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The plant ranks as one of the world's most valuable and widely traded [[commodity crop]]s and is an important [[export]] product of several countries, including those in Central and South America, the Caribbean and Africa. The coffee trade relies heavily on two of the over 120 species, ''[[Coffea arabica]]'' (commonly known simply as "Arabica"), which accounts for 60–80% of the world's coffee production, and ''[[Coffea canephora]]'' (known as "[[Robusta coffee|Robusta]]"), which accounts for about 20–40%.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="CoffeeProduction" /> | The plant ranks as one of the world's most valuable and widely traded [[commodity crop]]s and is an important [[export]] product of several countries, including those in Central and South America, the Caribbean and Africa. The coffee trade relies heavily on two of the over 120 species, ''[[Coffea arabica]]'' (commonly known simply as "Arabica"), which accounts for 60–80% of the world's coffee production, and ''[[Coffea canephora]]'' (known as "[[Robusta coffee|Robusta]]"), which accounts for about 20–40%.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="CoffeeProduction" /> | ||
Both coffee species are vulnerable to [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|shifts, caused by climate change, in their growing zones]], which are likely to result in a decline in production in some of the most important growing regions.<ref name="laderach">{{cite journal |last1=Läderach |first1=Peter |last2=Ramirez–Villegas |first2=Julian |last3=Navarro-Racines |first3=Carlos |last4=Zelaya |first4=Carlos |last5=Martinez–Valle |first5=Armando |last6=Jarvis |first6=Andy |title=Climate change adaptation of coffee production in space and time |journal=Climatic Change |volume=141 |issue=1 |pages=47–62 |date=26 October 2016 |issn=0165-0009 |doi=10.1007/s10584-016-1788-9 |doi-access=free|hdl=10568/77563 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Moat">{{cite journal |last1=Moat |first1=Justin |last2=Williams |first2=Jenny |last3=Baena |first3=Susana |last4=Wilkinson |first4=Timothy |last5=Gole |first5=Tadesse W. |last6=Challa |first6=Zeleke K. |last7=Demissew |first7=Sebsebe |last8=Davis |first8=Aaron P. |title=Resilience potential of the Ethiopian coffee sector under climate change |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317894875 |journal=Nature Plants |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=17081 |date=19 June 2017 |issn=2055-0278 |pmid=28628132 |s2cid=6873955 |doi=10.1038/nplants.2017.81|bibcode=2017NatPl...317081M }}</ref><ref name="worland">{{cite magazine |last=Worland |first=Justin |date=21 June 2018 |title=Your Morning Cup of Coffee Is in Danger. Can the Industry Adapt in Time? |url=https://time.com/5318245/coffee-industry-climate-change/ |url-status=live |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804074707/https://time.com/5318245/coffee-industry-climate-change/ |archive-date=4 August 2019 |access-date=13 October 2019}}</ref> | Both coffee species are vulnerable to [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|shifts, caused by climate change, in their growing zones]], which are likely to result in a decline in production in some of the most important growing regions.<ref name="laderach">{{cite journal |last1=Läderach |first1=Peter |last2=Ramirez–Villegas |first2=Julian |last3=Navarro-Racines |first3=Carlos |last4=Zelaya |first4=Carlos |last5=Martinez–Valle |first5=Armando |last6=Jarvis |first6=Andy |title=Climate change adaptation of coffee production in space and time |journal=Climatic Change |volume=141 |issue=1 |pages=47–62 |date=26 October 2016 |issn=0165-0009 |doi=10.1007/s10584-016-1788-9 |doi-access=free|hdl=10568/77563 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Moat">{{cite journal |last1=Moat |first1=Justin |last2=Williams |first2=Jenny |last3=Baena |first3=Susana |last4=Wilkinson |first4=Timothy |last5=Gole |first5=Tadesse W. |last6=Challa |first6=Zeleke K. |last7=Demissew |first7=Sebsebe |last8=Davis |first8=Aaron P. |title=Resilience potential of the Ethiopian coffee sector under climate change |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317894875 |journal=Nature Plants |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=17081 |date=19 June 2017 |issn=2055-0278 |pmid=28628132 |s2cid=6873955 |doi=10.1038/nplants.2017.81|bibcode=2017NatPl...317081M }}</ref><ref name="worland">{{cite magazine |last=Worland |first=Justin |date=21 