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'''Imhotep''' ({{IPAc-en|ɪ|m|ˈ|h|əʊ|t|ɛ|p}};<ref name="Collins">{{cite web |url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/imhotep?showCookiePolicy=true |title=Imhotep |access-date=September 25, 2014 |work=Collins Dictionary}}</ref> {{langx|egy|ỉỉ-m-ḥtp}} "(the one who) comes in peace";<ref name="Ranke 1935 9">{{cite book |last1=Ranke |first1=Hermann |year=1935 |title=Die Ägyptischen Personennamen |trans-title=Egyptian Personal Names |volume=1: Verzeichnis der Namen |page=9 |language=de |publisher=J. J. Augustin |place=Glückstadt |url=http://gizamedia.rc.fas.harvard.edu/images/MFA-images/Giza/GizaImage/full/library/ranke_personennamen_1.pdf |access-date=24 July 2020}}</ref> {{Floruit|late 27th century BC}}) was an [[Ancient Egyptians|Egyptian]] chancellor to the King [[Djoser]], possible architect of [[Pyramid of Djoser|Djoser's step pyramid]], and [[Clergy_of_ancient_Egypt#Hierarchy |high priest]] of the sun god [[Ra]] at [[Heliopolis (Ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]]. Very little is known of Imhotep as a historical figure, but in the 3,000&nbsp;years following his death, he was gradually glorified and [[Deifying|deified]].
'''Imhotep''' ({{IPAc-en|ɪ|m|ˈ|h|əʊ|t|ɛ|p}};<ref name="Collins">{{cite web |url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/imhotep?showCookiePolicy=true |title=Imhotep |access-date=September 25, 2014 |work=Collins Dictionary}}</ref> {{langx|egy|ỉỉ-m-ḥtp}} "(the one who) comes in peace";<ref name="Ranke 1935 9">{{cite book |last1=Ranke |first1=Hermann |year=1935 |title=Die Ägyptischen Personennamen |trans-title=Egyptian Personal Names |volume=1: Verzeichnis der Namen |page=9 |language=de |publisher=J. J. Augustin |place=Glückstadt |url=http://gizamedia.rc.fas.harvard.edu/images/MFA-images/Giza/GizaImage/full/library/ranke_personennamen_1.pdf |access-date=24 July 2020}}</ref> {{Floruit|late 27th century BC}}) was an [[Ancient Egyptians|Egyptian]] chancellor to the King [[Djoser]], possible architect of [[Pyramid of Djoser|Djoser's step pyramid]], and [[Clergy_of_ancient_Egypt#Hierarchy |high priest]] of the sun god [[Ra]] at [[Heliopolis (Ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]]. Very little is known of Imhotep as a historical figure, but in the 3,000&nbsp;years following his death, he was gradually glorified and [[Deifying|deified]].


