Maximilian Kolbe: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 09:36, 17 November 2025

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Maximilian Maria Kolbe Template:Post-nominals (born Raymund Kolbe; Template:Langx;Template:Efn 8 January 1894 – 14 August 1941) was a Polish Conventual Franciscan friar, priest, missionary, and martyr. He volunteered to die in place of a man named Franciszek Gajowniczek in the German death camp of Auschwitz, located in German-occupied Poland during World War II. He had been active in promoting the veneration of the Immaculate Virgin Mary, founding and supervising the monastery of Niepokalanów near Warsaw, operating an amateur-radio station (SP3RN), and founding or running several other organizations and publications.

On 10 October 1982, Pope John Paul II canonized Kolbe and declared him a martyr of charity.^[1] The Catholic Church venerates him as the patron saint of amateur radio operators, drug addicts, political prisoners, families, journalists, and prisoners.^[2] John Paul II declared him "the patron of our difficult century".^[3]^[4] His feast day is 14 August, the day of his martyrdom.

Due to Kolbe's efforts to promote consecration and entrustment to Mary, he is known as an "apostle of consecration to Mary".^[5]

Early life

Raymund Kolbe was born on 8 January 1894 in Zduńska Wola, in the Kingdom of Poland, then a puppet state of the Russian Empire. He was the second son of weaver Julius Kolbe and midwife Maria Dąbrowska.^[6] His father was an ethnic German,^[7] and his mother was Polish. Raymund had four brothers, two of whom died of tuberculosis. Shortly after his birth, his family moved to Pabianice in Poland.^[6]

In 1903, when he was age nine, Kolbe experienced a vision of the Virgin Mary.^[8] He later described this incident:

That night I asked the Mother of God what was to become of me. Then she came to me holding two crowns, one white, the other red. She asked me if I was willing to accept either of these crowns. The white one meant that I should persevere in purity and the red that I should become a martyr. I said that I would accept them both.^[9]

Franciscan friar

In 1907, Kolbe and his elder brother Francis joined the Order of Friars Minor Conventual, known as the Conventual Franciscans.^[10] They enrolled at the Conventual Franciscan minor seminary in Lwów, in present-day Ukraine, later that year. In 1910, the Franciscans allowed Raymund Kolbe to enter the novitiate, where he chose a religious name, Maximilian. He professed his first vows to the order in 1911, and his final vows in 1914,^[11] adopting the additional name of Maria (Mary).^[6]

World War I

The Franciscans sent Kolbe to Rome in 1912 to attend the Pontifical Gregorian University. While he was studying at the Gregorian, World War I broke out in 1914. The next year, Kolbe's father, Julius, joined the Polish Legions, a unit in the Austro-Hungarian Army led by Józef Piłsudski. Julius was captured later that year by the Imperial Russian Army and was hanged as a traitor. The news of his father's execution traumatized Kolbe.^[12]

Kolbe earned a Doctor of Philosophy from the Gregorian in 1915. Kolbe then continued his studies at the Pontifical University of St. Bonaventure in Rome, where he earned a doctorate in theology in either 1919^[6] or 1922.^[13] During this period, he became active in the consecration and entrustment to Mary.

While in Rome, Kolbe witnessed vehement demonstrations by Freemasons against Pope Pius X and later Pope Benedict XV. According to Kolbe:

They placed the black standard of the "Giordano Brunisti" under the windows of the Vatican. On this standard the archangel, Michael, was depicted lying under the feet of the triumphant Lucifer. At the same time, countless pamphlets were distributed to the people in which the Holy Father (i.e., the Pope) was attacked shamefully.^[14]^[15]

To counter these demonstrations, Kolbe started the Militia Immaculatae (Army of the Immaculate One) on 16 October 1917. This was a group of Catholics who prayed for the conversion of sinners and enemies of the Catholic Church, specifically the Freemasons, through the intercession of the Virgin Mary.^[16]^[13] So serious was Kolbe about this goal that he added a line to the Miraculous Medal prayer:

O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who have recourse to thee. And for all those who do not have recourse to thee; especially the Freemasons and all those recommended to thee.^[17]

During this period, Kolbe proposed that the entire Franciscan Order be consecrated to the Immaculate by an additional vow. The idea was well received, but faced the hurdles of approval by the hierarchy of the order and the lawyers and was never adopted.^[18]

Priesthood

In 1918, Kolbe was ordained a priest.^[19] In July 1919, after the end of World War I, he returned to Poland to teach at the Kraków Seminary. The Second Polish Republic had won its independence from the Russian Republic in 1918. While in Kraków, Kolbe was active in promoting the veneration of the Immaculate Virgin Mary. He was strongly opposed to socialist and communist movements that had surfaced in Poland after the war.^[6]

In 1922, a recurrence of tuberculosis forced Kolbe to leave the seminary.^[6]^[13]^[19]

In January 1922, Kolbe founded the monthly periodical Rycerz Niepokalanej (Knight of the Immaculata), a devotional publication based on the French Le Messager du Coeur de Jesus (Messenger of the Heart of Jesus). From 1922 to 1926, he operated a religious publishing press in Grodno in present-day Belarus.^[6] As his activities grew in scope, in 1927 he founded a new Conventual Franciscan monastery at Niepokalanów near Warsaw. It became a major religious publishing centre.^[13]^[6]^[19] A junior seminary was opened there two years later.^[13]

Missionary work in Asia

During the 1920s, Kolbe encountered a group of Japanese Catholics studying in Poland. They lamented the lack of Catholic missionaries in Japan, prompting Kolbe to consider making a missionary trip to East Asia.^[20]^[6]^[19] Kolbe arrived in 1930 in Shanghai, then part of the Republic of China. However, his mission failed to gather a following there, prompting him to move to Japan.^[6] Kolbe soon acquired a basic literacy in Japanese.^[21] In 1931, Kolbe founded a Franciscan monastery, Mugenzai no Sono (Script error: No such module "Lang"., Template:Translation),Template:Efn outside Nagasaki.^[21] The monastery soon began publishing a Japanese edition of the Knight of the Immaculata.^[20]^[6]^[19]

In mid-1932, Kolbe left Japan for Malabar, then part of British India, where he founded another monastery.^[13]Template:Self-published source

Return to Poland

Meanwhile, in his absence the monastery at Niepokalanów began to publish a daily newspaper Mały Dziennik (the Small Diary), in alliance with the political group National Radical Camp (Obóz Narodowo Radykalny).^[13]^[6] This publication reached a circulation of 137,000, and nearly double that, 225,000, on weekends.^[22] Kolbe returned to Poland in 1933 for a general chapter of the order in Kraków.^[23]^[24] Kolbe returned to Japan and remained there until called back to attend the Provincial Chapter in Poland in 1936. There he was appointed guardian of Niepokalanów, thus precluding his return to Japan. In 1938, he started a radio station at Niepokalanów, Radio Niepokalanów.^[13]Template:Self-published source^[25] He held an amateur radio licence, with the call sign SP3RN.^[26]

World War II

The invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 by the German Army signaled the start of World War II. Kolbe was one of the few priests who remained in the monastery, where he organized a temporary hospital.^[6] After the Germans captured Niepokalanów, they arrested Kolbe on 19 September 1939.^[13]^[6] While in custody, Kolbe refused to sign the Deutsche Volksliste (German People's List). Doing so would have given him rights similar to those of German citizens in exchange for recognizing his ethnic German ancestry.^[27] The Germans released him on 8 December 1939.^[13]

Upon his release, he continued work at his friary where he and other friars provided shelter to refugees from Greater Poland, including 2,000 Jews whom he hid from Nazi persecution in the Niepokalanów friary.^[13]Template:Self-published source^[19]^[28]^[27]^[29] Kolbe received permission to continue publishing religious works, though significantly reduced in scope.^[27] The monastery continued to act as a publishing house, issuing a number of publications considered anti-Nazi.^[13]Template:Self-published source^[19]

Arrest and imprisonment

File:Todeszelle Pater Maximilian Kolbes, KZ Auschwitz I, Block 11.jpg

Maximilian Kolbe's prison cell in Block 11, Auschwitz concentration camp

On 17 February 1941, the Gestapo shut down the monastery and arrested Kolbe along with four others. He was incarcerated in the Pawiak prison in Warsaw.^[13] On 28 May 1941, the Germans transferred Kolbe to the Auschwitz concentration camp as prisoner 16670.^[30]

File:DBP 1973 771 Maximilian Kolbe.jpg

Kolbe, on a West German postage stamp, marked Auschwitz

Arriving at Auschwitz, Kolbe started ministering to his fellow prisoners. He was subjected to violent harassment by the guards, including beatings and lashings. On one occasion, sympathetic inmates smuggled the wounded Kolbe to a prisoner hospital.^[13]^[27]