June 2018 |title=Your Morning Cup of Coffee Is in Danger. Can the Industry Adapt in Time? |url=https://time.com/5318245/coffee-industry-climate-change/ |url-status=live |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804074707/https://time.com/5318245/coffee-industry-climate-change/ |archive-date=4 August 2019 |access-date=13 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lashermes |first1=Philippe |last2=Andrade |first2=Alan Carvalho |last3=Etienne |first3=Hervé |title=Genomics of Tropical Crop Plants |date=2008 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-0-387-71219-2 |pages=203–226 |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-71219-2_9 |editor1=Paul H. Moore |editor2=Ray Ming |language=en |volume=1 |chapter=Genomics of Coffee One of the World’s Largest Traded Commodities |quote=Consequently, bean quality may be lowered and supply become less stable to adversely affect the coffee market of consumer countries. Furthermore, in the light of climate changes and increasing awareness of the negative impacts of the nonsustainable use of natural resources, coffee production will have to evolve. This is particularly relevant for perennial plants such as coffee whose productive life is very long and for which rapid genetic gains are tedious to obtain.}}</ref> | ||
== | == Taxonomy == | ||
The genus ''Coffea'' and the type species ''Coffea arabica'' were first described by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1753.<ref name=POWO/> New species of ''Coffea'' are still being identified in the 2000s. In 2008 and 2009, researchers from the [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]], named seven from the mountains of northern [[Madagascar]], including ''[[Coffea ambongensis|C. ambongensis]]'', ''[[Coffea boinensis|C. boinensis]]'', ''[[Coffea labatii|C. labatii]]'', ''[[Coffea pterocarpa|C. pterocarpa]]'', ''[[Coffea bissetiae|C. bissetiae]]'', and ''[[Coffea namorokensis|C. namorokensis]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven species of wild coffee amongst Kew's haul of new discoveries |work=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |date=22 December 2009 |url=https://www.kew.org/discover/news/seven-species-wild-coffee-amongst-kews-haul-new-discoveries |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160830012109/https://www.kew.org/discover/news/seven-species-wild-coffee-amongst-kews-haul-new-discoveries |archive-date=30 August 2016}}</ref> | |||
The | |||
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New species of ''Coffea'' are still being identified in the 2000s. In 2008 and 2009, researchers from the [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]], named seven from the mountains of northern [[Madagascar]], including ''[[Coffea ambongensis|C. ambongensis]]'', ''[[Coffea boinensis|C. boinensis]]'', ''[[Coffea labatii|C. labatii]]'', ''[[Coffea pterocarpa|C. pterocarpa]]'', ''[[Coffea bissetiae|C. bissetiae]]'', and ''[[Coffea namorokensis|C. namorokensis]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven species of wild coffee amongst Kew's haul of new discoveries |work=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |date=22 December 2009 |url=https://www.kew.org/discover/news/seven-species-wild-coffee-amongst-kews-haul-new-discoveries |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160830012109/https://www.kew.org/discover/news/seven-species-wild-coffee-amongst-kews-haul-new-discoveries |archive-date=30 August 2016}}</ref> | |||
In 2008, two new species were discovered in [[Cameroon]]: ''[[Coffea charrieriana]]'', which is caffeine-free, and ''[[Coffea anthonyi]]''.<ref name=cameroon>{{cite journal |last1=Stoffelen |first1=Piet |last2=Noirot |first2=Michel |last3=Couturon |first3=Emmanuel |last4=Anthony |first4=François |year=2008 |title=A new caffeine-free coffee from Cameroon. |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=158 |issue=1 |pages=67–72 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2008.00845.x |doi-access=free}}</ref> By crossing the new species with other known coffees, two new features might be introduced to cultivated coffee plants: beans without [[caffeine]] and [[self-pollination]]. | In 2008, two new species were discovered in [[Cameroon]]: ''[[Coffea charrieriana]]'', which is caffeine-free, and ''[[Coffea anthonyi]]''.<ref name=cameroon>{{cite journal |last1=Stoffelen |first1=Piet |last2=Noirot |first2=Michel |last3=Couturon |first3=Emmanuel |last4=Anthony |first4=François |year=2008 |title=A new caffeine-free coffee from Cameroon. |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=158 |issue=1 |pages=67–72 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2008.00845.x |doi-access=free}}</ref> By crossing the new species with other known coffees, two new features might be introduced to cultivated coffee plants: beans without [[caffeine]] and [[self-pollination]]. | ||