Traditions from long after Imhotep's death treated him as a great author of [[Sebayt|wisdom texts]]<ref name=Wildung-1977>{{cite book |first=D. |last=Wildung |year=1977 |title=Egyptian Saints: Deification in pharaonic Egypt|publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9169-1 |page=34}}</ref> and especially as a physician.<ref>{{cite book |first=William |last=Osler |year=2004 |title=The Evolution of Modern Medicine|publisher=Kessinger |page=12}}</ref><ref name="Musso2005">{{cite book |last=Musso |first=C. G. |year=2005 |title=Imhotep: The dean among the ancient Egyptian physicians}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Publisher name, publ. place, opt. ISBN etc.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Willerson |first1=J. T. |last2=Teaff |first2=R. |year=1995 |title=Egyptian Contributions to Cardiovascular Medicine |journal=Texas Heart Institute Journal |page=194}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Full journal name, volume & issue numbers, opt. DOI, etc.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Roger |last=Highfield |date=10 May 2007 |title=How Imhotep gave us medicine |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |place=London, UK |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3293164/How-Imhotep-gave-us-medicine.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3293164/How-Imhotep-gave-us-medicine.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Herbowski |first=Leszek |year=2013 |title=The maze of the cerebrospinal fluid discovery |journal=Anatomy Research International |volume=2013 |article-number=596027 |page=5 |oclc=733290677 |lccn=2011243887 |doi=10.1155/2013/596027 |pmid=24396600 |pmc=3874314 |doi-access=free }}</ref> No text from his lifetime mentions these capacities and no text mentions his name in the first 1,200&nbsp;years following his death.<ref>{{cite book |last=Teeter |first=E. |year=2011 |title=Religion and Ritual in Ancient Egypt |page=96}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Publisher name, publ. place, opt. ISBN etc.}}</ref><ref name=Baud-2002>{{cite book |last=Baud |first=M. |year=2002 |title=Djéser et la IIIe dynastie |trans-title=Djoser and the Third Dynasty |page=125 |language=French}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Publisher name, publ. place, opt. ISBN etc.}}</ref> Apart from the three short contemporary inscriptions that establish him as chancellor to the Pharaoh, the first text to refer to Imhotep dates to the time of [[Amenhotep III]] ({{circa|1391–1353&nbsp;BC}}). It is addressed to the owner of a tomb and reads:
Traditions from long after Imhotep's death treated him as a great author of [[Sebayt|wisdom texts]]<ref name=Wildung-1977>{{cite book |first=D. |last=Wildung |year=1977 |title=Egyptian Saints: Deification in pharaonic Egypt|publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9169-1 |page=34}}</ref> and especially as a physician.<ref>{{cite book |first=William |last=Osler |year=2004 |title=The Evolution of Modern Medicine|publisher=Kessinger |page=12}}</ref><ref name="Musso2005">{{cite book |last=Musso |first=C. G. |year=2005 |title=Imhotep: The dean among the ancient Egyptian physicians}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Publisher name, publ. place, opt. ISBN etc.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Willerson |first1=J. T. |last2=Teaff |first2=R. |year=1995 |title=Egyptian Contributions to Cardiovascular Medicine |journal=Texas Heart Institute Journal |page=194}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Full journal name, volume & issue numbers, opt. DOI, etc.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Roger |last=Highfield |date=10 May 2007 |title=How Imhotep gave us medicine |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |place=London, UK |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3293164/How-Imhotep-gave-us-medicine.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3293164/How-Imhotep-gave-us-medicine.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Herbowski |first=Leszek |year=2013 |title=The maze of the cerebrospinal fluid discovery |journal=Anatomy Research International |volume=2013 |article-number=596027 |page=5 |oclc=733290677 |lccn=2011243887 |doi=10.1155/2013/596027 |pmid=24396600 |pmc=3874314 |doi-access=free }}</ref> No extant text from his lifetime mentions these capacities, and none mention his name in the first 1,200&nbsp;years following his death.<ref>{{cite book |last=Teeter |first=E. |year=2011 |title=Religion and Ritual in Ancient Egypt |page=96}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Publisher name, publ. place, opt. ISBN etc.}}</ref><ref name=Baud-2002>{{cite book |last=Baud |first=M. |year=2002 |title=Djéser et la IIIe dynastie |trans-title=Djoser and the Third Dynasty |page=125 |language=French}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Publisher name, publ. place, opt. ISBN etc.}}</ref> The [[Westcar Papyrus]] of the [[Hyksos period]], written in classical [[Egyptian language#Middle Egyptian|Middle Egyptian]] (likely around the [[Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt|13th Dynasty]]), contains [[Westcar_Papyrus#Story_No._1|a story about an official performing a miracle for Djoser]], possibly Imhotep. However, this section is badly damaged and no mention of this character's name survived.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvqc6j1s |title=Ancient Egyptian Literature |date=2019 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-30584-7 |edition=1|doi=10.2307/j.ctvqc6j1s |jstor=j.ctvqc6j1s }}</ref>{{page number needed|date=July 2025}}<ref name="AdEr5">Adolf Erman: ''Die Märchen des Papyrus Westcar I. Einleitung und Commentar''. In: ''Mitteilungen aus den Orientalischen Sammlungen''. Heft V, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Berlin 1890. page 10 – 12.</ref>
 
