Abalone: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 00:34, 22 October 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "about". Script error: No such module "redirect hatnote". Template:Use dmy dates Template:Automatic taxobox Abalone (Template:IPAc-en or Template:IPAc-en; via Spanish Script error: No such module "Lang"., from Rumsen aulón) are sea snails in the genus Haliotis, the only genus in the family Haliotidae.^[1] Abalone shells are distinctive for their flattened, ear-like shape, nacreous interior, and row of holes used for respiration. The flesh of abalone is widely considered to be a delicacy, and is consumed raw or cooked by a variety of cuisines. Abalone are globally distributed, with approximately 70 known species alive today. Though some species are small, the largest abalone can attain a length of Template:Convert.

Names

Other common names for abalone are ear shells, sea ears, and, now rarely, muttonfish or muttonshells in parts of Australia, ormer in the United Kingdom, perlemoen in South Africa, and pāua in New Zealand.^[2]

Description

File:AbaloneInside.jpg

The iridescent surface inside a red abalone shell from Northern California. The US coin (quarter) is Template:Cvt in diameter

Most abalone vary in size from Template:Convert (Haliotis pulcherrima) to Template:Convert. The largest species, Haliotis rufescens, reaches Template:Convert.^[3]

The shells of abalone have a low, open spiral structure, and are characterized by several open respiratory pores in a row near the shell's outer edge. The thick inner layer of the shell is composed of nacre, which in many species is highly iridescent, giving rise to a range of strong, changeable colors which make the shells attractive to humans as ornaments, jewelry, and as a source of colorful mother-of-pearl.

The shell of abalone is convex, rounded to oval in shape, and may be highly arched or very flattened. The shell of the majority of species has a small, flat spire and two to three whorls. The last whorl, known as the body whorl, is auriform, meaning that the shell resembles an ear, giving rise to the common name "ear shell". Haliotis asinina has a somewhat different shape, as it is more elongated and distended. The shell of Haliotis cracherodii cracherodii is also unusual as it has an ovate form, is imperforate, shows an exserted spire, and has prickly ribs.

A mantle cleft in the shell impresses a groove in the shell, in which are the row of holes characteristic of the genus. These holes are respiratory apertures for venting water from the gills and for releasing sperm and eggs into the water column.^[4] They make up what is known as the selenizone, which forms as the shell grows. This series of eight to 38 holes is near the anterior margin. Only a small number is generally open. The older holes are gradually sealed up as the shell grows and new holes form. Each species has a typical number of open holes, between four and 10, in the selenizone. An abalone has no operculum. The aperture of the shell is very wide and nacreous.^[4]

The exterior of the shell is striated and dull. The color of the shell is very variable from species to species, which may reflect the animal's diet.^[2] The iridescent nacre that lines the inside of the shell varies in color from silvery white, to pink, red and green-red to deep blue, green to purple.

The animal has fimbriated head lobes and side lobes that are fimbriated and cirrated. The radula has small median teeth, and the lateral teeth are single and beam-like. They have about 70 uncini, with denticulated hooks, the first four very large. The rounded foot is very large in comparison to most molluscs. The soft body is coiled around the columellar muscle, and its insertion, instead of being on the columella, is on the middle of the inner wall of the shell. The gills are symmetrical and both well developed.^[5]

These snails cling solidly with their broad, muscular foot to rocky surfaces at sublittoral depths, although some species such as Haliotis cracherodii used to be common in the intertidal zone. Abalone reach maturity at a relatively small size. Their fecundity is high and increases with their size, laying from 10,000 to 11 million eggs at a time. The spermatozoa are filiform and pointed at one end, and the anterior end is a rounded head.^[6]

The larvae are lecithotrophic. The adults are herbivorous and feed with their rhipidoglossan radula on macroalgae, preferring red or brown algae. Sizes vary from Template:Cvt (Haliotis pulcherrima) to Template:Cvt, while Haliotis rufescens is the largest of the genus at Template:Cvt.^[7]