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The coffee [[genome]] was published in 2014, with more than 25,000 [[gene]]s identified. This revealed that coffee plants make caffeine using a different set of genes from those found in [[tea]], [[Theobroma cacao|cacao]] and other such plants.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Callaway |first=Ewen |title=Coffee got its buzz by a different route than tea |journal=Nature |date=4 September 2014 |s2cid=168085931 |doi=10.1038/nature.2014.15832}}</ref> | The coffee [[genome]] was published in 2014, with more than 25,000 [[gene]]s identified. This revealed that coffee plants make caffeine using a different set of genes from those found in [[tea]], [[Theobroma cacao|cacao]] and other such plants.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Callaway |first=Ewen |title=Coffee got its buzz by a different route than tea |journal=Nature |date=4 September 2014 |s2cid=168085931 |doi=10.1038/nature.2014.15832}}</ref> | ||
A robust and almost fully resolved phylogeny of the entire genus was published in 2017.<ref name="HamoGrov17" /> In addition to resolving the relationships of ''Coffea'' species, this study's results suggest Africa or Asia as the likely ancestral origin of Coffea and point to several independent radiations across Africa, Asia, and the Western Indian Ocean Islands. | A robust and almost fully resolved phylogeny of the entire genus was published in 2017.<ref name="HamoGrov17" /> In addition to resolving the relationships of ''Coffea'' species, this study's results suggest Africa or Asia as the likely ancestral origin of ''Coffea'' and point to several independent radiations across Africa, Asia, and the Western Indian Ocean Islands. | ||
In 2020, a technique of DNA fingerprinting, or genetic authentication of plant material, was proven effective for coffee.<ref name="Pruvot-Woehl">{{cite journal |last1=Pruvot-Woehl |first1=Solène |last2=Krishnan |first2=Sarada |last3=Solano |first3=William |last4=Schilling |first4=Tim |last5=Toniutti |first5=Lucile |last6=Bertrand |first6=Benoit |last7=Montagnon |first7=Christophe |title=Authentication of Coffea arabica Varieties through DNA Fingerprinting and its Significance for the Coffee Sector |url=https://academic.oup.com/jaoac/article/103/2/325/5809455 |journal=Journal of AOAC International |issn=1060-3271 |volume=103 |issue=2 |pages=325–334 |date=2020-04-01 |access-date=2021-04-01 |pmid=33241280 |doi=10.1093/jaocint/qsz003 |doi-access=free}}</ref> For the study, scientists used DNA extraction and [[Microsatellite|SSR]] marker analysis. This technique or similar ones may allow for several improvements to coffee production such as improved information for farmers as to the susceptibility of their coffee plants to pests and disease, a professionalized coffee seed system, and transparency and traceability for buyers of green, un-roasted coffee. | In 2020, a technique of DNA fingerprinting, or genetic authentication of plant material, was proven effective for coffee.<ref name="Pruvot-Woehl">{{cite journal |last1=Pruvot-Woehl |first1=Solène |last2=Krishnan |first2=Sarada |last3=Solano |first3=William |last4=Schilling |first4=Tim |last5=Toniutti |first5=Lucile |last6=Bertrand |first6=Benoit |last7=Montagnon |first7=Christophe |title=Authentication of Coffea arabica Varieties through DNA Fingerprinting and its Significance for the Coffee Sector |url=https://academic.oup.com/jaoac/article/103/2/325/5809455 |journal=Journal of AOAC International |issn=1060-3271 |volume=103 |issue=2 |pages=325–334 |date=2020-04-01 |access-date=2021-04-01 |pmid=33241280 |doi=10.1093/jaocint/qsz003 |doi-access=free}}</ref> For the study, scientists used DNA extraction and [[Microsatellite|SSR]] marker analysis. This technique or similar ones may allow for several improvements to coffee production such as improved information for farmers as to the susceptibility of their coffee plants to pests and disease, a professionalized coffee seed system, and transparency and traceability for buyers of green, un-roasted coffee. | ||
== Species == | === Species === | ||
