Motility: Difference between revisions
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[[File:Binucleated cell overlay.tiff|thumb|[[Cytokinesis|Cell division.]] All cells can be considered motile for having the ability to divide into two new daughter cells.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clegg |first=Chris |title=Edexcel biology for AS |date=2008 |publisher=Hodder Murray |location=London |isbn=978-0-340-96623-5 |page=111 |edition= 6th |chapter=3.2 Cells make organisms |quote=Division of the cytoplasm, known as cytokinesis, follows telophase. During division, cell organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts '''become distributed''' evenly between the cells. In animal cells, division is by '''in-tucking''' of the plasma membrane at the equator of the spindle, ''''pinching'''' the cytoplasm in half (Figure 3.15). In plant cells, the Golgi apparatus forms vesicles of new cell wall materials which '''collect along the line of the equator''' of the spindle, known as the cell plate. Here, the '''vesicles coalesce''' forming the new plasma membranes and cell walls between the two cells (Figure 3.17).}}</ref>]] | [[File:Binucleated cell overlay.tiff|thumb|[[Cytokinesis|Cell division.]] All cells can be considered motile for having the ability to divide into two new daughter cells.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clegg |first=Chris |title=Edexcel biology for AS |date=2008 |publisher=Hodder Murray |location=London |isbn=978-0-340-96623-5 |page=111 |edition= 6th |chapter=3.2 Cells make organisms |quote=Division of the cytoplasm, known as cytokinesis, follows telophase. During division, cell organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts '''become distributed''' evenly between the cells. In animal cells, division is by '''in-tucking''' of the plasma membrane at the equator of the spindle, ''''pinching'''' the cytoplasm in half (Figure 3.15). In plant cells, the Golgi apparatus forms vesicles of new cell wall materials which '''collect along the line of the equator''' of the spindle, known as the cell plate. Here, the '''vesicles coalesce''' forming the new plasma membranes and cell walls between the two cells (Figure 3.17).}}</ref>]] | ||
'''Motility''' is the ability of an [[organism]] to move independently using [[metabolism|metabolic energy]]. This biological concept encompasses movement at various levels, from whole organisms to cells and subcellular components. | '''Motility''' is the ability of an [[organism]] to move independently by using [[metabolism|metabolic energy]]. This biological concept encompasses movement at various levels, from whole organisms to cells and subcellular components. | ||
Motility is observed in animals, microorganisms, and even some plant structures, playing crucial roles in activities such as foraging, reproduction, and cellular functions. It is genetically determined but can be influenced by environmental factors. | Motility is observed in animals, microorganisms, and even some plant structures, playing crucial roles in activities such as foraging, reproduction, and cellular functions. It is genetically determined but can be influenced by environmental factors. | ||
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The term '''vagility''' means a lifeform that can be moved but only passively; sessile organisms including plants and fungi often have vagile parts such as fruits, seeds, or spores which may be dispersed by other agents such as wind, water, or other organisms.<ref name="nerd word">{{cite web |title=Botanical Nerd Word: Vagile |url=https://torontobotanicalgarden.ca/blog/word-of-the-week/botanical-nerd-word-vagile/ |website=torontobotanicalgarden.ca/ |date=7 November 2016 |access-date=29 September 2020}}</ref> | The term '''vagility''' means a lifeform that can be moved but only passively; sessile organisms including plants and fungi often have vagile parts such as fruits, seeds, or spores which may be dispersed by other agents such as wind, water, or other organisms.<ref name="nerd word">{{cite web |title=Botanical Nerd Word: Vagile |url=https://torontobotanicalgarden.ca/blog/word-of-the-week/botanical-nerd-word-vagile/ |website=torontobotanicalgarden.ca/ |date=7 November 2016 |access-date=29 September 2020}}</ref> | ||