Distribution

File:Abalone Santo Andre Povoa de Varzim.jpg

Abalone with a live sponge on its shell in Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal

The haliotid family has a worldwide distribution, along the coastal waters of every continent, except the Pacific coast of South America, the Atlantic coast of North America, the Arctic, and Antarctica.^[8] The majority of abalone species are found in cold waters, such as off the coasts of New Zealand, South Africa, Australia, Western North America, and Japan.^[9]

Evolutionary history

Abalone are members of the clade Vetigastropoda, though their precise position within the clade is uncertain. Despite their inclusion in the order Lepetellida, they do not appear to be particularly closely related to other members of the order and may be more closely related to Trochoidea, or alternatively outside of a clade uniting Trochoidea with the rest of Lepetellida.Template:Sfn The earliest known fossil abalone are known from the Campanian age of the Late Cretaceous. The few known Cretaceous abalone fossils have all been found in North America, suggesting that the group may have originated there, although other possibilities have been suggested, including a central Indo-Pacific origin based on where abalone are most diverse today.Template:Sfn Haliotidae may have evolved from the pleurotomariidan families Temnotropidae or Trochotomidae.Template:Sfn Trochotoma frydai,Template:Efn from the Campanian of Spain, closely resembles the Cretaceous abalone Haliotis antillesensis except in having a slit instead of a row of tremata.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Structure and properties of the shell

The shell of the abalone is exceptionally strong and is composed of a tightly packed calcium carbonate matrix. Layered among the matrix is an endogenous protein further strengthening the shell. Due to the unique structure of the shell, a force applied directly to the shell matrix will more likely cause the shedding of layers as opposed to cracking or shattering. Material scientists are currently studying this structure for insight into stronger ablative protective tools such as body armor.^[10]

The dust created by grinding and cutting abalone shell is dangerous; appropriate safeguards must be taken to protect people from inhaling these particles.^[11]

Diseases and pests

Abalone are subject to various infectious diseases. The Victorian Department of Primary Industries said in 2007 that ganglioneuritis killed up to 90% of stock in affected regions. Abalone possess very little clotting factor, meaning even a mild to moderate skin-piercing injury can result in death from fluid loss. Members of the Spionidae of the polychaetes are known as pests of abalone.^[12]

Human use

Abalone have been harvested as a source of food and esthetics since prehistory. Abalone shells and associated materials, like their claw-like pearls and nacre, have been used as jewelry and for buttons, buckles, and inlay.^[13]^[14]^[15] These shells have been found in archaeological sites around the world, ranging from 100,000-year-old deposits at Blombos Cave in South Africa to historic Chinese abalone middens on California's Northern Channel Islands.^[16]^[17] For at least 12,000 years, abalone were harvested to such an extent around the Channel Islands that shells in the area decreased in size four thousand years ago.^[18]

Farming

File:Abalone-farm1web.jpg

An abalone farm

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File:Alaminosjf384.JPG

Abalone hatchery

File:Alaminosjf385.JPG

Part of the Multi-Species Fish and Invertebrate Breeding and Hatchery, (Oceanographic Marine Laboratory, Lucap, Alaminos, Pangasinan, Philippines, 2011)

Farming of abalone began in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Japan and China.^[19] Since the mid-1990s, there have been many increasingly successful endeavors to commercially farm abalone for the purpose of consumption.^[20] Overfishing and poaching have reduced wild populations to such an extent that farmed abalone now supplies most of the abalone meat consumed. The principal abalone farming regions are China, Taiwan,^[21] Japan, and Korea. Abalone is also farmed in Australia, Canada, Chile, France,^[22] Iceland, Ireland, Mexico, Namibia, New Zealand, South Africa, Spain,^[23] Thailand, and the United States.^[24]

After trials in 2012,^[25] a commercial "sea ranch" was set up in Flinders Bay, Western Australia to raise abalone. The ranch is based on an artificial reef made up of 5,000 separate concrete abalone habitat units, which can host 400 abalone each. The reef is seeded with young abalone from an onshore hatchery.