Martyrdom at Auschwitz

At the end of July 1941, a prisoner successfully escaped from Auschwitz. In reprisal, the deputy camp commander, SS-Hauptsturmführer Karl Fritzsch, ordered guards to pick ten men to be starved to death in an underground bunker. When selected, Franciszek Gajowniczek, a Polish Catholic, cried out, "My wife! My children!" At that moment, Kolbe volunteered to take his place.^[10]

An assistant janitor later testified that Kolbe led the prisoners in prayer from his prison cell. Each time the guards checked on him, he was standing or kneeling in the middle of the cell, calmly looking at those who entered. After the group had been starved and deprived of water for two weeks, only Kolbe and three others remained alive.^[31]

Impatient to empty the bunker, the guards gave the four remaining prisoners lethal injections of carbolic acid. Kolbe is said to have raised his left arm and calmly waited for it.^[19] Maximilian Kolbe died on 14 August 1941. He was cremated on 15 August, which happened to be the feast day of the Assumption of Mary.^[27]

Canonization

The cause for Kolbe's beatification was opened at a local level on 3 June 1952.^[32] On 12 May 1955, Kolbe was recognized by Pope Pius XII as a servant of God.^[27] Kolbe was declared venerable by Pope Paul VI on 30 January 1969 and beatified as a confessor of the faith by the same pope in 1971. The miracles used to confirm Kolbe's beatification were the July 1948 cure of intestinal tuberculosis in Angela Testoni and the August 1950 cure of calcification of the arterial sclerosis of Francis Ranier. Both individuals attributed their cures to Kolbe's intercession by their prayers to him.^[13]Template:Self-published source

Kolbe was canonized by Pope John Paul II on 10 October 1982.^[13]^[33] The pope declared him as a confessor and a martyr of charity. Franciszek Gajowniczek, the man Kolbe saved at Auschwitz, survived the Holocaust and was present as a guest at both the beatification and the canonization ceremonies.^[34]

File:WestminsterAbbey-Martyrs.jpg

The statue of Kolbe (left) above the Great West Door of Westminster Abbey

The feast of Saint Maximilian Kolbe was added to the General Roman Calendar. He is one of 10 20th-century martyrs depicted in statues above the Great West Door of the Anglican Westminster Abbey in London.^[35]

Kolbe is remembered in the Calendar of saints of the Church of England with a commemoration on 14 August.^[36]

Controversies

Kolbe's recognition as a martyr generated some controversy within the Catholic Church.^[37] While his self-sacrifice at Auschwitz was considered saintly and heroic, he was not killed as a result of odium fidei ("hatred of the faith"), but as the result of his act of charity toward another man. Pope Paul VI recognized this distinction at Kolbe's beatification, naming him a confessor and a "martyr of charity". John Paul II, however, overruled the commission he had established (which agreed with the earlier assessment of heroic charity). John Paul II wanted to make the point that the Nazis' systematic hatred of whole categories of humanity was inherently also a hatred of religious (Christian) faith; he said that Kolbe's death equated to earlier examples of religious martyrdom.^[37]

Accusations of antisemitism

Kolbe's alleged antisemitism was a source of controversy in the 1980s in the aftermath of his canonization.^[38] In 1926, in the first issue of the monthly Knight of the Immaculate, Kolbe said he considered Freemasons "as an organized clique of fanatical Jews, who want to destroy the church."^[39] In a 1924 column, he cited the Protocols of the Elders of Zion as an "important proof" that "the founders of Zionism intended, in fact, the subjugation of the entire world", but that "not even all Jews know this".^[40] In a calendar that the publishing house of his organization, the Militia of the Immaculate, published in an edition of a million in 1939, Kolbe wrote,

Atheistic Communism seems to rage ever more wildly. Its origin can easily be located in that criminal mafia that calls itself Freemasonry, and the hand that is guiding all that toward a clear goal is international Zionism. Which should not be taken to mean that even among Jews one cannot find good people.^[41]

In his periodicals, Kolbe published articles about topics such as a Zionist plot for world domination.^[42]^[43]^[44] Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek criticized Kolbe's activities as "writing and organizing mass propaganda for the Catholic Church, with a clear anti-Semitic and anti-Masonic edge."^[43]^[45] In contrast, a writer for online EWTN stated that the "Jewish question played a very minor role in Kolbe's thought and work" and that "only thirty-one out of over 14,000 of his letters reference the Jewish people or Judaism, and most express a missionary zeal and concern for their spiritual welfare".^[46]

During World War II, Kolbe's monastery at Niepokalanów sheltered Jewish refugees.^[43] According to the testimony of a local, "When Jews came to me asking for a piece of bread, I asked Father Maximilian if I could give it to them in good conscience, and he answered me, 'Yes, it is necessary to do this because all men are our brothers.Template:'"^[46]

Relics

First-class relics of Kolbe exist, in the form of hairs from his head and beard, preserved without his knowledge by two friars at Niepokalanów who served as barbers in his friary between 1930 and 1941. Since his beatification in 1971, more than 1,000 such relics have been distributed around the world for public veneration.^[47]

Second-class relics, such as his personal effects, clothing and liturgical vestments, are preserved in his monastery cell and in a chapel at Niepokalanów, where they may be venerated by visitors.^[47]

Influence

File:Kościół MB Ostrobramskiej w Chrzanowie 13 (cropped).jpg

The first monument to Maximilian Kolbe in Poland in Chrzanów

Kolbe influenced his own Order of Conventual Franciscan friars, as the Militia Immaculatae movement had continued.^[48] In recent years, new religious and secular institutes have been founded, inspired by this spiritual way. Among these are the Missionaries of the Immaculate Mary – Fr. Kolbe, the Franciscan Friars of Mary Immaculate, and a parallel congregation of religious sisters and others. The Franciscan Friars of Mary Immaculate are taught basic Polish so they can sing the traditional hymns Kolbe sang in his native tongue.^[49]

According to the friars:

Our patron, St. Maximilian Kolbe, inspires us with his unique Mariology and apostolic mission, which is to bring all souls to the Sacred Heart of Christ through the Immaculate Heart of Mary, Christ's most pure, efficient, and holy instrument of evangelization – especially those most estranged from the Church.^[49]

File:Plum Edith Stein und Maximilian Kolbe.JPG

Stained-glass window by Alois Plum depicting Edith Stein and Maximilian Kolbe

Kolbe's views into Marian theology echo today through their influence on Vatican II.^[13] His image may be found in churches across Europe^[35] and throughout the world. Several churches in Poland are under his patronage, such as the Sanctuary of Saint Maxymilian in Zduńska Wola and the Church of Saint Maxymilian Kolbe in Szczecin.^[50]^[51] A museum, Museum of St. Maximilian Kolbe "There was a Man", was opened in Niepokalanów in 1998.^[52]

In 1963, Rolf Hochhuth published The Deputy, a play influenced by Kolbe's life, and dedicated to him.^[27] In 2000, the National Conference of Catholic Bishops (US) designated Marytown in Libertyville, Illinois home to a community of Conventual Franciscan friars, as the National Shrine of St. Maximilian Kolbe.^[53]

In 1991, Krzysztof Zanussi released a biographical Polish film about Kolbe, Template:Ill, with Edward Żentara as Kolbe. The Polish Senate declared 2011 to be the year of Kolbe.^[54]

File:Maksymilian kolbe pomnik park jordana krakow.jpg

Bust of Kolbe in Henryk Jordan Park in Kraków

In 2023, the Mexican production company Dos Corazones Films released the animated feature film Max, which recounts part of Kolbe's life.^[55]

The 2025 film Triumph of the Heart tells the story of Kolbe's final weeks in the Block 11 starvation chamber. The film was written and directed by Anthony D'Ambrosio and stars Marcin Kwasny.^[56]

Immaculata prayer

Kolbe composed the Immaculata prayer as a prayer of consecration to the Immaculata.^[57]

Notes

Template:Notelist

References

Template:Reflist

External links

Template:Sister project Template:Sister project

Patron Saints Index: Saint Maximilian Kolbe
Kolbe's Gift, a play by David Gooderson about Kolbe and his self-sacrifice in Auschwitz based on factual evidence and conversations with the late Józef Garliński
A Man Feared by the 21st Century: Saint Maximilian Kolbe from the Starvation Bunker in Auschwitz – a drama by Kazimierz Braun
Saint Maximilian Kolbe, a popular biography at Catholicism.org
Niepokalanów in English
Catholic Online, St. Maximilian Kolbe, Catholic Online.Inform-Inspire-Ignite.
St. Maximilian Kolbe Website
An "Insight" episode which mentions Maximilian Kolbe, who was portrayed by Werner Klemperer
Radio Kolbe, International Radio Group OM / SWL / BCL (Based in Italy)
National Shrine of St. Maximilian Kolbe - Libertyville, IL USA

