Symphytum: Difference between revisions
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'''''Symphytum''''' is a [[genus]] of flowering plants in the borage family, [[Boraginaceae]], known by the common name '''comfrey''' (pronounced {{IPAc-en|"|k|V|m|f|r|i}}, from the Latin confervere to 'heal' or literally to 'boil together', referring to uses in ancient [[traditional medicine]]). | '''''Symphytum''''' is a [[genus]] of flowering plants in the borage family, [[Boraginaceae]], known by the common name '''comfrey''' (pronounced {{IPAc-en|"|k|V|m|f|r|i}}, from the Latin ''confervere'' to 'heal' or literally to 'boil together', referring to uses in ancient [[traditional medicine]]). | ||
''Symphytum'' is native to northern temperate regions of Asia | ''Symphytum'' is native to northern temperate regions of Europe and Asia, with a wide introduced distribution on both continents as well as the Americas.<ref name = powo/><ref name=WFO/> There are 59 recognized species.<ref name="WFO">{{cite web|publisher=The World Flora Online|date=18 July 2023|title= ''Symphytum'' L.|url= http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-4000037231|access-date=15 June 2024}}</ref> More than 150 species have been cataloged by botanists.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Plant Names Index |url=https://www.ipni.org/search?page=4&q=symphytum |access-date=2025-07-01 |website=www.ipni.org}}</ref> Some species and [[Hybrid plant|hybrids]], particularly ''[[Symphytum officinale|S. officinale]]'', ''[[Symphytum grandiflorum]]'', and [[Symphytum × uplandicum|''S.'' × ''uplandicum'']], are used in [[gardening]] and [[herbal medicine]]. Species in the genus ''Symphytum'' are different from ''[[Andersonglossum virginianum]]'', known as wild comfrey, which is another member of the borage family.<ref name="usda">{{PLANTS |id=CYVI |taxon=Cynoglossum virginianum |access-date=2018-11-20}}</ref> | ||
==Species== | ==Species== | ||
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Comfrey contains mixed [[phytochemical]]s in varying amounts, including [[allantoin]], [[mucilage]], [[saponin]]s, [[tannin]]s, [[pyrrolizidine alkaloid]]s, and [[inulin]], among others.<ref name="drugs">{{cite web |title=Comfrey |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/comfrey.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=22 May 2018 |date=17 July 2017}}</ref> Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are responsible for comfrey's [[hepatotoxicity|liver toxicity]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mei |first1=Nan |last2=Guo |first2=Lei |last3=Fu |first3=Peter P. |last4=Fuscoe |first4=James C. |last5=Luan |first5=Yang |last6=Chen |first6=Tao |title=Metabolism, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of Comfrey |journal=Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews |date=October 2010 |volume=13 |issue=7–8 |pages=509–526 |doi=10.1080/10937404.2010.509013 |pmid=21170807 |pmc=5894094|bibcode=2010JTEHB..13..509M }}</ref> which is associated with consuming this plant or its [[extract]]s.<ref name="drugs" /> In modern [[herbalism]], comfrey is most commonly used [[Topical medication|topically]].<ref name="drugs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grant |first1=G |last2=Nolan |first2=M |last3=Ellis |first3=N |title=A reappraisal of the Malaise Inventory. |journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology |date=July 1990 |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=170–8 |doi=10.1007/BF00782957 |pmid=2399473 |pmc=2399473}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Lucinda G. |title=Herbal Medicinals: Selected Clinical Considerations Focusing on Known or Potential Drug-Herb Interactions |journal=Archives of Internal Medicine |date=9 November 1998 |volume=158 |issue=20 |pages=2200–2211 |doi=10.1001/archinte.158.20.2200 |pmid=9818800 |doi-access=}}</ref> | Comfrey contains mixed [[phytochemical]]s in varying amounts, including [[allantoin]], [[mucilage]], [[saponin]]s, [[tannin]]s, [[pyrrolizidine alkaloid]]s, and [[inulin]], among others.<ref name="drugs">{{cite web |title=Comfrey |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/comfrey.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=22 May 2018 |date=17 July 2017}}</ref> Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are responsible for comfrey's [[hepatotoxicity|liver toxicity]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mei |first1=Nan |last2=Guo |first2=Lei |last3=Fu |first3=Peter P. |last4=Fuscoe |first4=James C. |last5=Luan |first5=Yang |last6=Chen |first6=Tao |title=Metabolism, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of Comfrey |journal=Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews |date=October 2010 |volume=13 |issue=7–8 |pages=509–526 |doi=10.1080/10937404.2010.509013 |pmid=21170807 |pmc=5894094|bibcode=2010JTEHB..13..509M }}</ref> which is associated with consuming this plant or its [[extract]]s.<ref name="drugs" /> In modern [[herbalism]], comfrey is most commonly used [[Topical medication|topically]].<ref name="drugs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grant |first1=G |last2=Nolan |first2=M |last3=Ellis |first3=N |title=A reappraisal of the Malaise Inventory. |journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology |date=July 1990 |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=170–8 |doi=10.1007/BF00782957 |pmid=2399473 |pmc=2399473}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Lucinda G. |title=Herbal Medicinals: Selected Clinical Considerations Focusing on Known or Potential Drug-Herb Interactions |journal=Archives of Internal Medicine |date=9 November 1998 |volume=158 |issue=20 |pages=2200–2211 |doi=10.1001/archinte.158.20.2200 |pmid=9818800 |doi-access=}}</ref> | ||
In 2001, the United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] issued a ban of comfrey products marketed for internal use, and a warning label for those intended for external use.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/RecallsOutbreaksEmergencies/SafetyAlertsAdvisories/ucm111219.htm |archive-url= | In 2001, the United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] issued a ban of comfrey products marketed for internal use, and a warning label for those intended for external use.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/RecallsOutbreaksEmergencies/SafetyAlertsAdvisories/ucm111219.htm |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20171114115012/https://www.fda.gov/Food/RecallsOutbreaksEmergencies/SafetyAlertsAdvisories/ucm111219.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2017-11-14 |title=FDA/CFSAN – FDA Advises Dietary Supplement Manufacturers to Remove Comfrey Products From the Market (archived copy) |website=[[Food and Drug Administration]] |access-date=2023-06-12 }}</ref> Use of comfrey is particularly discouraged during pregnancy and lactation, in infants, and in people with liver, kidney, or [[vascular disease|vascular]] diseases.<ref name="drugs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yeong |first1=Mee Ling |last2=Swinburn |first2=Boyd |last3=Kennedy |first3=Mark |last4=Nicholson |first4=Gordon |title=Hepatic veno-occlusive disease associated with comfrey ingestion |journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology |date=March 1990 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=211–214 |doi=10.1111/j.1440-1746.1990.tb01827.x |pmid=2103401 |s2cid=42511497}}</ref> | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
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[[Category:Symphytum| ]] | [[Category:Symphytum| ]] | ||
[[Category:Boraginaceae genera]] | [[Category:Boraginaceae genera]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]] | ||
Latest revision as of 09:50, 10 November 2025
Template:Short description Script error: No such module "about". Template:Automatic taxobox
Symphytum is a genus of flowering plants in the borage family, Boraginaceae, known by the common name comfrey (pronounced Template:IPAc-en, from the Latin confervere to 'heal' or literally to 'boil together', referring to uses in ancient traditional medicine).