The abalone feed on seaweed that grows naturally on the habitats; the ecosystem enrichment of the bay also results in growing numbers of dhufish, pink snapper, wrasse, and Samson fish among other species.^[26]^[27]

Consumption

Abalone have long been a valuable food source for humans in every area of the world where a species is abundant. The meat of this mollusc is considered a delicacy in certain parts of Latin America (particularly Chile), France, New Zealand, East Asia and Southeast Asia. In the Greater China region and among Overseas Chinese communities, abalone is commonly known as bao yu, and sometimes forms part of a Chinese banquet. In the same way as shark fin soup or bird's nest soup, abalone is considered a luxury item, and is traditionally reserved for celebrations.

As abalone became more popular and less common, the prices adjusted accordingly. In the 1920s, a restaurant-served portion of abalone, about 4 ounces, would cost (in inflation adjusted dollars) about US$7; by 2004, the price had risen to US$75.^[28] In the United States, prior to this time, abalone was predominantly eaten, gathered, and prepared by Chinese immigrants.^[29] Before that, abalone were collected to be eaten, and used for other purposes by Native American tribes.^[30] By 1900, laws were passed in California to outlaw the taking of abalone above the intertidal zone. This forced the Chinese out of the market and the Japanese perfected diving, with or without gear, to enter the market. Abalone started to become popular in the US after the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in 1915, which exhibited 365 varieties of fish with cooking demonstrations, and a 1,300-seat dining hall.^[31]

In Japan, live and raw abalone are used in awabi sushi, or served steamed, salted, boiled, chopped, or simmered in soy sauce. Salted, fermented abalone entrails are the main component of tottsuru, a local dish from Honshū. Tottsuru is mainly enjoyed with sake.^[32]

In South Korea, abalone is called Jeonbok (/juhn-bok/) and used in various recipes. Jeonbok porridge and pan-fried abalone steak with butter are popular but also commonly used in soups or ramyeon.

In California, abalone meat can be found on pizza, sautéed with caramelized mango, or in steak form dusted with cracker meal and flour.^[33]

Sport harvesting

Australia

Tasmania supplies about 25% of the yearly world abalone harvest.^[34] Around 12,500 Tasmanians recreationally fish for blacklip and greenlip abalone. For blacklip abalone, the size limit varies between Template:Convert for the southern end of the state and Template:Convert for the northern end of the state.^[35] Greenlip abalone have a minimum size of Template:Convert, except for an area around Perkins Bay in the north of the state where the minimum size is Template:Convert. With a recreational abalone licence, the bag limit is 10 per day, with a total possession limit of 20. Scuba diving for abalone is allowed, and has a rich history in Australia. (Scuba diving for abalone in the states of New South Wales and Western Australia is illegal; a free-diving catch limit of two is allowed).^[36]^[37]

Victoria has had an active abalone fishery since the late 1950s. The state is sectioned into three fishing zones, Eastern, Central and Western, with each fisher required a zone-allocated licence. Harvesting is performed by divers using surface-supplied air "hookah" systems operating from runabout-style, outboard-powered boats. While the diver seeks out colonies of abalone amongst the reef beds, the deckhand operates the boat, known as working "live" and stays above where the diver is working. Bags of abalone pried from the rocks are brought to the surface by the diver or by way of "shot line", where the deckhand drops a weighted rope for the catch bag to be connected then retrieved. Divers measure each abalone before removing from the reef and the deckhand remeasures each abalone and removes excess weed growth from the shell. Since 2002, the Victorian industry has seen a significant decline in catches, with the total allowable catch reduced from 1440 to 787 tonnes for the 2011/12 fishing year, due to dwindling stocks and most notably the abalone virus ganglioneuritis, which is fast-spreading and lethal to abalone stocks.

United States

File:Workers drying abalone shells in the sun in southern California (CHS-1399).jpg

Workers drying abalone shells in the sun in southern California, circa 1900

File:Japanese Abalone Diver.jpg

A young Japanese abalone diver in California in 1905

File:White abalone Haliotis sorenseni.jpg

Two highly endangered white abalone: Prohibitions on commercial and recreational harvest of this species have been in place since 1996.