Apart from the three short contemporary inscriptions that establish him as chancellor to the Pharaoh, the first surviving text to name Imhotep dates to the time of [[Amenhotep III]] ({{circa|1391–1353&nbsp;BC}}). It is addressed to the owner of a tomb and reads:


{{Blockquote|text=The [[Priest#Ancient Egypt|wab-priest]] may give offerings to your [[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul|ka]]. The wab-priests may stretch to you their arms with libations on the soil, as it is done for Imhotep with the remains of the water bowl. |source=Wildung (1977)<ref name=Wildung-1977/>}}
{{Blockquote|text=The [[Priest#Ancient Egypt|wab-priest]] may give offerings to your [[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul|ka]]. The wab-priests may stretch to you their arms with libations on the soil, as it is done for Imhotep with the remains of the water bowl. |source=Wildung (1977)<ref name=Wildung-1977/>}}
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  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=myPvAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29  
  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=myPvAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29  
}}
}}
</ref> The center of his cult was in [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]. The location of his tomb remains unknown, despite efforts to find it.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lay of the Harper |website=Reshafim.org.il |url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/harpers_lay.htm |access-date=2015-06-23}}</ref> The consensus is {{citation needed|date=March 2024}}that it is hidden somewhere at [[Saqqara]].
</ref> The center of his cult was in [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]. The location of his tomb remains unknown, despite efforts to find it.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lay of the Harper |website=Reshafim.org.il |url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/harpers_lay.htm |access-date=2015-06-23}}</ref>


==Historicity==
==Historicity==
[[File:Imhotep JE 49889.png|thumb|left|200px|Drawing of statue JE 49889 base inscription, which mentions Imhotep]]
[[File:Imhotep JE 49889.png|thumb|left|200px|Drawing of statue JE 49889 base inscription, which mentions Imhotep]]
Imhotep's [[historicity]] is confirmed by two contemporary inscriptions made during his lifetime on the base or pedestal of one of Djoser's statues {{nowrap|(Cairo JE 49889)}} and also by a [[Graffito (archaeology)|graffito]] on the enclosure wall surrounding [[Sekhemkhet]]'s [[Buried Pyramid | unfinished step pyramid]].<ref name=Malek>{{cite book |first=Jaromir |last=Malek |year=2002 |article=The Old Kingdom |title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt |editor-first=Ian |editor-last=Shaw |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=paperback |pages=92–93}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=J. |last=Kahl |date=2000 |article=Old Kingdom: Third Dynasty |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt|isbn=0195138228 |editor-first=Donald |editor-last=Redford |edition=1st |volume=2 |page=592}}</ref> The latter inscription suggests that Imhotep outlived Djoser by a few years and went on to serve in the construction of King Sekhemkhet's pyramid, which was abandoned due to this ruler's brief reign.<ref name=Malek/>
Imhotep's [[historicity]] is confirmed by two contemporary inscriptions made during his lifetime on the base or pedestal of one of Djoser's statues {{nowrap|(Cairo JE 49889)}} and also by a [[Graffito (archaeology)|graffito]] on the enclosure wall surrounding [[Sekhemkhet]]'s [[Buried Pyramid | unfinished step pyramid]].<ref name=Malek>{{cite book |first=Jaromir |last=Malek |year=2002 |article=The Old Kingdom |title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt |editor-first=Ian |editor-last=Shaw |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=paperback |pages=92–93}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=J. |last=Kahl |date=2000 |article=Old Kingdom: Third Dynasty |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt|isbn=0195138228 |editor-first=Donald |editor-last=Redford |edition=1st |volume=2 |page=592 |publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref> The latter inscription suggests that Imhotep outlived Djoser by a few years and went on to serve in the construction of King Sekhemkhet's pyramid, which was abandoned due to this ruler's brief reign.<ref name=Malek/>