Motility is [[genetic determinism|genetically determined]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Nüsslein-Volhard |first=Christiane |title=Coming to life: how genes drive development |date=2006 |publisher=Kales Press |location=San Diego, California |isbn=978- | Motility is [[genetic determinism|genetically determined]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Nüsslein-Volhard |first=Christiane |title=Coming to life: how genes drive development |date=2006 |publisher=Kales Press |location=San Diego, California |isbn=978-0-9798456-0-4 |page=75 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n19wkrmFJhwC&pg=PA73 |chapter=6 Form and Form Changes |quote=During development, '''any change in cell shape is preceded by a change in gene activity'''. The cell's origin and environment that determine which transcription factors are active within a cell, and, hence, which genes are turned on, and which proteins are produced.}}</ref> but may be affected by environmental factors such as [[toxin|toxins]]. The [[nervous system]] and musculoskeletal system provide the majority of mammalian motility.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fullick |first=Ann |title=Edexcel A2-level biology |date=2009 |publisher=Pearson |location=Harlow |isbn=978-1-4082-0602-7 |page=138 |chapter=7.1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Fullick |first1=Ann |title=Edexcel A2-level biology |date=2009 |publisher=Pearson |location=Harlow |isbn=978-1-4082-0602-7 |page=67 |chapter=6.1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=E. Cooper |first1=Chris |last2=C. Brown |first2=Guy |title=The inhibition of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase by the gases carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, hydrogen cyanide and hydrogen sulfide: chemical mechanism and physiological significance |journal=Journal of Bioenergetics and Biomembranes |date=October 2008 |volume=40 |issue=5 |pages=533–539 |doi=10.1007/s10863-008-9166-6 |pmid=18839291 |s2cid=13682333}}</ref> | ||
In addition to [[animal locomotion]], most [[animal]]s are motile, though some are vagile, described as having [[Animal locomotion#Passive locomotion|passive locomotion]]. Many [[bacteria]] and other [[microorganism]]s, including even some [[viruses]],<ref>{{cite journal |author1=P.H. Hamming |author2=N.J. Overeem|author3=J. Huskens|title=Influenza as a molecular walker |journal=Chemical Science |date=November 2019 |volume=11 |issue=1|pages=27–36 |doi=10.1039/C9SC05149J|pmid=32153750 |pmc=7021193 }}</ref> and [[multicellular organism]]s are motile; some mechanisms of [[fluid flow]] in multicellular organs and tissue are also considered instances of motility, as with [[Gastrointestinal physiology#Motility|gastrointestinal motility]]. Motile [[marine animal]]s are commonly called free-swimming,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krohn |first1=Martha M. |last2=Boisdair |first2=Daniel |title=Use of a Stereo-video System to Estimate the Energy Expenditure of Free-swimming Fish |journal=Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences |date=May 1994 |volume=51 |issue=5 |pages=1119–1127 |doi=10.1139/f94-111}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cooke |first1=Steven J. |last2=Thorstad |first2=Eva B. |last3=Hinch |first3=Scott G. |title=Activity and energetics of free-swimming fish: insights from electromyogram telemetry |journal=Fish and Fisheries |date=March 2004 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=21–52 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-2960.2004.00136.x |bibcode=2004AqFF....5...21C |quote=We encourage the continued development and refinement of devices for monitoring the activity and energetics of free-swimming fish}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carey |first1=Francis G. |last2=Lawson |first2=Kenneth D. |title=Temperature regulation in free-swimming bluefin tuna |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A |date=February 1973 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=375–392 |doi=10.1016/0300-9629(73)90490-8 |quote=Acoustic telemetry was used to monitor ambient water temperature and tissue temperature in free-swimming bluefin tuna (''Thunnus thynnus'' Linneaus {{sic}}, 1758) over periods ranging from a few hours to several days. |pmid=4145757}}</ref> and motile non-[[parasitic]] organisms are called free-living.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Parasites |url=https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/about.html |publisher=Centers for Disease Control |access-date=29 September 2020 |quote=Protozoa are microscopic, one-celled organisms that can be free-living or parasitic in nature.}}</ref> | In addition to [[animal locomotion]], most [[animal]]s are motile, though some are vagile, described as having [[Animal locomotion#Passive locomotion|passive locomotion]]. Many [[bacteria]] and other [[microorganism]]s, including even some [[viruses]],<ref>{{cite journal |author1=P.H. Hamming |author2=N.J. Overeem|author3=J. Huskens|title=Influenza as a molecular walker |journal=Chemical Science |date=November 2019 |volume=11 |issue=1|pages=27–36 |doi=10.1039/C9SC05149J|pmid=32153750 |pmc=7021193 }}</ref> and [[multicellular organism]]s are motile; some mechanisms of [[fluid flow]] in multicellular organs and tissue are also considered instances of motility, as with [[Gastrointestinal physiology#Motility|gastrointestinal motility]]. Motile [[marine animal]]s are commonly called free-swimming,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krohn |first1=Martha M. |last2=Boisdair |first2=Daniel |title=Use of a