Sport harvesting of red abalone is permitted with a California fishing license and an abalone stamp card. In 2008, the abalone card also came with a set of 24 tags. This was reduced to 18 abalone per year in 2014, and as of 2017 the limit has been reduced to 12, only nine of which may be taken south of Mendocino County. Legal-size abalone must be tagged immediately.^[38] Abalone may only be taken using breath-hold techniques or shorepicking; scuba diving for abalone is strictly prohibited.^[39] Taking of abalone is not permitted south of the mouth of San Francisco Bay.^[40] A size minimum of Template:Convert measured across the shell is in place. A person may be in possession of only three abalone at any given time.^[41]^[42]

As of 2017, abalone season is May to October, excluding July. Transportation of abalone may only legally occur while the abalone is still attached in the shell. Sale of sport-obtained abalone is illegal, including the shell. Only red abalone may be taken, as black, white, pink, flat, green, and pinto abalone are protected by law.^[41] In 2018, the California Fish and Game Commission closed recreational abalone season due to dramatically declining populations. That year, they extended the moratorium to last through April 2021.^[43] Afterwards, they extended the ban for another 5 years until April 2026.^[44]

An abalone diver is normally equipped with a thick wetsuit, including a hood, bootees, and gloves, and usually also a mask, snorkel, weight belt, abalone iron, and abalone gauge. Alternatively, the rock picker can feel underneath rocks at low tides for abalone. Abalone are mostly taken in depths from a few inches up to Template:Convert; less common are freedivers who can work deeper than Template:Convert. Abalone are normally found on rocks near food sources such as kelp. An abalone iron is used to pry the abalone from the rock before it has time to fully clamp down. Divers dive from boats, kayaks, tube floats, or directly off the shore.^[39]

The largest abalone recorded in California is Template:Convert, caught by John Pepper somewhere off the coast of San Mateo County in September 1993.^[45]

The mollusc Concholepas concholepas is often sold in the United States under the name "Chilean abalone", though it is not an abalone, but a muricid.

New Zealand

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In New Zealand, abalone is called pāua (Template:IPAc-en, from the Māori language). Haliotis iris (or blackfoot pāua) is the ubiquitous New Zealand pāua, the highly polished nacre of which is extremely popular as souvenirs with its striking blue, green, and purple iridescence. Haliotis australis and Haliotis virginea are also found in New Zealand waters, but are less popular than H. iris. Haliotis pirimoana is a small species endemic to Manawatāwhi / the Three Kings Islands that superficially resembles H. virginea.^[46]^[47]

Like all New Zealand shellfish, recreational harvesting of pāua does not require a permit provided catch limits, size restrictions, and seasonal and local restrictions set by the Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI) are followed. The legal recreational daily limit is 10 per diver, with a minimum shell length of Template:Convert for H. iris and Template:Convert for H. australis. In addition, no person may be in possession, even on land, of more than 20 pāua or more than Template:Convert of pāua meat at any one time. Pāua can only be caught by free-diving; it is illegal to catch them using scuba gear.

An extensive global black market exists in collecting and exporting abalone meat. This can be a particularly awkward problem where the right to harvest pāua can be granted legally under Māori customary rights. When such permits to harvest are abused, it is frequently difficult to police. The limit is strictly enforced by roving Ministry for Primary Industries fishery officers with the backing of the New Zealand Police. Poaching is a major industry in New Zealand with many thousands being taken illegally, often undersized. Convictions have resulted in seizure of diving gear, boats, and motor vehicles and fines and in rare cases, imprisonment.

South Africa

There are five species endemic to South Africa, namely H. parva, H. spadicea, H. queketti and H. speciosa.^[48]

The largest abalone in South Africa, Haliotis midae, occurs along roughly two-thirds of the country's coastline. Abalone-diving has been a recreational activity for many years, but stocks are currently being threatened by illegal commercial harvesting.^[49] In South Africa, all persons harvesting this shellfish need permits that are issued annually, and no abalone may be harvested using scuba gear.