Imhotep held the ambiguous title ''bity sensen'' or ''bity senwy'', unique in ancient Egyptian history. This literally translates as "the King of Lower Egypt, the two brothers", and could be interpreted to mean that Imhotep might be twin brother of Pharaoh, which would explain his high position; with no known individuals with similar titles, however, interpretation remains highly speculative.<ref>Naunton, Chris (2018). ''Searching for the Lost Tombs of Egypt''. Thames & Hudson. p.&nbsp;44. {{ISBN|978-0500051993}}.</ref> If not a blood relative, he might have been the King's confidant or childhood friend.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Naunton |first=Chris |title=Searching for the Lost Tombs of Egypt |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2018 |isbn=978-0500051993 |page=44}}</ref>
Imhotep held the ambiguous title ''bity sensen'' or ''bity senwy'', unique in ancient Egyptian history. This literally translates as "the King of Lower Egypt, the two brothers", and could be interpreted to mean that Imhotep might be twin brother of Pharaoh, which would explain his high position; with no known individuals with similar titles, however, interpretation remains highly speculative.<ref>Naunton, Chris (2018). ''Searching for the Lost Tombs of Egypt''. Thames & Hudson. p.&nbsp;44. {{ISBN|978-0500051993}}.</ref> If not a blood relative, he might have been the King's confidant or childhood friend.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Naunton |first=Chris |title=Searching for the Lost Tombs of Egypt |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-500-77451-9 |page=44}}</ref>


===Architecture and engineering===
===Architecture and engineering===
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==In popular culture==
==In popular culture==
[[File:An invocation to I-em-hetep, the Egyptian deity of medicine. Wellcome V0018149.jpg|thumb|[[Ernest Board]]: An invocation to I-em-hetep, the Egyptian deity of medicine, {{Circa|1912}}]]
[[File:An invocation to I-em-hetep, the Egyptian deity of medicine. Wellcome V0018149.jpg|thumb|[[Ernest Board]]: An invocation to I-em-hetep, the Egyptian deity of medicine, {{Circa|1912}}]]
[[Imhotep (The Mummy)|Imhotep's]] name is shared by the antagonist of the 1932 film ''[[The Mummy (1932 film)|The Mummy]]'',<ref>{{cite web |last=Reid |first=Danny |date=24 April 2014 |title=''The Mummy'' (1932) |series=Review, with Boris Karloff and David Manners |website=Pre-Code.com |url=http://pre-code.com/mummy-1932-review-boris-karloff |access-date=6 June 2016}}</ref> its 1999 [[The Mummy (1999 film)|remake]], and that film's [[The Mummy Returns|2001 sequel]].<ref name="NYT">{{cite news |last=Holden |first=Stephen |title=Sarcophagus, be gone: Night of the living undead |via=NYTimes.com |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9E06E0D7103CF934A35756C0A96F958260 |access-date=6 June 2016}}</ref> He features in the manga ''[[Im: Great Priest Imhotep]]'' as the protagonist.
[[Imhotep (The Mummy)|Imhotep's]] name is shared by the antagonist of the 1932 film ''[[The Mummy (1932 film)|The Mummy]]'', along with its [[The Mummy (1999 film)|1999 remake]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Reid |first=Danny |date=24 April 2014 |title=''The Mummy'' (1932) |series=Review, with Boris Karloff and David Manners |website=Pre-Code.com |url=http://pre-code.com/mummy-1932-review-boris-karloff |access-date=6 June 2016}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==

Latest revision as of 20:44, 9 November 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "about". Template:Use dmy dates Script error: No such module "infobox".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".Template:Main otherScript error: No such module "Check for clobbered parameters".Template:Wikidata image Template:Infobox hieroglyphs

Imhotep (Template:IPAc-en;[1] Template:Langx "(the one who) comes in peace";[2] Template:Floruit) was an Egyptian chancellor to the King Djoser, possible architect of Djoser's step pyramid, and high priest of the sun god Ra at Heliopolis. Very little is known of Imhotep as a historical figure, but in the 3,000 years following his death, he was gradually glorified and deified.

