |mode=cs2}}; {{cite book|last1=Luppicini|first1=[edited by] Rocci|title=Ethical impact of technological advancements and applications in society|date=2012|publisher=Information Science Reference|location=Hershey, PA|isbn=9781466617742|page=83|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iC5gYV80HtAC&q=500%2C000+cameras+ring+of+steel+london&pg=PA83|access-date=21 May 2015|mode=cs2}}</ref> This figure relates to [[Greater London]], which has an area of 607 sq. mi. (1,572 square km) compared with the square mile (3 square km) of the [[City of London]] that the ring of steel covers. Furthermore, it has been acknowledged for several years that the methodology behind this figure is flawed,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/society/factcheck+how+many+cctv+cameras/2291167|title=FactCheck: how many CCTV cameras?|publisher=Channel 4 News|date=18 June 2008|access-date=8 May 2009}}</ref> but it has been widely quoted.<ref>See, for example, {{cite news|title=Bloomberg reviews London's 'ring of steel'|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna37087582|access-date=21 May 2015|publisher=Associated Press|date=11 May 2010}}</ref>


The figure of 500,000 comes from a study by Michael McCahill and Clive Norris of UrbanEye published in 2002.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urbaneye.net/results/ue_wp6.pdf|title=CCTV in London|accessdate=22 July 2009}}</ref> Based on a small sample in [[Putney]] High Street, McCahill and Norris extrapolate the number of surveillance cameras in Greater London to be 500,000 and in the United Kingdom to be 4.2 million. More reliable estimates put the total number of private and local government surveillance cameras in the whole of the United Kingdom at around 1.85 million in 2011.<ref name=Guardian2011>{{cite news|title=You're being watched: there's one CCTV camera for every 32 people in UK - Research shows 1.85m machines across Britain, most of them indoors and privately operated|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/mar/02/cctv-cameras-watching-surveillance|accessdate=7 January 2017|work=The Guardian|date=2 March 2011|postscript=none}}; {{cite news|title=In the press: How the media is reporting the 1.85 million cameras story|url=http://www.securitynewsdesk.com/in-the-press-how-the-media-is-reporting-the-1-85-million-cameras-story/|accessdate=7 January 2017|work=Security News Desk|date=3 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cctvusergroup.com/art.php?art=94|title=How many cameras are there?|publisher=CCTV User Group|date=18 June 2008|accessdate=8 May 2009|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023191646/http://www.cctvusergroup.com/art.php?art=94|archivedate=23 October 2008}}</ref>
The figure of 500,000 comes from a study by Michael McCahill and Clive Norris of UrbanEye published in 2002.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urbaneye.net/results/ue_wp6.pdf|title=CCTV in London|access-date=22 July 2009}}</ref> Based on a small sample in [[Putney]] High Street, McCahill and Norris extrapolate the number of surveillance cameras in Greater London to be 500,000 and in the United Kingdom to be 4.2 million. More reliable estimates put the total number of private and local government surveillance cameras in the whole of the United Kingdom at around 1.85 million in 2011.<ref name=Guardian2011>{{cite news|title=You're being watched: there's one CCTV camera for every 32 people in UK - Research shows 1.85m machines across Britain, most of them indoors and privately operated|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/mar/02/cctv-cameras-watching-surveillance|access-date=7 January 2017|work=The Guardian|date=2 March 2011|postscript=none}}; {{cite news|title=In the press: How the media is reporting the 1.85 million cameras story|url=http://www.securitynewsdesk.com/in-the-press-how-the-media-is-reporting-the-1-85-million-cameras-story/|access-date=7 January 2017|work=Security News Desk|date=3 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cctvusergroup.com/art.php?art=94|title=How many cameras are there?|publisher=CCTV User Group|date=18 June 2008|access-date=8 May 2009|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023191646/http://www.cctvusergroup.com/art.php?art=94|archive-date=23 October 2008}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
* [[Automatic number plate recognition in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Automatic number plate recognition in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Lower Manhattan Security Initiative]]
* [[Lower Manhattan Security Initiative]]
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==External links==
==External links==
*{{cite news | first = Cara| last = Buckley| title = New York Plans Surveillance Veil for Downtown| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/09/nyregion/09ring.html?ex=1343275200&en=219d15391d1af88f&ei=5124&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink | work = New York Times | page = 1 | date = 2007-07-09 | accessdate = 2008-04-10}}
*{{cite news |last=Buckley |first=Cara |title=New York Plans Surveillance Veil for Downtown |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/09/nyregion/09ring.html?ex=1343275200&en=219d15391d1af88f&ei=5124&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink |work=The New York Times |date=2007-07-09 |page=1 |access-date=2008-04-10}}
*{{cite news |author=BBC News |title = 'Ring of steel' widened | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3330771.stm | work = BBC News Online | date = 2003-12-08 | accessdate = 2008-04-10}}
*{{cite news |title='Ring of steel' widened |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3330771.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=2003-12-08 |access-date=2008-04-10}}
*[[City of London Police]], [http://inspectorates.homeoffice.gov.uk/hmic/inspections/bvr/cityoflondon/jan05/cityct.pdf?view=Binary Counter-Terrorism], January 2005
*[[City of London Police]], [http://inspectorates.homeoffice.gov.uk/hmic/inspections/bvr/cityoflondon/jan05/cityct.pdf?view=Binary Counter-Terrorism], January 2005
*Coaffee, Jon (2003), ''Terrorism, Risk, and the City: The Making of a Contemporary Urban'', Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., {{ISBN|0-7546-3555-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3555-0}}.
*Coaffee, Jon (2003), ''Terrorism, Risk, and the City: The Making of a Contemporary Urban'', Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., {{ISBN|0-7546-3555-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3555-0}}.