As of May 2024, [[Plants of the World Online]] includes:<ref name=POWO>[https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn%3Alsid%3Aipni.org%3Anames%3A325985-2 Plants of the World Online: ''Coffea'' L.] (retrieved 31 May 2024)</ref> | As of May 2024, [[Plants of the World Online]] includes:<ref name=POWO>[https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn%3Alsid%3Aipni.org%3Anames%3A325985-2 Plants of the World Online: ''Coffea'' L.] (retrieved 31 May 2024)</ref> | ||
{{div col|colwidth=20em}} | {{div col|colwidth=20em}} | ||
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# ''[[Coffea zanguebariae]]'' <small>[[João de Loureiro|Lour.]]</small> | # ''[[Coffea zanguebariae]]'' <small>[[João de Loureiro|Lour.]]</small> | ||
{{div col end}} | {{div col end}} | ||
== Ecology == | |||
The [[caffeine]] in coffee beans serves as a [[Toxin|toxic]] substance that protects against insects and other pests, a form of natural [[plant defense against herbivory]]. Caffeine simultaneously attracts [[pollinator]]s, specifically honeybees, by creating an olfactory memory that signals bees to return to the plant's flowers.<ref name=HamoGrov17>{{cite journal |last1=Hamon |first1=Perla |last2=Grover |first2=Corrinne E. |last3=Davis |first3=Aaron P. |last4=Rakotomalala |first4=Jean-Jacques |last5=Raharimalala |first5=Nathalie E. |last6=Albert |first6=Victor A. |last7=Sreenath |first7=Hosahalli L. |last8=Stoffelen |first8=Piet |last9=Mitchell |first9=Sharon E. |last10=Couturon |first10=Emmanuel |last11=Hamon |first11=Serge |last12=de Kochko |first12=Alexandre |last13=Crouzillat |first13=Dominique |last14=Rigoreau |first14=Michel |last15=Sumirat |first15=Ucu |last16=Akaffou |first16=Sélastique |last17=Guyot |first17=Romain |date=2017 |title=Genotyping-by-sequencing provides the first well-resolved phylogeny for coffee (''Coffea'') and insights into the evolution of caffeine content in its species: GBS coffee phylogeny and the evolution of caffeine content |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=109 |pages=351–361 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2017.02.009 |pmid=28212875 |bibcode=2017MolPE.109..351H |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Not all ''Coffea'' species contain caffeine, and the earliest species had little or no caffeine content. Caffeine has evolved independently in multiple lineages of ''Coffea'' in Africa, perhaps in response to high pest predation in the humid environments of West-Central Africa.<ref name="HamoGrov17" /> | |||
Caffeine has also evolved independently in the more distantly related genera ''[[Theobroma]]'' ([[cocoa bean|cacao]]) and ''[[Camellia]]'' ([[tea]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Denoeud |first=France |display-authors=et al. |title=The coffee genome provides insight into the convergent evolution of caffeine biosynthesis |journal=Science |date=5 September 2014 |volume=345 |issue=6201 |pages=1181–1184 |doi=10.1126/science.1255274|pmid=25190796 |bibcode=2014Sci...345.1181D |doi-access=free}}</ref> This suggests that caffeine production is an [[Adaptation|adaptive trait]] in coffee and plant evolution. The fruit and leaves also contain caffeine, and can be used to make [[coffee cherry tea]] and [[coffee-leaf tea]]. The fruit is also used in many brands of soft drink as well as pre-packaged teas.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://slimfast.com/product_cat/slimcafe-coffee-drinks/|title=SlimCafe is no longer available|first=Craig|last=Selby|date=31 May 2019|website=SlimFast}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.futureceuticals.com/coffeeberry-cascara|title=Coffeeberry Cascara – Soluble, Sustainable | FutureCeuticals|website=www.futureceuticals.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2017/starbucks-cascara-latte/|title=Starbucks|website=stories.starbucks.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://dwellerscoffee.com/products/cascara|title=Brazilian Cascara|website=Dwellers Coffee|access-date=20 July 2019|archive-date=19 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419220646/https://dwellerscoffee.com/products/cascara|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
Several insect pests affect coffee production, including the coffee borer beetle (''[[Hypothenemus hampei]]'') and the coffee leafminer (''[[Leucoptera caffeina]]''). | |||
Coffee is used as a food plant by the larvae of some [[Lepidoptera]] ([[butterfly]] and [[moth]]) species, ''[[Dalcera]] abrasa'', [[turnip moth]] and some members of the genus ''[[Endoclita]]'', including ''[[Endoclita damor|E. damor]]'' and ''[[Endoclita malabaricus|E. malabaricus]]''. | |||