Traditions from long after Imhotep's death treated him as a great author of wisdom texts[3] and especially as a physician.[4][5][6][7][8] No extant text from his lifetime mentions these capacities, and none mention his name in the first 1,200 years following his death.[9][10] The Westcar Papyrus of the Hyksos period, written in classical Middle Egyptian (likely around the 13th Dynasty), contains a story about an official performing a miracle for Djoser, possibly Imhotep. However, this section is badly damaged and no mention of this character's name survived.[11]Template:Page number needed[12]

Apart from the three short contemporary inscriptions that establish him as chancellor to the Pharaoh, the first surviving text to name Imhotep dates to the time of Amenhotep III (Template:Circa). It is addressed to the owner of a tomb and reads:

<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />

The wab-priest may give offerings to your ka. The wab-priests may stretch to you their arms with libations on the soil, as it is done for Imhotep with the remains of the water bowl.

— Template:Comma separated entries

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It appears that this libation to Imhotep was done regularly, as they are attested on papyri associated with statues of Imhotep until the Late Period (Template:Circa). Wildung (1977)[3] explains the origin of this cult as a slow evolution of intellectuals' memory of Imhotep, from his death onward. Gardiner finds the cult of Imhotep during the New Kingdom (Template:Circa) sufficiently distinct from the usual offerings made to other commoners that the epithet "demigod" is likely justified to describe his veneration.[13]

The first references to the healing abilities of Imhotep occur from the Thirtieth Dynasty (Template:Circa) onward, some 2,200 years after his death.[10]Template:Rp[3]Template:Rp

Imhotep is among fewer than a dozen non-royal Egyptians who were deified after their deaths.[14][15] The center of his cult was in Memphis. The location of his tomb remains unknown, despite efforts to find it.[16]

Historicity

File:Imhotep JE 49889.png
Drawing of statue JE 49889 base inscription, which mentions Imhotep

Imhotep's historicity is confirmed by two contemporary inscriptions made during his lifetime on the base or pedestal of one of Djoser's statues (Cairo JE 49889) and also by a graffito on the enclosure wall surrounding Sekhemkhet's unfinished step pyramid.[17][18] The latter inscription suggests that Imhotep outlived Djoser by a few years and went on to serve in the construction of King Sekhemkhet's pyramid, which was abandoned due to this ruler's brief reign.[17]

Imhotep held the ambiguous title bity sensen or bity senwy, unique in ancient Egyptian history. This literally translates as "the King of Lower Egypt, the two brothers", and could be interpreted to mean that Imhotep might be twin brother of Pharaoh, which would explain his high position; with no known individuals with similar titles, however, interpretation remains highly speculative.[19] If not a blood relative, he might have been the King's confidant or childhood friend.[20]

Architecture and engineering

File:Sakkara, la pyramide LCCN2017656975.jpg
The step pyramid of Djoser
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Imhotep was one of the chief officials of the Pharaoh Djoser. Concurring with much later legends, Egyptologists credit him with the design and construction of the Pyramid of Djoser, a step pyramid at Saqqara built during the 3rd Dynasty.[21] He may also have been responsible for the first known use of stone columns to support a building.[22] Despite these later attestations, the pharaonic Egyptians themselves never credited Imhotep as the designer of the stepped pyramid, nor with the invention of stone architecture.[23]

Deification

God of medicine

Script error: No such module "Infobox".Template:Template otherScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".Template:Wikidata imageTemplate:Compare image with Wikidata Template:Ancient Egyptian religion Two thousand years after his death, Imhotep's status had risen to that of a god of medicine and healing. Eventually, Imhotep was equated with Thoth, the god of architecture, mathematics, and medicine, and patron of scribes: Imhotep's cult was merged with that of his own former tutelary god.