Template:Catholic saints Template:Portal bar Template:Authority control

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|Polish Franciscan friar, martyr, and saint (1894–1941)}}
-{{Expand language|topic=|langcode=pl|otherarticle=Maksymilian Maria Kolbe|date=April 2025}}
+{{Expand Polish|topic=bio|Maksymilian Maria Kolbe|date=April 2025}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
 {{Infobox saint
@@ Line 19: / Line 19: @@
 | venerated_in        = {{ublist|[[Catholic Church]]|[[Palmarian Church]]|[[Anglican Communion]]|[[Lutheran Church]]}}
 | beatified_date      = 17 October 1971
-| beatified_place     = [[Vatican City]]
+| beatified_place     = [[Saint Peter's Square]], [[Vatican City]]
 | beatified_by        = [[Pope Paul VI]]
 | canonized_date      = 10 October 1982
-| canonized_place     = Vatican City
+| canonized_place     = Saint Peter's Square
 | canonized_by        = [[Pope John Paul II]]
 | major_shrine        = [[Basilica of the Omni-mediatress of All Glories]]
 | feast_day           = 14 August
-| attributes          = {{hlist | [[Religious habit|Franciscan habit]] | the ''[[Rycerz Niepokalanej]]'' | Nazi concentration prison uniform | [[Nazi concentration camp badge]] | [[crucifix]] | [[rosary]]}}
+| attributes          = {{hlist | [[Religious habit]] of a Friar Minor Conventual | the ''[[Rycerz Niepokalanej]]'' | Nazi concentration prison uniform| [[Nazi concentration camp badge]] | [[crucifix]] | [[rosary]]}}
 | patronage           = prisoners, drug addicts, families, journalists, [[amateur radio]] operators, [[pro-life movement]], people with eating disorders<ref>{{Cite web |title='I would like to take his place' – DW – 08/14/2016 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/remembering-kolbe-who-stood-up-to-nazis-at-auschwitz/a-19474219 |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=[[Deutsche Welle]] |language=en}}</ref><!-- WARNING: patronages MUST CORRESPOND to a reliable secondary source, per WP:RS -->
 | issues              =
@@ Line 45: / Line 45: @@
 ==Early life==
-Raymund Kolbe was born on 8 January 1894 in [[Zduńska Wola]], in the [[Congress Poland|Kingdom of Poland]], which was then part of the [[Russian Empire]]. He was the second son of [[Weaver (occupation)|weaver]] Julius Kolbe and [[Midwifery|midwife]] Maria Dąbrowska.<ref name="psb296"/> His father was an [[ethnic German]],<ref name="Strzelecka1984"/> and his mother was [[Polish people|Polish]]. He had four brothers, two of whom died of tuberculosis. Shortly after his birth, his family moved to [[Pabianice]].<ref name="psb296"/>
+Raymund Kolbe was born on 8 January 1894 in [[Zduńska Wola]], in the [[Congress Poland|Kingdom of Poland]], then a puppet state of the [[Russian Empire]]. He was the second son of [[Weaver (occupation)|weaver]] Julius Kolbe and [[Midwifery|midwife]] Maria Dąbrowska.<ref name="psb296"/> His father was an [[ethnic German]],<ref name="Strzelecka1984"/> and his mother was [[Polish people|Polish]]. Raymund had four brothers, two of whom died of [[tuberculosis]]. Shortly after his birth, his family moved to [[Pabianice]] in Poland.<ref name="psb296"/>
-Kolbe's life was strongly influenced in 1903, when he was nine, by a vision of the [[Virgin Mary]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dewar |first=Diana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39hsAAAAIAAJ |title=Saint of Auschwitz: The Story of Maximilian Kolbe |date=1982 |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-061901-5 |pages=115 |language=en}}</ref> He later described this incident:
+In 1903, when he was age nine, Kolbe experienced a vision of the [[Virgin Mary]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dewar |first=Diana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39hsAAAAIAAJ |title=Saint of Auschwitz: The Story of Maximilian Kolbe |date=1982 |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-061901-5 |pages=115 |language=en}}</ref> He later described this incident:
 <blockquote>That night I asked the Mother of God what was to become of me. Then she came to me holding two crowns, one white, the other red. She asked me if I was willing to accept either of these crowns. The white one meant that I should persevere in purity and the red that I should become a martyr. I said that I would accept them both.<ref name="ArmstrongPeterson2010-50"/></blockquote>
 ==Franciscan friar==
-In 1907, Kolbe and his elder brother Francis joined the [[Conventual Franciscans]].<ref name=catholic-pages/> They enrolled at the Conventual Franciscan minor seminary in [[Lviv|Lwów]] later that year. In 1910, Kolbe was allowed to enter the [[novitiate]], where he chose a religious name Maximilian. He professed his [[first vows]] in 1911, and [[final vows]] in 1914,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dewar |first=Diana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39hsAAAAIAAJ |title=Saint of Auschwitz: The Story of Maximilian Kolbe |date=1982 |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-061901-5 |pages=36 |language=en}}</ref> adopting the additional name of Maria (Mary).<ref name="psb296"/>
+In 1907, Kolbe and his elder brother Francis joined the [[Order of Friars Minor Conventual]], known as the Conventual Franciscans.<ref name=catholic-pages/> They enrolled at the Conventual Franciscan minor seminary in [[Lviv|Lwów]], in present-day Ukraine, later that year. In 1910, the Franciscans allowed Raymund Kolbe to enter the [[novitiate]], where he chose a religious name, Maximilian. He professed his [[first vows]] to the order in 1911, and his  [[final vows]] in 1914,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dewar |first=Diana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39hsAAAAIAAJ |title=Saint of Auschwitz: The Story of Maximilian Kolbe |date=1982 |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-061901-5 |pages=36 |language=en}}</ref> adopting the additional name of Maria (Mary).<ref name="psb296"/>
 ===World War I===
-Kolbe was sent to [[Rome]] in 1912, where he attended the [[Pontifical Gregorian University]]. He earned a [[doctor of philosophy|doctorate in philosophy]] in 1915 there. From 1915 he continued his studies at the [[Pontifical University of St. Bonaventure]], where he earned a [[doctor of theology|doctorate in theology]] in 1919<ref name="psb296"/> or 1922.<ref name="Patron"/> He was active in the [[consecration and entrustment to Mary]].
+The Franciscans sent Kolbe to [[Rome]] in 1912 to attend the [[Pontifical Gregorian University]]. While he was studying at the Gregorian, World War I broke out in 1914. The next year, Kolbe's father, Julius, joined the [[Polish Legions in World War I|Polish Legions]], a unit in the [[Austro-Hungarian Army]] led by [[Józef Piłsudski]]. Julius was captured later that year by the [[Imperial Russian Army]] and was hanged as a traitor. The news of his father's execution traumatized Kolbe.<ref>{{cite web |title=St Maximilian M Kolbe |url=https://livingspace.sacredspace.ie/f0814s/ |access-date=18 January 2021}}</ref>
-In the midst of these studies, [[World War I]] broke out. Maximilian's father, Julius Kolbe, joined [[Józef Piłsudski]]'s [[Polish Legions in World War I|Polish Legions]] fighting against the Russians for an independent Poland, still subjugated and still [[Partitions of Poland|divided among Prussia, Russia, and Austria]]. Julius Kolbe was caught and hanged as a traitor by the Russians at the age of 43, a traumatic event for young Maximilian.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://livingspace.sacredspace.ie/f0814s/ |title=St Maximilian M Kolbe | access-date=18 January 2021}}</ref>
+Kolbe earned a [[Doctor of Philosophy]] from the Gregorian in 1915. Kolbe then continued his studies at the [[Pontifical University of St. Bonaventure]] in Rome, where he earned a [[doctor of theology|doctorate in theology]] in either 1919<ref name="psb296" /> or 1922.<ref name="Patron" /> During this period, he became active in the [[consecration and entrustment to Mary]].
-During his time as a student, he witnessed vehement demonstrations against Popes [[Pope Pius X|Pius X]] and [[Benedict XV]] in Rome during an anniversary celebration by the [[Freemasons]]. According to Kolbe:
+While in Rome, Kolbe witnessed vehement demonstrations by [[Freemasons]] against [[Pope Pius X]] and later [[Pope Benedict XV]]. According to Kolbe:
-<blockquote>They placed the black standard of the "[[Giordano Bruno|Giordano Brunisti]]" under the windows of the [[Vatican City|Vatican]]. On this standard the archangel, [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]], was depicted lying under the feet of the triumphant Lucifer. At the same time, countless pamphlets were distributed to the people in which the Holy Father (i.e., the Pope) was attacked shamefully.<ref name="biosummary"/><ref name="anniversary"/></blockquote>