Stereo-video System to Estimate the Energy Expenditure of Free-swimming Fish |journal=Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences |date=May 1994 |volume=51 |issue=5 |pages=1119–1127 |doi=10.1139/f94-111}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cooke |first1=Steven J. |last2=Thorstad |first2=Eva B. |last3=Hinch |first3=Scott G. |title=Activity and energetics of free-swimming fish: insights from electromyogram telemetry |journal=Fish and Fisheries |date=March 2004 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=21–52 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-2960.2004.00136.x |bibcode=2004AqFF....5...21C |quote=We encourage the continued development and refinement of devices for monitoring the activity and energetics of free-swimming fish}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carey |first1=Francis G. |last2=Lawson |first2=Kenneth D. |title=Temperature regulation in free-swimming bluefin tuna |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A |date=February 1973 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=375–392 |doi=10.1016/0300-9629(73)90490-8 |quote=Acoustic telemetry was used to monitor ambient water temperature and tissue temperature in free-swimming bluefin tuna (''Thunnus thynnus'' Linneaus {{sic}}, 1758) over periods ranging from a few hours to several days. |pmid=4145757}}</ref> and motile non-[[parasitic]] organisms are called free-living.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Parasites |url=https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/about.html |publisher=Centers for Disease Control |access-date=29 September 2020 |quote=Protozoa are microscopic, one-celled organisms that can be free-living or parasitic in nature.}}</ref> | ||
Motility includes an organism's ability to move food through its [[gastrointestinal tract|digestive tract]]. There are two types of intestinal motility – [[peristalsis]] and [[segmentation contractions|segmentation]].<ref>{{EMedicine |article |179937 |Intestinal Motility Disorders}}</ref> This motility is brought about by the contraction of smooth muscles in the gastrointestinal tract which mix the luminal contents with various secretions (segmentation) and move contents through the digestive tract from the mouth to the anus (peristalsis).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Vander's Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function (14th ed). |author1=Wildmarier, Eric P. |author2=Raff, Hershel |author3=Strang, Kevin T. |publisher=McGraw Hill |year=2016 |location=New York, NY | | Motility includes an organism's ability to move food through its [[gastrointestinal tract|digestive tract]]. There are two types of intestinal motility – [[peristalsis]] and [[segmentation contractions|segmentation]].<ref>{{EMedicine |article |179937 |Intestinal Motility Disorders}}</ref> This motility is brought about by the contraction of smooth muscles in the gastrointestinal tract which mix the luminal contents with various secretions (segmentation) and move contents through the digestive tract from the mouth to the anus (peristalsis).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Vander's Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function (14th ed). |author1=Wildmarier, Eric P. |author2=Raff, Hershel |author3=Strang, Kevin T. |publisher=McGraw Hill |year=2016 |location=New York, NY |page=528 }}</ref> | ||
==Cellular level == | ==Cellular level == | ||
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At the cellular level, different modes of movement exist: | At the cellular level, different modes of movement exist: | ||
* [[amoeboid movement]], a crawling-like movement, which also makes swimming possible<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0027532 |pmid=22096590 |pmc=3212573 |title=Amoeboid Cells Use Protrusions for Walking, Gliding and Swimming |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=6 |issue=11 | | * [[amoeboid movement]], a crawling-like movement, which also makes swimming possible<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0027532 |pmid=22096590 |pmc=3212573 |title=Amoeboid Cells Use Protrusions for Walking, Gliding and Swimming |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=6 |issue=11 |article-number=e27532 |year=2011 |last1=Van Haastert |first1=Peter J. M. |bibcode=2011PLoSO...627532V |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1011900107 |pmid=20921382 |pmc=2973909 |title=On the swimming of Dictyostelium amoebae |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=107 |issue=44 |pages=E165–6 |year=2010 |last1=Bae |first1=A. J. |last2=Bodenschatz |first2=E. |bibcode=2010PNAS..107E.165B |arxiv=1008.3709 |doi-access=free }}</ref> | ||