He was revered in the region of Thebes as the "brother" of Amenhotep, son of Hapu – another deified architect – in the temples dedicated to Thoth.[24][25]Template:Rp Because of his association with health, the Greeks equated Imhotep with Asklepios, their own god of health who also was a deified mortal.[26]

According to myth, Imhotep's mother was a mortal named Khereduankh, she too being eventually revered as a demi-goddess as the daughter of Banebdjedet.[27] Alternatively, since Imhotep was known as the "Son of Ptah",[25]Template:RpTemplate:Volume needed his mother was sometimes claimed to be Sekhmet, the patron of Upper Egypt whose consort was Ptah.

Post-Alexander period

The Upper Egyptian Famine Stela, which dates from the Ptolemaic period (305–30 BC), bears an inscription containing a legend about a famine lasting seven years during the reign of Djoser. Imhotep is credited with having been instrumental in ending it. One of his priests explained the connection between the god Khnum and the rise of the Nile to the Pharaoh, who then had a dream in which the Nile god spoke to him, promising to end the drought.[28]

A demotic papyrus from the temple of Tebtunis, dating to the 2nd century AD, preserves a long story about Imhotep.[29] The Pharaoh Djoser plays a prominent role in the story, which also mentions Imhotep's family; his father the god Ptah, his mother Khereduankh, and his younger sister Renpetneferet. At one point Djoser desires Renpetneferet, and Imhotep disguises himself and tries to rescue her. The text also refers to the royal tomb of Djoser. Part of the legend includes an anachronistic battle between the Old Kingdom and the Assyrian armies where Imhotep fights an Assyrian sorceress in a duel of magic.[30]

As an instigator of Egyptian culture, Imhotep's idealized image lasted well into the Roman period. In the Ptolemaic period, the Egyptian priest and historian Manetho credited him with inventing the method of a stone-dressed building during Djoser's reign, although he was not the first to actually build with stone. Stonewalling, flooring, lintels, and jambs had appeared sporadically during the Archaic Period, even though it is true that a building the size of the step pyramid made entirely out of stone had never before been constructed. Before Djoser, Kings were buried in mastaba tombs.

Medicine

Egyptologist James Peter Allen states that "The Greeks equated him with their own god of medicine, Asklepios, although ironically, there is no evidence that Imhotep himself was a physician."[31]

In his Pulitzer-prize winning “biography” of cancer – The Emperor of All Maladies – Siddhartha Mukherjee cites the oldest identified written diagnosis of cancer to Imhotep.[32] Unfortunately, the therapy Imhotep laconically prescribed for it would be equally recognizable for millennia: “There is none”.

In popular culture

File:An invocation to I-em-hetep, the Egyptian deity of medicine. Wellcome V0018149.jpg
Ernest Board: An invocation to I-em-hetep, the Egyptian deity of medicine, Template:Circa

Imhotep's name is shared by the antagonist of the 1932 film The Mummy, along with its 1999 remake.[33]

See also

References

Template:Reflist

Further reading

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External links

Template:Sister project

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Template:Ancient Egyptian medicineTemplate:Third Dynasty of Ancient EgyptTemplate:Ancient Egyptian religion footer

Template:Authority control

  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ a b c d Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Template:Full citation needed
  10. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Template:Full citation needed
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Adolf Erman: Die Märchen des Papyrus Westcar I. Einleitung und Commentar. In: Mitteilungen aus den Orientalischen Sammlungen. Heft V, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Berlin 1890. page 10 – 12.
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Troche, Julia (2021). Death, Power and Apotheosis in Ancient Egypt: The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Naunton, Chris (2018). Searching for the Lost Tombs of Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 44. Template:ISBN.
  20. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  32. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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