Symphytum is native to northern temperate regions of Europe and Asia, with a wide introduced distribution on both continents as well as the Americas.[1][2] There are 59 recognized species.[2] More than 150 species have been cataloged by botanists.[3] Some species and hybrids, particularly S. officinale, Symphytum grandiflorum, and S. × uplandicum, are used in gardening and herbal medicine. Species in the genus Symphytum are different from Andersonglossum virginianum, known as wild comfrey, which is another member of the borage family.[4]
Species
27 species are accepted.[1]
- Symphytum aintabicum Hub.-Mor. & WickensScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum anatolicum Boiss.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum asperum Lepech.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – prickly comfrey, rough comfrey
- Symphytum × bicknellii Buckn.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum bornmuelleri Buckn.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum brachycalyx Boiss.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – Palestine comfrey
- Symphytum bulbosum – bulbous comfrey
- Symphytum carpaticum Yu.M.FrolovScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum caucasicum – Caucasian comfrey
- Symphytum circinale RunemarkScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum cordatum Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum creticum (Willd.) RunemarkScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum davisii WickensScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum × ferrariense C.Massal.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum grandiflorum DC.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – creeping comfrey
- Symphytum gussonei F.W.SchultzScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum hajastanum Gvin.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum ibiricum StevenScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – Iberian comfrey[5]
- Symphytum kurdicum Boiss. & Hausskn.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum longisetum Hub.-Mor. & WickensScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum × mosquense S.R.Majorov & D.D.SokoloffScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum officinale L.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – comfrey
- Symphytum orientale L.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – white comfrey
- Symphytum ottomanum Friv.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum podcumicum Yu.M.FrolovScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum pseudobulbosum Azn.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum savvalense KurttoScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum sylvaticum Boiss.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum tauricum Willd.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – Crimean comfrey
- Symphytum tuberosum L.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". – tuberous comfrey
- Symphytum × ullepitschii Wettst.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Symphytum × uplandicum NymanScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". (S. asperum × S. officinale, synonym: S. peregrinum) – Russian comfrey, healing herb, blackwort, bruisewort, wallwort, gum plant
- Symphytum × wettsteinii SennholzScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
Cultivation
The Russian comfrey 'Bocking 4' and 'Bocking 14' cultivars were developed during the 1950s by Lawrence D. Hills, the founder of the Henry Doubleday Research Association (the organic gardening organization itself named after Henry Doubleday, who first introduced Russian comfrey into Britain in the nineteenth century) following trials at Bocking, Essex.[6]
Propagation
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Bocking 4 and 14 are sterile, and therefore will not set seed (one of its advantages over other cultivars as it will not spread out of control); thus, it is propagated from root cuttings. The gardener can produce "offsets" from mature, strongly growing plants by driving a spade horizontally through the leaf clumps about Template:Cvt below the soil surface. This removes the crown, which can then be split into pieces. The original plant will quickly recover, and each piece can be replanted with the growing points just below the soil surface, and will quickly grow into new plants. Offsets can also be purchased by mail order from specialist nurseries in order to initially build up a stock of plants.[7]
Phytochemistry, folk medicine, and toxicity
Folk medicine names for comfrey include knitbone, boneset, and the derivation of its Latin name Symphytum (from the Greek symphytis, meaning growing together of bones, and phyton, a plant[8]Template:Source needed, referring to its ancient uses. Similarly, the common French name is Script error: No such module "Lang"., meaning to weld together. The tradition in different cultures and languages suggest a common belief in its usefulness for mending bones.
Comfrey contains mixed phytochemicals in varying amounts, including allantoin, mucilage, saponins, tannins, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, and inulin, among others.[9] Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are responsible for comfrey's liver toxicity,[10] which is associated with consuming this plant or its extracts.[9] In modern herbalism, comfrey is most commonly used topically.[9][11][12]
In 2001, the United States Food and Drug Administration issued a ban of comfrey products marketed for internal use, and a warning label for those intended for external use.[13] Use of comfrey is particularly discouraged during pregnancy and lactation, in infants, and in people with liver, kidney, or vascular diseases.[9][14]
References
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