+<blockquote>They placed the black standard of the "[[Giordano Bruno|Giordano Brunisti]]" under the windows of the Vatican. On this standard the archangel, Michael, was depicted lying under the feet of the triumphant Lucifer. At the same time, countless pamphlets were distributed to the people in which the Holy Father (i.e., the Pope) was attacked shamefully.<ref name="biosummary"/><ref name="anniversary"/></blockquote>
-Soon afterward, on 16 October 1917, Kolbe organized the [[Militia Immaculatae]] (Army of the Immaculate One), to work for conversion of sinners and enemies of the Catholic Church, specifically the [[Freemason]]s, through the intercession of the Virgin Mary.<ref>''Mention Your Request Here: The Church's Most Powerful Novenas'' by Michael Dubruiel 2000 {{ISBN|0-87973-341-1}} page 63</ref><ref name="Patron"/> So serious was Kolbe about this goal that he added to the [[Miraculous Medal]] prayer:
+To counter these demonstrations, Kolbe started the ''[[Militia Immaculatae]]'' (Army of the Immaculate One) on 16 October 1917. This was a group of Catholics who prayed for the conversion of sinners and enemies of the Catholic Church, specifically the Freemasons, through the intercession of the Virgin Mary.<ref>''Mention Your Request Here: The Church's Most Powerful Novenas'' by Michael Dubruiel 2000 {{ISBN|0-87973-341-1}} page 63</ref><ref name="Patron"/> So serious was Kolbe about this goal that he added a line to the [[Miraculous Medal]] prayer:
 <blockquote>O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who have recourse to thee. ''And for all those who do not have recourse to thee; especially the Freemasons and all those recommended to thee''.<ref name="Daily Prayers"/></blockquote>
-Kolbe wanted the entire [[Franciscan Order]] consecrated to the Immaculate by an additional vow. The idea was well received, but faced the hurdles of approval by the hierarchy of the order and the lawyers, so it was never formally adopted during his life and was no longer pursued after his death.<ref>''Forget not love: the passion of Maximilian Kolbe'' by André Frossard 1991 {{ISBN|0-89870-275-5}} page 127</ref>
+During this period, Kolbe proposed that the entire [[Franciscan Order]] be consecrated to the Immaculate by an additional vow. The idea was well received, but faced the hurdles of approval by the hierarchy of the order and the lawyers and was never adopted.<ref>''Forget not love: the passion of Maximilian Kolbe'' by André Frossard 1991 {{ISBN|0-89870-275-5}} page 127</ref>
 ==Priesthood==
-In 1918, Kolbe was [[Holy Orders|ordained]] a priest.<ref name=ewtn/> In July 1919, he returned to [[Second Polish Republic|Poland, which was newly independent]]. He was active in promoting the veneration of the [[Immaculate Conception|Immaculate]] [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Virgin Mary]]. He was strongly opposed to [[leftist]] – in particular, [[communist]] – movements.<ref name="psb296"/>
+In 1918, Kolbe was [[Holy Orders|ordained]] a priest.<ref name=ewtn/> In July 1919, after the end of World War I, he returned to Poland to teach at the Kraków Seminary. The [[Second Polish Republic]] had won its independence from the [[Russian Republic]] in 1918. While in Kraków, Kolbe was active in promoting the veneration of the [[Immaculate Conception|Immaculate]] [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Virgin Mary]]. He was strongly opposed to socialist and [[communist]] movements that had surfaced in Poland after the war.<ref name="psb296"/>
-From 1919 to 1922, he taught at the Kraków Seminary.<ref name="Patron"/><ref name="psb296"/> Around that time, as well as earlier in Rome, he suffered from [[tuberculosis]], which forced him to take a lengthy leave of absence from his teaching duties. Before antibiotics, tuberculosis was often fatal, with rest and good nutrition the only treatment.<ref name="Patron"/><ref name=ewtn/>
+In 1922, a recurrence of tuberculosis forced Kolbe to leave the seminary.<ref name="psb296"/><ref name="Patron"/><ref name=ewtn/>
-In January 1922, Kolbe founded the monthly periodical ''[[Rycerz Niepokalanej]]'' (''Knight of the Immaculata''), a devotional publication based on the French ''Le Messager du Coeur de Jesus'' (''Messenger of the Heart of Jesus''). From 1922 to 1926, he operated a religious publishing press in [[Grodno]].<ref name="psb296"/> As his activities grew in scope, in 1927 he founded a new Conventual Franciscan monastery at [[Niepokalanów]] near Warsaw. It became a major religious publishing centre.<ref name="Patron"/><ref name="psb296"/><ref name=ewtn/> A junior seminary was opened there two years later.<ref name="Patron"/>
+In January 1922, Kolbe founded the monthly periodical ''[[Rycerz Niepokalanej]]'' (''Knight of the Immaculata''), a devotional publication based on the French ''Le Messager du Coeur de Jesus'' (''Messenger of the Heart of Jesus''). From 1922 to 1926, he operated a religious publishing press in [[Grodno]] in present-day Belarus.<ref name="psb296"/> As his activities grew in scope, in 1927 he founded a new Conventual Franciscan monastery at [[Niepokalanów]] near Warsaw. It became a major religious publishing centre.<ref name="Patron"/><ref name="psb296"/><ref name=ewtn/> A junior seminary was opened there two years later.<ref name="Patron"/>
 ===Missionary work in Asia===
-Between 1930 and 1936, Kolbe undertook a series of [[mission (Christian)|missions]] to [[East Asia]]. He arrived first in [[Shanghai]], China, but failed to gather a following there.<ref name="psb296"/> Next he moved to [[Japan]], where by 1931 he had founded a [[Order of Friars Minor Conventual|Franciscan monastery]], ''Mugenzai no Sono'' ({{lang|ja|無原罪の園}}, {{translation|Garden of the Immaculata}}),{{efn|After the friars learned that {{Transliteration|ja|mugenzai}} was a [[homonym]] for "endless sin," the monastery's name was later changed to {{lang|ja|Seibo no Kishi}} ({{translation|Knights of the Blessed Mother}}).<ref name=Doak />}} on the outskirts of [[Nagasaki]].<ref name=Doak>{{cite web | last=Doak | first=Kevin | title=St. Maximilian Kolbe in Japan | website=Benedict XVI Institute | date=31 July 2021 | url=https://benedictinstitute.org/2021/07/st-maximilian-kolbe-in-japan/ | access-date=3 April 2025}}</ref> Because of its location within the hills outlying the city, the monastery was spared from destruction during the United States' [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing of Nagasaki]].<ref name="guardian"/><ref name=Doak />
+During the 1920s, Kolbe encountered a group of Japanese Catholics studying in Poland. They lamented the lack of Catholic missionaries in Japan, prompting Kolbe to consider making a missionary trip to East Asia.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="psb296" /><ref name="ewtn" /> Kolbe arrived in 1930 in [[Shanghai]], then part of the Republic of China. However, his mission failed to gather a following there, prompting him to move to Japan.<ref name="psb296" /> Kolbe soon acquired a basic literacy in Japanese.<ref name="Doak" /> In 1931, Kolbe founded a [[Order of Friars Minor Conventual|Franciscan monastery]], ''Mugenzai no Sono'' ({{lang|ja|無原罪の園}}, {{translation|Garden of the Immaculata}}),{{efn|After the friars learned that {{Transliteration|ja|mugenzai}} was a [[homonym]] for "endless sin", the monastery's name was changed to {{lang|ja|Seibo no Kishi}} ({{translation|Knights of the Blessed Mother}}).<ref name=Doak />}} outside [[Nagasaki]].<ref name=Doak>{{cite web | last=Doak | first=Kevin | title=St. Maximilian Kolbe in Japan | website=Benedict XVI Institute | date=31 July 2021 | url=https://benedictinstitute.org/2021/07/st-maximilian-kolbe-in-japan/ | access-date=3 April 2025}}</ref> The monastery soon began publishing a Japanese edition of the ''Knight of the Immaculata''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Dewar |first=Diana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39hsAAAAIAAJ |title=Saint of Auschwitz: The Story of Maximilian Kolbe |date=1982 |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-061901-5 |pages=70 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="psb296" /><ref name="ewtn" />
-Kolbe was persuaded to work in Japan by a group of Japanese students he encountered in Europe, who lamented the need for missionaries in their home country. After arriving in Japan, Kolbe acquired some facility in the local language, including basic literacy;<ref name=Doak /> the monastery soon began publishing a Japanese edition of the ''Knight of the Immaculata''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dewar |first=Diana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39hsAAAAIAAJ |title=Saint of Auschwitz: The Story of Maximilian Kolbe |date=1982 |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-061901-5 |pages=70 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="psb296"/><ref name=ewtn/>
+In mid-1932, Kolbe left Japan for [[Malabar region|Malabar]], then part of [[British India]], where he founded another monastery.<ref name="Patron" />{{self-published source|date=October 2022}}