== Cultivation and use == | |||
{{Cookbook|Coffee}}{{main|Coffee production}} | |||
[[File:Freshly harvested coffee cherries.jpg|thumb|alt=Freshly harvested coffee cherries|Freshly harvested coffee cherries]] | |||
[[File:CoffeeBerry.jpg|thumb|''Coffea'' fruits, [[Bali]]]] | |||
There are over 130 species of ''Coffea'', which is grown from seed. The two most popular are ''[[Coffea arabica]]'' (commonly known simply as "Arabica"), which accounts for 60–80% of the world's coffee production, and ''[[Coffea canephora]]'' (known as "[[Robusta coffee|Robusta]]"), which accounts for about 20–40%.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=Coffee Plant: Arabica and Robusta |url=http://www.coffeeresearch.org/agriculture/coffeeplant.htm |publisher=[[Coffee Research Institute]] |access-date=2018-11-17}}</ref><ref name="CoffeeProduction">{{cite web |title=Coffee: World Markets and Trade |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture – Foreign Agricultural Service |date=16 June 2017 |url=https://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/fas/tropprod//2010s/2017/tropprod-06-16-2017.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010184341/http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/fas/tropprod/2010s/2017/tropprod-06-16-2017.pdf |archive-date=2017-10-10 |url-status=live |access-date=8 December 2017}}</ref> ''C. arabica'' is preferred for its sweeter taste, while ''C. canephora'' has a higher caffeine content. ''C. arabica'' has its origins in the highlands of Ethiopia and the [[Boma Plateau]] of Sudan, and came about as the result of a hybrid between ''C. canephora'' and ''[[Coffea eugenioides|C. eugenioides]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lashermes |first1=P. |last2=Combes |first2=M.-C. |last3=Robert |first3=J. |last4=Trouslot |first4=P. |last5=D'Hont |first5=A. |last6=Anthony |first6=F. |last7=Charrier |first7=A. |title=Molecular characterisation and origin of the ''Coffea arabica'' L. genome |journal=Molecular and General Genetics |date=1999 |volume=261 |issue=2 |pages=259–266 |pmid=10102360 |s2cid=7978085 |doi=10.1007/s004380050965}}</ref> | |||
The trees produce edible red or purple fruits that are either [[epigynous berries]] or [[Dehiscence (botany)|indehiscent]] [[drupe]]s.<ref name=DaviGovaBridStof06>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Aaron P. |last2=Govaerts |first2=Rafael |last3=Bridson |first3=Diane M. |last4=Stoffelen |first4=Piet |date=2006 |title=An annotated taxonomic conspectus of the genus ''Coffea'' (Rubiaceae) |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=465–512 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2006.00584.x |name-list-style=amp |doi-access=free}}</ref> The fruit is often referred to as a "[[coffee cherry]]", and it contains two seeds, called "[[coffee bean]]s".<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Coffee? |url=https://www.ncausa.org/About-Coffee/What-is-Coffee |access-date=2020-07-14 |website=www.ncausa.org}}</ref> Despite these terms, coffee is neither a true [[cherry]] (the fruit of certain species in the genus ''[[Prunus]]'') nor a true [[bean]] (seeds from plants in the family [[Fabaceae]]). | |||
In any coffee crop, about 5–10% of fruits contain only a single bean. Called a [[peaberry]], it is smaller and rounder than a normal coffee bean. | |||
When grown in the tropics, coffee is a vigorous bush or small tree that usually grows to a height of {{convert|3|-|3.5|m|ft|frac=2|abbr=on}}. Most commonly cultivated coffee species grow best at high elevations, but do not tolerate freezing temperatures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Petek |first1=Marcos Rafael |last2=Sera |first2=Tumoru |last3=Alteia |first3=Marcos Zorzenon |title=Genetic variability for frost resistance among Coffea accessions assessed in the field and in a cold chamber |journal=Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology |date=January 2005 |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=15–21 |doi=10.1590/S1516-89132005000100003 |doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