Latest revision as of 08:21, 24 June 2025

Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates

File:Moorgate view northeast between Moorgate station and South Place 01.jpg
A checkpoint on Moorgate in July 2014, when it was not staffed. The road narrowing and slowing of traffic are visible.

The Traffic and Environmental Zone, commonly known as the "ring of steel",[1] is the security and surveillance cordon consisting of road barriers, checkpoints and several hundred CCTV cameras surrounding the City of London, the financial district at the heart of Greater London. The measures have been used since the 1990s to deter terrorism and other threats.[2][3]

History and purpose

Introduction

The "ring of steel" measures were introduced by Owen Kelly, then the City of London Police commissioner, following the Provisional IRA bombing campaign in London in the 1980s and early 1990s, which included attacks within the City such as the 1992 Baltic Exchange and 1993 Bishopsgate attacks.[3] The "Traffic and Environmental Zone" was officially established in 1993.[4]

The term "ring of steel" was borrowed from an earlier stage of the Troubles when the centre of Belfast was fortified against attacks; this fortified perimeter was also known as the "ring of steel".[5]

Roads entering the City were narrowed, and small chicanes were created to force drivers to slow down and be recorded by CCTV cameras. These roads typically had a concrete traffic island with a sentry box where police could stand guard and monitor traffic.[3] City planners call these types of precautions "fortress urbanism".[6] Some roads were closed to traffic entirely.[7] Despite the term "ring of steel", the roadblocks and chicanes were actually created with concrete blocks,[6] sometimes plastic-coated, that were wedged together.

Initially, the sentry posts were almost continuously staffed by armed police. The ring of steel consisted of plastic cones and on-duty police officers which the locals described as the "ring of plastic".[8] It served the purpose of providing a visible sign to the public that the City authorities were taking the threats of more attacks by the IRA seriously.[8] This was replaced by more permanent structures consisting of concrete barriers, checkpoints and hundreds of video cameras.[6] Following IRA ceasefires, the police presence was curtailed.

Late 1990s step-down

Staffed checkpoints began to be phased out after the IRA announced a ceasefire in 1994, and were no longer used after the 1990s.[9]

Attacks outside the ring

In 1996, the IRA attacked another area of central London by exploding a bomb in Docklands, resulting in two deaths, 39 other casualties and £85 million worth of damage. The attack showed that even if the TEZ were able to hinder attacks inside the City itself, terrorists could instead target other high-value areas such as the Docklands or Westminster.

Early 2000s step up

Following the September 11 attacks in the United States in 2001, and a reported increased terrorist threat to the United Kingdom, security was stepped up with occasional spot checks on vehicles entering the cordon, although not to previous levels.[3] In December 2003, the ring of steel was widened to include more businesses in the City.[3] This was as a direct result of a police report that categorised a terrorist attack on the City as "inevitable". Traffic entering the City is also monitored and recorded at the boundary of the London congestion charging zone, which covers a wider area.

2016 proposals

Re-introduction of staffed checkpoints, restricted roads, as well as rising street bollards and crash-proof barricades were proposed in December 2016 to combat "hostile vehicle-borne security threat[s]".[9] The proposals were initially to be implemented by 2022,[10] but as of 2024, no new construction has taken place.

Number of CCTV cameras

According to a 2011 Freedom of Information Act request, the total number of local government–operated CCTV cameras in the City of London was 649.[11]

The number of surveillance cameras that are part of the TEZ is often wrongly quoted as 500,000.[12] This figure relates to Greater London, which has an area of 607 sq. mi. (1,572 square km) compared with the square mile (3 square km) of the City of London that the ring of steel covers. Furthermore, it has been acknowledged for several years that the methodology behind this figure is flawed,[13] but it has been widely quoted.[14]

The figure of 500,000 comes from a study by Michael McCahill and Clive Norris of UrbanEye published in 2002.[15] Based on a small sample in Putney High Street, McCahill and Norris extrapolate the number of surveillance cameras in Greater London to be 500,000 and in the United Kingdom to be 4.2 million. More reliable estimates put the total number of private and local government surveillance cameras in the whole of the United Kingdom at around 1.85 million in 2011.[16][17]

See also

References

Template:Reflist

External links

Template:City of London

  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ City of London Police. "3.2.4 The automated number plate recognition (ANPR) system and the Corporation of London’s traffic and environment zone culminate in what is generally referred to and known as the ‘ring of steel’.
  3. ↑ a b c d e BBC News (2003-12-08)
  4. ↑ Corporation of London (1999), "Memorandum by the Corporation of London (IT 134)", House of Commons Select Committee on Environment, Transport and Regional Affairs
  5. ↑ Coaffee (2004), p. 201 (pdf p. 2) first paragraph.
  6. ↑ a b c Lipton (2005-07-24)
  7. ↑ Coaffee, Jon (2003) p. 176
  8. ↑ a b Coaffee (2004), p. 204 (pdf p. 5) second paragraph
  9. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ See, for example, Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".; Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".; Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".; Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ See, for example, Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".; Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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