-In mid-1932, Kolbe left Japan for [[Malabar region|Malabar]], India, where he founded another monastery, which has since closed.<ref name="Patron"/>{{self-published source|date=October 2022}}
 ===Return to Poland===
-Meanwhile, in his absence the monastery at Niepokalanów began to publish a daily newspaper ''Mały Dziennik'' (''the Small Diary''), in alliance with the political group [[National Radical Camp (1934)|National Radical Camp]] (''Obóz Narodowo Radykalny'').<ref name="Patron"/><ref name="psb296"/> This publication reached a circulation of 137,000, and nearly double that, 225,000, on weekends.<ref name="Media katolickie w III Rzeczypospolitej (1989–2009)"/> Kolbe returned to Poland in 1933 for a general chapter of the order in [[Kraków]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Elaine Murray Stone|title=Maximilian Kolbe|url=https://archive.org/details/maximiliankolbes00elai|url-access=registration|quote=city mary india kolbe.|publisher=Paulist Press|place=Nueva York|year=1997|page=[https://archive.org/details/maximiliankolbes00elai/page/53 53]|isbn=0-8091-6637-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Francis Mary Kalvelage|title=Kolbe: Saint of the Immaculata|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbruAQAAQBAJ&q=Mugenzai+no+Sono+1931&pg=PA62|pages=62–63|year=2001|publisher=Academy of the Immaculate |isbn=9780898708851}}</ref> Kolbe returned to Japan and remained there until called back to attend the Provincial Chapter in Poland in 1936. There he was appointed guardian of Niepokalanów, thus precluding his return to Japan.<!-- <ref name=|author=Claude R. Foster|title= Mary's Knight>--> Two years later, in 1938, he started a radio station at Niepokalanów, ''Radio Niepokalanów''.<ref name="Patron"/>{{self-published source|date=October 2022}}<ref name="Historia"/> He held an [[amateur radio]] licence, with the call sign SP3RN.<ref name="qrz"/>
+Meanwhile, in his absence the monastery at Niepokalanów began to publish a daily newspaper ''Mały Dziennik'' (''the Small Diary''), in alliance with the political group [[National Radical Camp (1934)|National Radical Camp]] (''Obóz Narodowo Radykalny'').<ref name="Patron"/><ref name="psb296"/> This publication reached a circulation of 137,000, and nearly double that, 225,000, on weekends.<ref name="Media katolickie w III Rzeczypospolitej (1989–2009)"/> Kolbe returned to Poland in 1933 for a general chapter of the order in [[Kraków]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Elaine Murray Stone|title=Maximilian Kolbe|url=https://archive.org/details/maximiliankolbes00elai|url-access=registration|quote=city mary india kolbe.|publisher=Paulist Press|place=Nueva York|year=1997|page=[https://archive.org/details/maximiliankolbes00elai/page/53 53]|isbn=0-8091-6637-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Francis Mary Kalvelage|title=Kolbe: Saint of the Immaculata|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbruAQAAQBAJ&q=Mugenzai+no+Sono+1931&pg=PA62|pages=62–63|year=2001|publisher=Academy of the Immaculate |isbn=9780898708851}}</ref> Kolbe returned to Japan and remained there until called back to attend the Provincial Chapter in Poland in 1936. There he was appointed guardian of Niepokalanów, thus precluding his return to Japan.<!-- <ref name=|author=Claude R. Foster|title= Mary's Knight>--> In 1938, he started a radio station at Niepokalanów, ''Radio Niepokalanów''.<ref name="Patron"/>{{self-published source|date=October 2022}}<ref name="Historia"/> He held an [[amateur radio]] licence, with the call sign SP3RN.<ref name="qrz"/>
 ==World War II==
-After the outbreak of [[World War II]], Kolbe was one of the few friars who remained in the monastery, where he organized a temporary hospital.<ref name="psb296"/> After the town was captured by the Germans, they arrested him on 19 September 1939; he was later released on 8 December.<ref name="Patron"/><ref name="psb296"/> He refused to sign the [[Deutsche Volksliste]], which would have given him rights similar to those of German citizens in exchange for recognizing his ethnic German ancestry.<ref name="psb297"/> Upon his release he continued work at his friary where he and other friars provided shelter to refugees from [[Greater Poland]] including 2,000 Jews whom he hid from Nazi persecution in the Niepokalanów friary.<ref name="Patron"/>{{self-published source|date=October 2022}}<ref name=ewtn/><ref name=guardian/><ref name="psb297"/><ref name="Kolbe, Saint of Auschwitz"/> Kolbe received permission to continue publishing religious works, though significantly reduced in scope.<ref name="psb297"/> The monastery continued to act as a publishing house, issuing a number of publications considered anti-Nazi.<ref name="Patron"/>{{self-published source|date=October 2022}}<ref name=ewtn/>
+The [[invasion of Poland]] on 1 September 1939 by the German Army signaled the start of [[World War II]]. Kolbe was one of the few priests who remained in the monastery, where he organized a temporary hospital.<ref name="psb296"/> After the Germans captured Niepokalanów, they arrested Kolbe on 19 September 1939.<ref name="Patron"/><ref name="psb296"/> While in custody, Kolbe refused to sign the [[Deutsche Volksliste]] (German People's List). Doing so would have given him rights similar to those of German citizens in exchange for recognizing his ethnic German ancestry.<ref name="psb297"/> The Germans released him on 8 December 1939.<ref name="Patron" />
+Upon his release, he continued work at his friary where he and other friars provided shelter to refugees from [[Greater Poland]], including 2,000 Jews whom he hid from Nazi persecution in the Niepokalanów friary.<ref name="Patron" />{{self-published source|date=October 2022}}<ref name="ewtn" /><ref name="guardian" /><ref name="psb297" /><ref name="Kolbe, Saint of Auschwitz" /> Kolbe received permission to continue publishing religious works, though significantly reduced in scope.<ref name="psb297" /> The monastery continued to act as a publishing house, issuing a number of publications considered anti-Nazi.<ref name="Patron" />{{self-published source|date=October 2022}}<ref name="ewtn" />
 ==Arrest and imprisonment==
-[[File:Todeszelle Pater Maximilian Kolbes, KZ Auschwitz I, Block 11.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Maximilian Kolbe's prison cell in [[Block 11]], Auschwitz concentration camp]]
+[[File:Todeszelle Pater Maximilian Kolbes, KZ Auschwitz I, Block 11.jpg|thumb|upright|Maximilian Kolbe's prison cell in [[Block 11]], Auschwitz concentration camp]]
-On 17 February 1941, the monastery was shut down by the German authorities. That day Kolbe and four others were arrested by the [[Gestapo]] and imprisoned in the [[Pawiak]] prison.<ref name="Patron"/> On 28 May, he was transferred to [[Auschwitz]] as prisoner 16670.<ref name="Sixty-ninth Anniversary of the Death of St. Maximilian Kolbe"/>
+On 17 February 1941, the [[Gestapo]] shut down the monastery and arrested Kolbe along with four others. He was incarcerated in the [[Pawiak]] prison in [[Warsaw]].<ref name="Patron"/> On 28 May 1941, the Germans transferred Kolbe to the [[Auschwitz]] concentration camp as prisoner 16670.<ref name="Sixty-ninth Anniversary of the Death of St. Maximilian Kolbe"/>
 [[File:DBP 1973 771 Maximilian Kolbe.jpg|thumb|right|Kolbe, on a West German postage stamp, marked [[Auschwitz]]]]<!--why is his death date given as the 15th?-->
-Continuing to act as a priest, Kolbe was subjected to violent harassment, including beatings and lashings. Once, he was smuggled to a prison hospital by friendly inmates.<ref name="Patron"/><ref name="psb297"/>
+Arriving at Auschwitz, Kolbe started ministering to his fellow prisoners. He was subjected to violent harassment by the guards, including beatings and lashings. On one occasion, sympathetic inmates smuggled the wounded Kolbe to a prisoner hospital.<ref name="Patron"/><ref name="psb297"/>
 == Martyrdom at Auschwitz==
-At the end of July 1941, a prisoner escaped from the camp, prompting the deputy camp commander, ''[[Schutzstaffel|SS]]-[[Hauptsturmführer]]'' [[Karl Fritzsch]], to pick ten men to be starved to death in an underground bunker to deter further escape attempts. When one of the selected men, [[Franciszek Gajowniczek]] (also a Polish Catholic), cried out, "My wife! My children!" Kolbe volunteered to take his place.<ref name="catholic-pages"/>
+At the end of July 1941, a prisoner successfully escaped from Auschwitz. In reprisal, the deputy camp commander, ''[[Schutzstaffel|SS]]-[[Hauptsturmführer]]'' [[Karl Fritzsch]], ordered guards to pick ten men to be starved to death in an underground bunker. When selected, [[Franciszek Gajowniczek]], a Polish Catholic, cried out, "My wife! My children!" At that moment, Kolbe volunteered to take his place.<ref name="catholic-pages"/>