The ''Coffea arabica'' tree grows fruit after three to five years, producing for an average of 50 to 60 years, though up to 100 years is possible.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cips.org/Documents/Knowledge/Categories-Commodities/Mintec/MintecCFS_Coffee.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161120152115/https://www.cips.org/Documents/Knowledge/Categories-Commodities/Mintec/MintecCFS_Coffee.pdf |archive-date=2016-11-20 |url-status=dead|publisher=Mintec|title=Coffee bean: commodity factsheet}}</ref> The white flowers are highly scented. The fruit takes about nine months to ripen. | |||
[[File:Coffe flower.jpg|thumb|''Coffea'' flower]] | |||
[[File:Pollen grains of Coffee plant.jpg|thumb|Pollen grains of Coffee plant]] | |||
[[File:Coffee cherry cross section.JPG|thumb|''Coffea'' fruit cross section]] | |||
[[File:Coffea racemosa00.jpg|thumb|''[[Coffea racemosa]]'' fruits]] | |||
[[File:Coffee germination.jpg|thumb|''[[Coffea arabica]]'' beans germinating]] | |||
[[File:Coffee arabica flower.jpg|thumb|''[[Coffea arabica]]'' flowers]] | |||
[[File:Coffee arabica cherry.jpg|thumb|Ripe ''[[Coffea arabica]]'' fruits]] | |||
[[File:Open coffee cherry.jpg|thumb|Beans inside a ''[[Coffea arabica]]'' fruit]] | |||
[[File:咖啡樹-草坪頭 Coffea 20220203134728.jpg|thumb|''Coffea'' branches]] | |||
== References == | == References == | ||
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[[Category:Crops]] | [[Category:Crops]] | ||
[[Category:Herbal and fungal stimulants]] | [[Category:Herbal and fungal stimulants]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]] | ||
Latest revision as of 00:09, 13 November 2025
Template:Short description Script error: No such module "about". Template:Pp-pc1 Template:Use dmy dates Template:Stack
Coffea is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. Coffea species are shrubs or small trees native to tropical and southern Africa and tropical Asia. The seeds of some species, called coffee beans, are used to flavor various beverages and products. The fruits, like the seeds, contain a large amount of caffeine, and have a distinct sweet taste.
The plant ranks as one of the world's most valuable and widely traded commodity crops and is an important export product of several countries, including those in Central and South America, the Caribbean and Africa. The coffee trade relies heavily on two of the over 120 species, Coffea arabica (commonly known simply as "Arabica"), which accounts for 60–80% of the world's coffee production, and Coffea canephora (known as "Robusta"), which accounts for about 20–40%.[1][2]
Both coffee species are vulnerable to shifts, caused by climate change, in their growing zones, which are likely to result in a decline in production in some of the most important growing regions.[3][4][5][6]
Taxonomy
The genus Coffea and the type species Coffea arabica were first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.[7] New species of Coffea are still being identified in the 2000s. In 2008 and 2009, researchers from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, named seven from the mountains of northern Madagascar, including C. ambongensis, C. boinensis, C. labatii, C. pterocarpa, C. bissetiae, and C. namorokensis.[8]
In 2008, two new species were discovered in Cameroon: Coffea charrieriana, which is caffeine-free, and Coffea anthonyi.[9] By crossing the new species with other known coffees, two new features might be introduced to cultivated coffee plants: beans without caffeine and self-pollination.
In 2011, Coffea absorbed the twenty species of the former genus Psilanthus due to the morphological and genetic similarities between the two genera.[10] Historically, the two have been considered distinct genera due to differences in the length of the corolla tube and the anther arrangement: Coffea with a short corolla tube and exserted style and anthers; Psilanthus with a long corolla tube and included anthers. However, these characteristics were not present in all species of either respective genus, making the two genera overwhelmingly similar in both morphology and genetic sequence. This transfer expanded Coffea from 104 species to 124, and extended its native distribution to tropical Asia and Australasia.
The coffee genome was published in 2014, with more than 25,000 genes identified. This revealed that coffee plants make caffeine using a different set of genes from those found in tea, cacao and other such plants.[11]
A robust and almost fully resolved phylogeny of the entire genus was published in 2017.[12] In addition to resolving the relationships of Coffea species, this study's results suggest Africa or Asia as the likely ancestral origin of Coffea and point to several independent radiations across Africa, Asia, and the Western Indian Ocean Islands.