* [[filopodia]], enabling movement of the [[axon]]al [[growth cone]]<ref name="Gilbert">{{cite book |last1=Gilbert |first1=Scott |title=Developmental biology |date=2006 |publisher=Sinauer Associates, Inc. Publishers |location=Sunderland, Mass. |isbn= | * [[filopodia]], enabling movement of the [[axon]]al [[growth cone]]<ref name="Gilbert">{{cite book |last1=Gilbert |first1=Scott |title=Developmental biology |date=2006 |publisher=Sinauer Associates, Inc. Publishers |location=Sunderland, Mass. |isbn=978-0-87893-250-4 |page=395 |edition= 8th.}}</ref> | ||
* [[flagellar motility]], a swimming-like motion (observed for example in [[spermatozoa]], propelled by the regular beat of their [[flagellum]], or the ''[[E. coli]]'' bacterium, which swims by rotating a helical prokaryotic flagellum) | * [[flagellar motility]], a swimming-like motion (observed for example in [[spermatozoa]], propelled by the regular beat of their [[flagellum]], or the ''[[E. coli]]'' bacterium, which swims by rotating a helical prokaryotic flagellum) | ||
* [[gliding motility]] | * [[gliding motility]] | ||
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<gallery> | <gallery> | ||
File:Muscular system.svg|Muscles give the ability for voluntary movement, and involuntary movement as in [[muscle spasm]]s and [[reflex]]es. At the level of the [[muscular system]], motility is a synonym for [[Animal locomotion|locomotion]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Parsons |first1=Richard |title=A2-level biology : the revision guide : exam board: Edexcel |date=2009 |publisher=Coordination Group Publications |location=Broughton-in-Furness |isbn=978-1-84762-264-8 |page=50 |chapter=Unit 5 Section 1 |quote='''Skeletal muscle is the type of muscle you use to move''', e.g. the '''bicep and triceps move the lower arm'''. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons. Ligaments attach bones to other bones, to hold them together. '''Skeletal muscles contract and relax to move bones at a joint.'''}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Vannini |first1=Vanio |last2=Jolly |first2=Richard T. |last3=Pogliani |first3=Giuliano |title=The new atlas of the human body : a full color guide to the structure of the body. |date=1994 |publisher=Chancellor Press |location=London |isbn=978-1-85152-984-1 |page=25 |quote='''The muscle mass is not just concerned with locomotion.''' It assists in the circulation of blood and protects and confines the visceral organs. It also provides the main shaping component of the human form.}}</ref> | File:Muscular system.svg|Muscles give the ability for voluntary movement, and involuntary movement as in [[muscle spasm]]s and [[reflex]]es. At the level of the [[muscular system]], motility is a synonym for [[Animal locomotion|locomotion]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Parsons |first1=Richard |title=A2-level biology : the revision guide: exam board: Edexcel |date=2009 |publisher=Coordination Group Publications |location=Broughton-in-Furness |isbn=978-1-84762-264-8 |page=50 |chapter=Unit 5 Section 1 |quote='''Skeletal muscle is the type of muscle you use to move''', e.g. the '''bicep and triceps move the lower arm'''. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons. Ligaments attach bones to other bones, to hold them together. '''Skeletal muscles contract and relax to move bones at a joint.'''}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Vannini |first1=Vanio |last2=Jolly |first2=Richard T. |last3=Pogliani |first3=Giuliano |title=The new atlas of the human body: a full color guide to the structure of the body. |date=1994 |publisher=Chancellor Press |location=London |isbn=978-1-85152-984-1 |page=25 |quote='''The muscle mass is not just concerned with locomotion.''' It assists in the circulation of blood and protects and confines the visceral organs. It also provides the main shaping component of the human form.}}</ref> | ||
File:Sperm-20051108.jpg|Most [[sperm]] have a single [[flagellum]] to help them swim. The [[cervix|cervical]], [[uterus|uterine]], and [[fallopian tubes|fallopian]] linings of the female [[reproductive system]] play a more important role in transporting sperm to [[Ovum|ova]]. | File:Sperm-20051108.jpg|Most [[sperm]] have a single [[flagellum]] to help them swim. The [[cervix|cervical]], [[uterus|uterine]], and [[fallopian tubes|fallopian]] linings of the female [[reproductive system]] play a more important role in transporting sperm to [[Ovum|ova]]. | ||
File:Cheetah chase.jpg|The record speeds cheetahs hold are owed in large to their muscle motility. | File:Cheetah chase.jpg|The record speeds cheetahs hold are owed in large to their muscle motility. | ||
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==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* [[Cell migration]] | * [[Cell migration]] | ||
* [[Metaboly]] | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
Latest revision as of 09:16, 14 October 2025
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Motility is the ability of an organism to move independently by using metabolic energy. This biological concept encompasses movement at various levels, from whole organisms to cells and subcellular components.