-According to an eyewitness, who was an assistant janitor at that time, in his prison cell Kolbe led the prisoners in prayer. Each time the guards checked on him, he was standing or kneeling in the middle of the cell and looking calmly at those who entered. After they had been starved and deprived of water for two weeks, only Kolbe and three others remained alive.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zdzisław |first=Kijas |date=2020 |title=The Process of Beatification and Canonization of Maximilian Maria Kolbe |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1077602 |journal=Studia Elbląskie |language=English |issue=21 |pages=199–214 |issn=1507-9058}}</ref>
+An assistant janitor later testified that Kolbe led the prisoners in prayer from his prison cell. Each time the guards checked on him, he was standing or kneeling in the middle of the cell, calmly looking at those who entered. After the group had been starved and deprived of water for two weeks, only Kolbe and three others remained alive.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zdzisław |first=Kijas |date=2020 |title=The Process of Beatification and Canonization of Maximilian Maria Kolbe |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1077602 |journal=Studia Elbląskie |language=English |issue=21 |pages=199–214 |issn=1507-9058}}</ref>
-The guards wanted the bunker emptied, so they gave the four remaining prisoners lethal injections of [[phenol|carbolic acid]]. Kolbe is said to have raised his left arm and calmly waited for the deadly injection.<ref name="ewtn"/> He died on 14 August 1941. He was cremated on 15 August, the [[calendar of saints|feast day]] of the [[Assumption of Mary]].<ref name="psb297"/>
+Impatient to empty the bunker, the guards gave the four remaining prisoners lethal injections of [[phenol|carbolic acid]]. Kolbe is said to have raised his left arm and calmly waited for it.<ref name="ewtn"/> Maximilian Kolbe died on 14 August 1941. He was cremated on 15 August, which happened to be the [[calendar of saints|feast day]] of the [[Assumption of Mary]].<ref name="psb297"/>
 ==Canonization==
-The cause for Kolbe's beatification was opened at a local level on 3 June 1952.<ref name="index">{{cite book |title=Index ac status causarum beatificationis servorum dei et canonizationis beatorum |date=January 1953 |publisher=Typis polyglottis vaticanis |page=173 |language=Latin}}</ref> On 12 May 1955 Kolbe was recognized by the [[Holy See]] as a [[Servant of God]].<ref name="psb297"/> Kolbe was declared [[venerable]] by [[Pope Paul VI]] on 30 January 1969, [[beatification|beatified]] as a [[Confessor of the Faith]] by the same Pope in 1971, and [[canonized]] as a [[saint]] by [[Pope John Paul II]] on 10 October 1982.<ref name="Patron"/><ref name="Plunka2012"/> Upon canonization, the Pope declared Maximilian Kolbe as a confessor and a [[martyr]] of charity. The miracles that were used to confirm his beatification were the July 1948 cure of intestinal tuberculosis in Angela Testoni and in August 1950, the cure of calcification of the arteries/sclerosis of Francis Ranier; both attributed to Kolbe's intercession by their prayers to him.<ref name="Patron"/>{{self-published source|date=December 2022}}
+The cause for Kolbe's beatification was opened at a local level on 3 June 1952.<ref name="index">{{cite book |title=Index ac status causarum beatificationis servorum dei et canonizationis beatorum |date=January 1953 |publisher=Typis polyglottis vaticanis |page=173 |language=Latin}}</ref> On 12 May 1955, Kolbe was recognized by Pope Pius XII as a [[Servant of God|servant of God]].<ref name="psb297" /> Kolbe was declared [[venerable]] by [[Pope Paul VI]] on 30 January 1969 and [[beatification|beatified]] as a [[Confessor of the Faith|confessor of the faith]] by the same pope in 1971. The miracles used to confirm Kolbe's beatification were the July 1948 cure of intestinal tuberculosis in Angela Testoni and the August 1950 cure of calcification of the [[arterial sclerosis]] of Francis Ranier. Both individuals attributed their cures to Kolbe's intercession by their prayers to him.<ref name="Patron" />{{self-published source|date=December 2022}}
-Franciszek Gajowniczek, the man Kolbe saved at Auschwitz, survived the [[Holocaust]] and was present as a guest at both the beatification and the canonization ceremonies.<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Binder |url= https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1995/03/15/923895.html?pageNumber=39 |title=Franciszek Gajowniczek Dead; Priest Died for Him at Auschwitz |newspaper=The New York Times |page=39 |date=15 March 1995 |accessdate=2 July 2013}}</ref>
+Kolbe was [[canonized]] by [[Pope John Paul II]] on 10 October 1982.<ref name="Patron" /><ref name="Plunka2012" /> The pope declared him as a confessor and a [[martyr]] of charity. Franciszek Gajowniczek, the man Kolbe saved at Auschwitz, survived the [[Holocaust]] and was present as a guest at both the beatification and the canonization ceremonies.<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Binder |url= https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1995/03/15/923895.html?pageNumber=39 |title=Franciszek Gajowniczek Dead; Priest Died for Him at Auschwitz |newspaper=The New York Times |page=39 |date=15 March 1995 |accessdate=2 July 2013}}</ref>
 [[File:WestminsterAbbey-Martyrs.jpg|thumb|right|The statue of Kolbe (left) above the Great West Door of Westminster Abbey]]
-After his canonisation, a feast day for Maximilian Kolbe was added to the [[General Roman Calendar]]. He is one of ten 20th-century martyrs who are depicted in statues above the Great West Door of [[Anglican]] [[Westminster Abbey]], London.<ref name="westminster"/>
+The feast of Saint Maximilian Kolbe was added to the [[General Roman Calendar]]. He is one of 10 20th-century martyrs depicted in statues above the Great West Door of the Anglican [[Westminster Abbey]] in London.<ref name="westminster"/>
-Maximilian Kolbe is [[Calendar of saints (Church of England)|remembered]] in the [[Church of England]] with a [[Commemoration (observance)|commemoration]] on 14 August.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Calendar|url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar|access-date=2021-04-08|website=The Church of England|language=en}}</ref>
+Kolbe is remembered in the [[Calendar of saints (Church of England)|Calendar of saints]] of the [[Church of England]] with a [[Commemoration (observance)|commemoration]] on 14 August.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Calendar|url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar|access-date=2021-04-08|website=The Church of England|language=en}}</ref>
 ===Controversies===
-Kolbe's recognition as a [[Christian martyrs|Christian martyr]] generated some controversy within the Catholic Church.<ref name="peterson"/> While his self-sacrifice at Auschwitz was considered saintly and heroic, he was not killed out of ''odium fidei'' (hatred of the faith), but as the result of his act of [[Charity (virtue)|Christian charity]] toward another man. [[Pope Paul VI]] recognized this distinction at Kolbe's beatification, naming him a Confessor and giving him the unofficial title "martyr of charity". Pope John Paul II, however, overruled the commission he had established (which agreed with the earlier assessment of heroic charity). John Paul II wanted to make the point that the Nazis' systematic hatred of whole categories of humanity was inherently also a hatred of religious (Christian) faith; he said that Kolbe's death equated to earlier examples of religious martyrdom.<ref name=peterson/>
+Kolbe's recognition as a [[Christian martyrs|martyr]] generated some controversy within the Catholic Church.<ref name="peterson"/> While his self-sacrifice at Auschwitz was considered saintly and heroic, he was not killed as a result of ''[[In odium fidei|odium fidei]]'' ("hatred of the faith"), but as the result of his act of [[Charity (virtue)|charity]] toward another man. [[Pope Paul VI]] recognized this distinction at Kolbe's beatification, naming him a confessor and a "martyr of charity". John Paul II, however, overruled the commission he had established (which agreed with the earlier assessment of heroic charity). John Paul II wanted to make the point that the Nazis' systematic hatred of whole categories of humanity was inherently also a hatred of religious (Christian) faith; he said that Kolbe's death equated to earlier examples of religious martyrdom.<ref name=peterson/>
 ====Accusations of antisemitism====