In 2020, a technique of DNA fingerprinting, or genetic authentication of plant material, was proven effective for coffee.[13] For the study, scientists used DNA extraction and SSR marker analysis. This technique or similar ones may allow for several improvements to coffee production such as improved information for farmers as to the susceptibility of their coffee plants to pests and disease, a professionalized coffee seed system, and transparency and traceability for buyers of green, un-roasted coffee.
Species
As of May 2024, Plants of the World Online includes:[7] Template:Div col
- Coffea abbayesii J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea affinis De Wild.
- Coffea alleizettii Dubard
- Coffea ambanjensis J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea ambongenis J.-F. Leroy ex A. P. Davis
- Coffea andrambovatensis J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea ankaranensis J.-F. Leroy ex A. P. Davis
- Coffea anthonyi Stoff. & F. Anthony
- Coffea arabica L.
- Coffea arenesiana J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea augagneurii Dubard
- Coffea bakossii Cheek & Bridson
- Coffea benghalensis B. Heyne ex Schult.
- Coffea bertrandii A. Chev.
- Coffea betamponensis Portères & J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea bissetiae A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
- Coffea boinensis A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
- Coffea boiviniana A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
- Coffea bonnieri Dubard
- Coffea brassii (J.-F. Leroy) A. P. Davis
- Coffea brevipes Hiern
- Coffea bridsoniae A. P. Davis & Mvungi
- Coffea buxifolia A. Chev.
- Coffea callmanderi Template:Au
- Coffea canephora ("Coffea robusta") Pierre ex A. Froehner
- Coffea carrissoi A. Chev.
- Coffea charrieriana Stoff. & F. Anthony
- Coffea cochinchinensis Pierre ex Pit.
- Coffea commersoniana (Baill.) A. Chev.
- Coffea congensis A. Froehner
- Coffea costatifructa Bridson
- Coffea coursiana J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea dactylifera Robbr. & Stoff.
- Coffea darainensis Template:Au
- Coffea decaryana J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea dubardii Jum.
- Coffea ebracteolata (Hiern) Brenan
- Coffea eugenioides S. Moore
- Coffea fadenii Bridson
- Coffea farafanganensis J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea floresiana Boerl.
- Coffea fotsoana Stoff. & Sonké
- Coffea fragilis J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea fragrans Wall. ex Hook. f.
- Coffea gallienii Dubard
- Coffea grevei Drake ex A. Chev.
- Coffea heimii J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea × heterocalyx Template:Au
- Coffea homollei J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea horsfieldiana Miq.
- Coffea humbertii J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea humblotiana Baill.
- Coffea humilis A. Chev.
- Coffea jumellei J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea kalobinonensis Template:Au
- Coffea kapakata (A. Chev.) Bridson
- Coffea kianjavatensis J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea kihansiensis A. P. Davis & Mvungi
- Coffea kimbozensis Bridson
- Coffea kivuensis Lebrun
- Coffea labatii A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
- Coffea lancifolia A. Chev.
- Coffea lebruniana Germ. & Kester
- Coffea leonimontana Stoff.
- Coffea leroyi A. P. Davis
- Coffea liaudii J.-F. Leroy ex A. P. Davis
- Coffea liberica Hiern
- Coffea ligustroides S. Moore
- Coffea littoralis A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
- Coffea lulandoensis Bridson
- Coffea mabesae (Elmer) J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea macrocarpa A. Rich.
- Coffea madurensis Teijsm. & Binn. ex Koord.
- Coffea magnistipula Stoff. & Robbr.
- Coffea malabarica (Sivar., Biju & P. Mathew) A.P.Davis
- Coffea mangoroensis Portères
- Coffea mannii (Hook. f.) A. P. Davis
- Coffea manombensis A. P. Davis
- Coffea mapiana Sonké, Nguembou & A P. Davis
- Coffea mauritiana Lam.
- Coffea mayombensis A. Chev.
- Coffea mcphersonii A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
- Coffea melanocarpa Welw. ex Hiern
- Coffea merguensis Ridl.
- Coffea microdubardii Template:Au
- Coffea millotii J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea minutiflora A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
- Coffea mogenetii Dubard
- Coffea mongensis Bridson
- Coffea montekupensis Stoff.