For the last few years, however, no permits have been issued for collecting abalone, but commercial harvesting still continues as does illegal collection by syndicates.^[50] In 2007, because of widespread poaching of abalone, the South African government listed abalone as an endangered species according to the CITES section III appendix, which requests member governments to monitor the trade in this species. This listing was removed from CITES in June 2010 by the South African government and South African abalone is no longer subject to CITES trade controls. Export permits are still required, however. The abalone meat from South Africa is prohibited for sale in the country to help reduce poaching; however, much of the illegally harvested meat is sold in Asian countries. As of early 2008, the wholesale price for abalone meat was approximately US$40.00 per kilogram. There is an active trade in the shells, which sell for more than US$1,400 per tonne.

Channel Islands, Brittany and Normandy

Ormers (Haliotis tuberculata) are considered a delicacy in the British Channel Islands as well as in adjacent areas of France, and are pursued with great alacrity by the locals. This, and a recent lethal bacterial disease,^[51] has led to a dramatic depletion in numbers since the latter half of the 19th century, and "ormering" is now strictly regulated to preserve stocks. The gathering of ormers is now restricted to a number of 'ormering tides', from 1 January to 30 April, which occur on the full or new moon and two days following. No ormers may be taken from the beach that are under Template:Convert in shell length. Gatherers are not allowed to wear wetsuits or even put their heads underwater. Any breach of these laws is a criminal offence and can lead to a fine of up to £5,000 or six months in prison.^[52] The demand for ormers is such that they led to the world's first underwater arrest, when Mr. Kempthorne-Leigh of Guernsey was arrested by a police officer in full diving gear when illegally diving for ormers.^[53]

The raw meat of abalone

The raw meat of abalone
Abalone sashimi

Abalone sashimi
Braised abalone

Braised abalone
Abalone with asparagus

Abalone with asparagus
Abalone bao yu

Abalone bao yu
Grilled abalone

Grilled abalone
A Korean abalone stew

A Korean abalone stew
Abalone Hoe

Abalone Hoe
Abalone with mandarin orange peels.

Abalone with mandarin orange peels.
Abalone (dish) - in Macau

Abalone (dish) - in Macau
Abalone Served with Rice

Abalone Served with Rice
Steamed Abalones With Vermicelli

Steamed Abalones With Vermicelli

Decorative items

File:Carving of chief (detail), Haida, c. 1890, wood, paint, abalone shell - Fairbanks Museum and Planetarium - DSC04327.JPG

Haida carving with rectangular abalone shell accents

The highly iridescent inner nacre layer of the shell of abalone has traditionally been used as a decorative item, in jewelry,^[2] buttons, and as inlay in furniture and musical instruments, such as on fret boards and binding of guitars.^[54] See article Najeonchilgi regarding Korean handicraft.

Indigenous use

Abalone has been an important staple in a number of Indigenous cultures around the world, specifically in Africa and on the Northwest American coast. The meat is a traditional food, and the shell is used to make ornaments; historically, the shells were also used as currency in some communities.^[55]

Threat of extinction

Abalone are critically threatened due to overfishing and the acidification of oceans^[56] as lower pH erodes the calcium carbonate in their shells. In the 21st century, white, pink, and green abalone are on the United States federal endangered species list. Possible restoration sites have been proposed for the San Clemente Island and Santa Barbara Island areas.^[57] Reintroduction of farming abalone to the wild has been proposed, with these abalone having special tags to help track the population.^[58]

Species

The number of species that are recognized within the genus Haliotis has fluctuated over time, and depends on the source that is consulted. The number of recognized species range from 30^[59] to 130.^[60] As of 2025, 70 extant species were listed as accepted in MolluscaBase.^[61] This list finds a compromise using the WoRMS database, plus some species that have been added, for a total of 57.^[1]^[62] The majority of abalone have not been rated for conservation status. Those that have been reviewed tend to show that the abalone in general is an animal that is declining in numbers, and will need protection throughout the globe.