-Kolbe's alleged antisemitism was a source of controversy in the 1980s in the aftermath of his [[canonization]].<ref name="Yallop2012"/> In 1926, in the first issue of the monthly ''Knight of the Immaculate'', Kolbe said he considered Freemasons "as an organized clique of fanatical Jews, who want to destroy the church."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1982/12/05/mass-is-set-for-the-saint-of-auschwitz/18a930db-756e-4f7c-a484-399305713a29/ |title=Mass Is Set For the Saint of Auschwitz |author=Joyce Wadler |date=5 December 1982 |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> In a 1924 column, he cited the ''[[Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' as an "important proof" that "the founders of Zionism intended, in fact, the subjugation of the entire world", but that "not even all Jews know this".<ref>{{cite web |title=Czy prawda się zmienia? |url=https://pisma.niepokalanow.pl/967-czy-prawda-sie-zmienia}}</ref> In a calendar that the publishing house of his organization, the Militia of the Immaculate, published in an edition of a million in 1939, Kolbe wrote, "Atheistic Communism seems to rage ever more wildly. Its origin can easily be located in that criminal mafia that calls itself Freemasonry, and the hand that is guiding all that toward a clear goal is international Zionism. Which should not be taken to mean that even among Jews one cannot find good people."<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The New York Times |author=Henry Kamm |date=19 November 1982 |title=Saint Charged with Bigotry; Clerics Say No |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/11/19/world/saint-charged-with-bigotry-clerics-say-no.html}}</ref> In his periodicals he had published articles about topics such as a [[Zionism|Zionist]] plot for world domination.<ref name="Dershowitz1992"/><ref name="jta"/><ref name="Michael2008"/> Slovenian philosopher [[Slavoj Žižek]] criticized Kolbe's activities as "writing and organizing mass propaganda for the Catholic Church, with a clear anti-Semitic and anti-Masonic edge."<ref name=jta/><ref name="Zizek2012"/> In contrast, a writer for online [[EWTN]] claimed that the "Jewish question played a very minor role in Kolbe's thought and work" and that "only thirty-one out of over 14,000 of his letters reference the Jewish people or Judaism, and most express a missionary zeal and concern for their spiritual welfare".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/was-st-maximilian-kolbe-an-antisemite-1068 |title=Was St. Maximilian Kolbe an Anti-Semite? |author=Becky Ready |newspaper=[[EWTN]]}}</ref>
+Kolbe's alleged antisemitism was a source of controversy in the 1980s in the aftermath of his [[canonization]].<ref name="Yallop2012"/> In 1926, in the first issue of the monthly ''Knight of the Immaculate'', Kolbe said he considered Freemasons "as an organized clique of fanatical Jews, who want to destroy the church."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1982/12/05/mass-is-set-for-the-saint-of-auschwitz/18a930db-756e-4f7c-a484-399305713a29/ |title=Mass Is Set For the Saint of Auschwitz |author=Joyce Wadler |date=5 December 1982 |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> In a 1924 column, he cited the ''[[Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' as an "important proof" that "the founders of Zionism intended, in fact, the subjugation of the entire world", but that "not even all Jews know this".<ref>{{cite web |title=Czy prawda się zmienia? |url=https://pisma.niepokalanow.pl/967-czy-prawda-sie-zmienia}}</ref> In a calendar that the publishing house of his organization, the Militia of the Immaculate, published in an edition of a million in 1939, Kolbe wrote, <blockquote>Atheistic Communism seems to rage ever more wildly. Its origin can easily be located in that criminal mafia that calls itself Freemasonry, and the hand that is guiding all that toward a clear goal is international Zionism. Which should not be taken to mean that even among Jews one cannot find good people.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The New York Times |author=Henry Kamm |date=19 November 1982 |title=Saint Charged with Bigotry; Clerics Say No |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/11/19/world/saint-charged-with-bigotry-clerics-say-no.html}}</ref> </blockquote>In his periodicals, Kolbe published articles about topics such as a [[Zionism|Zionist]] plot for world domination.<ref name="Dershowitz1992" /><ref name="jta" /><ref name="Michael2008" /> Slovenian philosopher [[Slavoj Žižek]] criticized Kolbe's activities as "writing and organizing mass propaganda for the Catholic Church, with a clear anti-Semitic and anti-Masonic edge."<ref name="jta" /><ref name="Zizek2012" /> In contrast, a writer for online [[EWTN]] stated that the "Jewish question played a very minor role in Kolbe's thought and work" and that "only thirty-one out of over 14,000 of his letters reference the Jewish people or Judaism, and most express a missionary zeal and concern for their spiritual welfare".<ref name="BeckyReady">{{cite news |url=https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/was-st-maximilian-kolbe-an-antisemite-1068 |title=Was St. Maximilian Kolbe an Anti-Semite? |author=Becky Ready |newspaper=[[EWTN]]}}</ref>
 During World War II, Kolbe's monastery at Niepokalanów [[Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust|sheltered Jewish refugees]].<ref name=jta/> According to the testimony of a local, "When Jews came to me asking for a piece of bread, I asked Father Maximilian if I could give it to them in good conscience, and he answered me, 'Yes, it is necessary to do this because all men are our brothers.{{'"}}<ref name="BeckyReady"/>
 === Relics===
-[[Relic#Classifications and prohibitions in the Catholic Church|First-class relics]] of Kolbe exist, in the form of hairs from his head and beard, preserved without his knowledge by two friars at Niepokalanów who served as barbers in his friary between 1930 and 1941. Since his [[beatification]] in 1971, more than 1,000 such relics have been distributed around the world for public veneration. Second-class relics, such as his personal effects, clothing and liturgical [[vestment]]s, are preserved in his monastery cell and in a chapel at Niepokalanów, where they may be venerated by visitors.<ref name=relics/>
+[[Relic#Classifications and prohibitions in the Catholic Church|First-class relics]] of Kolbe exist, in the form of hairs from his head and beard, preserved without his knowledge by two friars at Niepokalanów who served as barbers in his friary between 1930 and 1941. Since his [[beatification]] in 1971, more than 1,000 such relics have been distributed around the world for public veneration.<ref name="relics" />
+Second-class relics, such as his personal effects, clothing and liturgical [[vestment]]s, are preserved in his monastery cell and in a chapel at Niepokalanów, where they may be venerated by visitors.<ref name="relics" />
 ==Influence==
 [[File:Kościół MB Ostrobramskiej w Chrzanowie 13 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|right|The first monument to Maximilian Kolbe in Poland in [[Chrzanów]]]]
-Kolbe influenced his own Order of Conventual Franciscan friars, as the [[Militia Immaculatae]] movement had continued.<ref name="Publishing2013"/> In recent years new religious and [[secular institute]]s have been founded, inspired from this spiritual way. Among these are the Missionaries of the Immaculate Mary – Fr. Kolbe, the Franciscan Friars of Mary Immaculate, and a parallel congregation of [[Religious Sister|religious sister]]s and others. The Franciscan Friars of Mary Immaculate are taught basic Polish so they can sing the traditional hymns sung by Kolbe, in his native tongue.<ref name="OFMI"/>
+Kolbe influenced his own Order of Conventual Franciscan friars, as the [[Militia Immaculatae]] movement had continued.<ref name="Publishing2013"/> In recent years, new religious and [[secular institute]]s have been founded, inspired by this spiritual way. Among these are the Missionaries of the Immaculate Mary – Fr. Kolbe, the Franciscan Friars of Mary Immaculate, and a parallel congregation of [[religious sister]]s and others. The Franciscan Friars of Mary Immaculate are taught basic Polish so they can sing the traditional hymns Kolbe sang in his native tongue.<ref name="OFMI"/>
 According to the friars:
@@ Line 133: / Line 135: @@
 Kolbe's views into [[Roman Catholic Mariology|Marian theology]] echo today through their influence on [[Vatican II]].<ref name="Patron"/> His image may be found in churches across Europe<ref name=westminster/> and throughout the world. Several churches in Poland are under his patronage, such as the Sanctuary of Saint Maxymilian in [[Zduńska Wola]] and the Church of Saint Maxymilian Kolbe in [[Szczecin]].<ref name="Sanktuarium Św. Maksymiliana – Zduńska Wola – DIECEZJA WŁOCŁAWSKA -KURIA DIECEZJALNA WŁOCŁAWSKA"/><ref name="smmkolbeci"/> A museum, [[Museum of St. Maximilian Kolbe "There was a Man"]], was opened in Niepokalanów in 1998.<ref name="Niepokalanów"/>
-In 1963, [[Rolf Hochhuth]] published ''[[The Deputy]]'', a play influenced by Kolbe's life, and dedicated to him.<ref name="psb297"/> In 2000, the National Conference of Catholic Bishops (US) designated Marytown in [[Libertyville, Illinois]] home to a community of Conventual Franciscan friars, as the [[National Shrine]] of St. Maximilian Kolbe.<ref name="National Shrine of St. Maximilian Kolbe"/>