- Coffea montis-sacri A. P. Davis
- Coffea moratii J.-F. Leroy ex A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
- Coffea mufindiensis Hutch. ex Bridson
- Coffea myrtifolia (A.Rich. ex DC.) J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea namorokensis A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
- Coffea neobridsoniae A. P. Davis
- Coffea neoleroyi A. P. Davis
- Coffea perrieri Drake ex Jum. & H. Perrier
- Coffea pervilleana (Baill.) Drake
- Coffea pocsii Bridson
- Coffea pseudozanguebariae Bridson
- Coffea pterocarpa A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
- Coffea pustulata Template:Au
- Coffea racemosa Lour.
- Coffea rakotonasoloi A. P. Davis
- Coffea ratsimamangae J.-F. Leroy ex A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
- Coffea resinosa (Hook. f.) Radlk.
- Coffea rhamnifolia (Chiov.) Bridson
- Coffea richardii J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea rizetiana Template:Au
- Coffea rupicola Template:Au
- Coffea sahafaryensis J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea sakarahae J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea salvatrix Swynn. & Philipson
- Coffea sambavensis J.-F. Leroy ex A. P Davis & Rakotonas.
- Coffea sapinii (De Wild.) A. P. Davis
- Coffea schliebenii Bridson
- Coffea semsei (Bridson) A. P. Davis
- Coffea sessiliflora Bridson
- Coffea stenophylla G. Don
- Coffea tetragona Jum. & H. Perrier
- Coffea togoensis A. Chev.
- Coffea toshii A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
- Coffea travancorensis Wight & Arn.
- Coffea tricalysioides J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea tsirananae J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea vatovavyensis J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea vavateninensis J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea vianneyi J.-F. Leroy
- Coffea vohemarensis A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
- Coffea wightiana Wall. ex Wight & Arn.
- Coffea zanguebariae Lour.
Ecology
The caffeine in coffee beans serves as a toxic substance that protects against insects and other pests, a form of natural plant defense against herbivory. Caffeine simultaneously attracts pollinators, specifically honeybees, by creating an olfactory memory that signals bees to return to the plant's flowers.[12] Not all Coffea species contain caffeine, and the earliest species had little or no caffeine content. Caffeine has evolved independently in multiple lineages of Coffea in Africa, perhaps in response to high pest predation in the humid environments of West-Central Africa.[12]
Caffeine has also evolved independently in the more distantly related genera Theobroma (cacao) and Camellia (tea).[14] This suggests that caffeine production is an adaptive trait in coffee and plant evolution. The fruit and leaves also contain caffeine, and can be used to make coffee cherry tea and coffee-leaf tea. The fruit is also used in many brands of soft drink as well as pre-packaged teas.[15][16][17][18]
Several insect pests affect coffee production, including the coffee borer beetle (Hypothenemus hampei) and the coffee leafminer (Leucoptera caffeina).
Coffee is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species, Dalcera abrasa, turnip moth and some members of the genus Endoclita, including E. damor and E. malabaricus.
Cultivation and use
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There are over 130 species of Coffea, which is grown from seed. The two most popular are Coffea arabica (commonly known simply as "Arabica"), which accounts for 60–80% of the world's coffee production, and Coffea canephora (known as "Robusta"), which accounts for about 20–40%.[1][2] C. arabica is preferred for its sweeter taste, while C. canephora has a higher caffeine content. C. arabica has its origins in the highlands of Ethiopia and the Boma Plateau of Sudan, and came about as the result of a hybrid between C. canephora and C. eugenioides.[19]
The trees produce edible red or purple fruits that are either epigynous berries or indehiscent drupes.[20] The fruit is often referred to as a "coffee cherry", and it contains two seeds, called "coffee beans".[21] Despite these terms, coffee is neither a true cherry (the fruit of certain species in the genus Prunus) nor a true bean (seeds from plants in the family Fabaceae).
In any coffee crop, about 5–10% of fruits contain only a single bean. Called a peaberry, it is smaller and rounder than a normal coffee bean.
When grown in the tropics, coffee is a vigorous bush or small tree that usually grows to a height of Template:Convert. Most commonly cultivated coffee species grow best at high elevations, but do not tolerate freezing temperatures.[22]
The Coffea arabica tree grows fruit after three to five years, producing for an average of 50 to 60 years, though up to 100 years is possible.[23] The white flowers are highly scented. The fruit takes about nine months to ripen.
References
External links
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