Motility is observed in animals, microorganisms, and even some plant structures, playing crucial roles in activities such as foraging, reproduction, and cellular functions. It is genetically determined but can be influenced by environmental factors.
In multicellular organisms, motility is facilitated by systems like the nervous and musculoskeletal systems, while at the cellular level, it involves mechanisms such as amoeboid movement and flagellar propulsion. These cellular movements can be directed by external stimuli, a phenomenon known as taxis. Examples include chemotaxis (movement along chemical gradients) and phototaxis (movement in response to light).
Motility also includes physiological processes like gastrointestinal movements and peristalsis. Understanding motility is important in biology, medicine, and ecology, as it impacts processes ranging from bacterial behavior to ecosystem dynamics.
Definitions
Motility, the ability of an organism to move independently, using metabolic energy,[2][3] can be contrasted with sessility, the state of organisms that do not possess a means of self-locomotion and are normally immobile. Motility differs from mobility, the ability of an object to be moved.
The term vagility means a lifeform that can be moved but only passively; sessile organisms including plants and fungi often have vagile parts such as fruits, seeds, or spores which may be dispersed by other agents such as wind, water, or other organisms.[4]
Motility is genetically determined,[5] but may be affected by environmental factors such as toxins. The nervous system and musculoskeletal system provide the majority of mammalian motility.[6][7][8]
In addition to animal locomotion, most animals are motile, though some are vagile, described as having passive locomotion. Many bacteria and other microorganisms, including even some viruses,[9] and multicellular organisms are motile; some mechanisms of fluid flow in multicellular organs and tissue are also considered instances of motility, as with gastrointestinal motility. Motile marine animals are commonly called free-swimming,[10][11][12] and motile non-parasitic organisms are called free-living.[13]
Motility includes an organism's ability to move food through its digestive tract. There are two types of intestinal motility – peristalsis and segmentation.[14] This motility is brought about by the contraction of smooth muscles in the gastrointestinal tract which mix the luminal contents with various secretions (segmentation) and move contents through the digestive tract from the mouth to the anus (peristalsis).[15]
Cellular level
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At the cellular level, different modes of movement exist:
- amoeboid movement, a crawling-like movement, which also makes swimming possible[17][18]
- filopodia, enabling movement of the axonal growth cone[19]
- flagellar motility, a swimming-like motion (observed for example in spermatozoa, propelled by the regular beat of their flagellum, or the E. coli bacterium, which swims by rotating a helical prokaryotic flagellum)
- gliding motility
- swarming motility
- twitching motility, a form of motility used by bacteria to crawl over surfaces using grappling hook-like filaments called type IV pili.
Many cells are not motile, for example Klebsiella pneumoniae and Shigella, or under specific circumstances such as Yersinia pestis at 37 °C.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
Movements
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Events perceived as movements can be directed:
- along a chemical gradient (see chemotaxis)
- along a temperature gradient (see thermotaxis)
- along a light gradient (see phototaxis)
- along a magnetic field line (see magnetotaxis)
- along an electric field (see galvanotaxis)
- along the direction of the gravitational force (see gravitaxis)
- along a rigidity gradient (see durotaxis)
- along a gradient of cell adhesion sites (see haptotaxis)
- along other cells or biopolymers
-
Muscles give the ability for voluntary movement, and involuntary movement as in muscle spasms and reflexes. At the level of the muscular system, motility is a synonym for locomotion.[20][21]
-
The record speeds cheetahs hold are owed in large to their muscle motility.
-
The shoots of plants move by growing towards light. This is known as positive phototropism. The roots grow away from light. This is known as negative phototropism.
-
Monocytes and macrophages of the immune system engulf Bacteria by extending their pseudopodia. Note that this cartoon is not an accurate representation of phagocytosis.
-
Motility at the sub-cellular level. This depicts translation - a motile nanoscale molecular process using protein dynamics.
![Muscles give the ability for voluntary movement, and involuntary movement as in muscle spasms and reflexes. At the level of the muscular system, motility is a synonym for locomotion.[20][21]](/wiki143/index.php?title=File:Muscular_system.svg){kind=link}
See also
References
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- ↑ -overview Intestinal Motility Disorders at eMedicine
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