+In 1963, [[Rolf Hochhuth]] published ''[[The Deputy]]'', a play influenced by Kolbe's life, and dedicated to him.<ref name="psb297"/> In 2000, the [[National Conference of Catholic Bishops]] (US) designated Marytown in [[Libertyville, Illinois]] home to a community of Conventual Franciscan friars, as the [[National Shrine]] of St. Maximilian Kolbe.<ref name="National Shrine of St. Maximilian Kolbe"/>
-In 1991, [[Krzysztof Zanussi]] released a Polish film about the life of Kolbe, ''{{ill|Life for Life: Maximilian Kolbe|pl|3=Życie za życie. Maksymilian Kolbe|lt=Life for Life: Maximilian Kolbe}}'', with [[Edward Żentara]] as Kolbe. The [[Senate of Poland|Polish Senate]] declared 2011 to be the year of Maximilian Kolbe.<ref name="senat"/>
-In 2023, the Mexican production company Dos Corazones Films released the animated feature film ''Max'', which recounts part of the Franciscan's life.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Silva |first=Matilde Latorre de |date=2023-10-19 |title='Max', la conmovedora película animada con un héroe real: el santo que se sacrificó por un padre en Auschwitz |url=https://www.eldebate.com/religion/catolicos/20231019/max-conmovedora-pelicula-animada-heroe-real-santo-sacrifico-padre-auschwitz_147320.html |access-date=2024-04-03 |website=El Debate |language=es}}</ref>
+In 1991, [[Krzysztof Zanussi]] released a biographical Polish film about Kolbe, ''{{ill|Life for Life: Maximilian Kolbe|pl|3=Życie za życie. Maksymilian Kolbe|lt=Life for Life: Maximilian Kolbe}}'', with [[Edward Żentara]] as Kolbe. The [[Senate of Poland|Polish Senate]] declared 2011 to be the year of Kolbe.<ref name="senat"/>
-[[File:Maksymilian kolbe pomnik park jordana krakow.jpg|thumb|A bust of Kolbe in [[Henryk Jordan Park, Kraków|Henryk Jordan Park]] in [[Kraków]]]]
+[[File:Maksymilian kolbe pomnik park jordana krakow.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|Bust of Kolbe in [[Henryk Jordan Park, Kraków|Henryk Jordan Park]] in [[Kraków]]]]
+In 2023, the Mexican production company Dos Corazones Films released the animated feature film ''Max'', which recounts part of Kolbe's life.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Silva |first=Matilde Latorre de |date=2023-10-19 |title='Max', la conmovedora película animada con un héroe real: el santo que se sacrificó por un padre en Auschwitz |url=https://www.eldebate.com/religion/catolicos/20231019/max-conmovedora-pelicula-animada-heroe-real-santo-sacrifico-padre-auschwitz_147320.html |access-date=2024-04-03 |website=El Debate |language=es}}</ref>
+The 2025 film ''Triumph of the Heart'' tells the story of Kolbe's final weeks in the Block 11 starvation chamber. The film was written and directed by Anthony D'Ambrosio and stars Marcin Kwasny.<ref>https://www.imdb.com/title/tt29630418/</ref>
 ==Immaculata prayer==
 Kolbe composed the [[Immaculata prayer]] as a prayer of [[Consecration and entrustment to Mary|consecration to the Immaculata]].<ref name="University of Dayton Marian prayers"/>
@@ Line 146: / Line 148: @@
 ==See also==
 * [[Holocaust theology]]
+* [[Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Poland]]
 * [[Maximilian of Tebessa]]
 * [[Peter Fehlner]]
@@ Line 165: / Line 168: @@
 <ref name="ArmstrongPeterson2010-51">{{cite book|last1=Armstrong |first1=Regis J. |last2=Peterson |first2=Ingrid J. |title=The Franciscan Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q9lcEYr-UtsC&pg=PA51|year=2010|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-3922-1|page=51}}</ref>
-<ref name="BeckyReady">{{cite web|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/ANSWERS/KOLANTI.htm|title=Becky Ready|work=ewtn.com}}</ref>
 <ref name="biosummary">{{cite web|url=http://www.consecration.com/default.aspx?id=165 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102091901/http://www.consecration.com/default.aspx?id=41 |archive-date= 2 January 2014 |title=Biographical Data Summary |publisher=Consecration Militia of the Immaculata |access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref>
@@ Line 184: / Line 185: @@
 <ref name="Holy Mass at the Brzezinka Concentration Camp">{{cite web| url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/homilies/1979/documents/hf_jp-ii_hom_19790607_polonia-brzezinka_en.html |title=Holy Mass at the Brzezinka Concentration Camp |publisher=Vatican |access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref>
-<ref name="jta">{{cite web|url=http://www.jta.org/1983/01/03/archive/scholars-reject-charge-st-maximilian-was-anti-semitic|title=Scholars Reject Charge St. Maximilian Was Anti-semitic|work=Jewish Telegraphic Agency|access-date=30 September 2014}}</ref>
+<ref name="jta">{{cite web|url=https://www.jta.org/1983/01/03/archive/scholars-reject-charge-st-maximilian-was-anti-semitic|title=Scholars Reject Charge St. Maximilian Was Anti-semitic|work=Jewish Telegraphic Agency|access-date=30 September 2014}}</ref>
 <ref name="Kolbe, Saint of Auschwitz">{{cite web|url=http://auschwitz.dk/Kolbe.htm |title=Kolbe, Saint of Auschwitz |publisher=Auschwitz.dk |access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref>
@@ Line 249: / Line 250: @@
 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080416201907/http://saints.sqpn.com/saintm01.htm Patron Saints Index: Saint Maximilian Kolbe<!-- bot-generated title -->]
 * [http://david-gooderson.co.uk/stage-plays/kolbes-gift.php ''Kolbe's Gift''], a play by David Gooderson about Kolbe and his self-sacrifice in Auschwitz based on factual evidence and conversations with the late [[Józef Garliński]]
-* [http://www.pastoralcentre.pl/st-maximilian-kolbe-kazimierz-braun/ A Man Feared by the 21st Century: Saint Maximilian Kolbe from the Starvation Bunker in Auschwitz] – a drama by [[:pl:Kazimierz Braun (reżyser)|Kazimierz Braun]]
+* [http://www.pastoralcentre.pl/st-maximilian-kolbe-kazimierz-braun/ A Man Feared by the 21st Century: Saint Maximilian Kolbe from the Starvation Bunker in Auschwitz] – a drama by [[Kazimierz Braun]]
 * [http://catholicism.org/maximilian-kolbe.html ''Saint Maximilian Kolbe''], a popular biography at Catholicism.org
 * [http://niepokalanow.eu./ Niepokalanów in English]
@@ Line 259: / Line 260: @@
 {{Catholic saints|state=collapsed}}
-{{Portal bar|Biography|Catholicism|Poland|Saints}}
+{{Portal bar|Biography|Catholic Church|Christianity|Poland|Saints}}
 {{Authority control}}
@@ Line 265: / Line 266: @@
 [[Category:1894 births]]
 [[Category:1941 deaths]]
-[[Category:People from Zduńska Wola]]
+[[Category:20th-century Christian saints]]
-[[Category:People from Kalisz Governorate]]
+[[Category:20th-century Polish male writers]]
+[[Category:20th-century Polish non-fiction writers]]
 [[Category:20th-century Polish Roman Catholic priests]]
-[[Category:20th-century Christian saints]]
+[[Category:Amateur radio people]]
 [[Category:Anglican saints]]
-[[Category:Critics of Freemasonry]]
 [[Category:Canonizations by Pope John Paul II]]
 [[Category:Catholic saints and blesseds of the Nazi era]]
 [[Category:Conventual Friars Minor]]
-[[Category:Polish Franciscans]]
+[[Category:Critics of Freemasonry]]
+[[Category:Anti-Masonry in Poland]]
+[[Category:Franciscan saints]]
 [[Category:Martyred Roman Catholic priests]]
 [[Category:People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar]]
+[[Category:People executed by Nazi Germany by lethal injection]]
+[[Category:People from Kalisz Governorate]]
+[[Category:People from Zduńska Wola]]
 [[Category:Polish anti-communists]]
+[[Category:Polish anti-fascists]]
 [[Category:Polish civilians killed in World War II]]
+[[Category:Polish Franciscans]]
+[[Category:Polish magazine founders]]
+[[Category:Polish male non-fiction writers]]
 [[Category:Polish people of German descent]]
 [[Category:Polish people who died in Auschwitz concentration camp]]
 [[Category:Polish Roman Catholic saints]]
+[[Category:Polish Roman Catholic writers]]
 [[Category:Pontifical Gregorian University alumni]]
 [[Category:Pontifical University of St. Bonaventure alumni]]
 [[Category:Roman Catholic activists]]
-[[Category:Amateur radio people]]
-[[Category:People executed by Nazi Germany by lethal injection]]
-[[Category:Franciscan saints]]
-[[Category:Polish magazine founders]]
 [[Category:Roman Catholic priests executed by Nazi Germany]]

Maximilian Kolbe: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 09:36, 17 November 2025

Contents

Early life

Franciscan friar

World War I

Priesthood

Missionary work in Asia

Return to Poland

World War II

Arrest and imprisonment

Martyrdom at Auschwitz

Canonization

Controversies

Accusations of antisemitism

Relics

Influence

Immaculata prayer

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Maximilian Kolbe: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 09:36, 17 November 2025

Early life

Franciscan friar

World War I

Priesthood

Missionary work in Asia

Return to Poland

World War II

Arrest and imprisonment

Martyrdom at Auschwitz

Canonization

Controversies

Accusations of antisemitism

Relics

Influence

Immaculata prayer

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Search