Extant species

Species of abalone
Species	Range	Conservation status
Haliotis alfredensis Bartsch, 1915Template:Efn	South Africa	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis arabiensis Owen, Regter & Van Laethem, 2016	Off Yemen and Oman	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis asinina Linnaeus, 1758	Philippines; Indonesia; Australia; Japan; Thailand; Vietnam	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis australis Gmelin, 1791	New Zealand	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis brazieri Angas, 1869	Eastern Australia	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis clathrata Reeve, 1846	Seychelles; Comores; Madagascar; Mauritius; Kenya	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis coccoradiata Reeve, 1846	Eastern Australia	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis corrugata Wood, 1828	California, US; Baja California, Mexico	Template:IUCN status, Species of Concern National Marine Fisheries Service;^[63] Vulnerable (global) and imperiled (California) California Department of Fish and Wildlife^[64]
Haliotis cracherodii Leach, 1814	California, US; Baja California, Mexico	Template:IUCN status, Vulnerable (Global, Nation: US, State: California) California Department of Fish and Wildlife;^[64]^[65] Listed endangered National Marine Fisheries Service^[66]
Haliotis cyclobates Péron & Lesueur, 1816	Southern Australia	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis dalli Henderson, 1915	Galapagos Islands, western Colombia	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis discus Reeve, 1846	Japan; South Korea	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis dissona (Iredale, 1929)	Australia; New Caledonia	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis diversicolor Reeve, 1846	Japan; Australia; Southeast Asia	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis drogini Owen & Reitz, 2012	Cocos Island	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis elegans Koch & Philippi, 1844	Western Australia	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis exigua Dunker, R.W., 1877 (synonym of H. diversicolor)	Japan	Not evaluated
Haliotis fatui Geiger, 1999	Tonga Mariana Islands	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis fulgens Philippi, 1845	California, US; Baja California, Mexico	Template:IUCN status, Vulnerable (Global, State: California California Department of Fish and Wildlife);^[64] Species of Concern NMFS^[67]
Haliotis geigeri Owen, 2014	São Tomé and Príncipe Islands	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis gigantea Gmelin, 1791	Japan	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis glabra Gmelin, 1791	Philippines; Vietnam	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis iris Gmelin, 1791	New Zealand	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis jacnensis Reeve, 1846	Japan; Nicobar Islands; Ryukyu Islands; Pacific Islands;	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis kamtschatkana Jonas, 1845	Western North America	Template:IUCN status, Imperiled (Alaska, British Columbia), Vulnerable (global, US), critically imperiled (California);^[64]^[68] Species of Concern NMFS^[69]
Haliotis laevigata Donovan, 1808	South Australia; Tasmania	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis madaka (Habe, 1977)	Japan; South Korea	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis mariae Wood, 1828	Oman; Yemen	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis marmorata Linnaeus, 1758	Liberia; Ivory Coast; Ghana	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis melculus (Iredale, 1927)	Australia (New South Wales, Queensland)	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis midae Linnaeus, 1758	South Africa	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis mykonosensis Owen, Hanavan & Hall, 2001	Greece; Turkey; Tunisia	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis ovina Gmelin, 1791	Thailand; Vietnam; southern part of the Pacific Ocean; Andaman Islands; Maldives; Ryukyu Islands	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis papulata Reeve, 1846	Australia; Papua New Guinea; Philippines; Sri Lanka; Thailand	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis parva Linnaeus, 1758	South Africa; Angola	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis pirimoana Walton, Marshall, Rawlence & Spencer, 2024	Manawatāwhi / Three Kings Islands, New Zealand^[46]^[47]	Not evaluated
Haliotis planata G. B. Sowerby II, 1882	Ryukyu Islands; Sri Lanka; Indonesia; Fiji; Andaman Sea	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis pourtalesii Dall, 1881	Eastern US; Gulf of Mexico; Eastern South America; northern Colombia	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis pulcherrima Gmelin, 1791	Polynesia	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis queketti E.A. Smith, 1910	Eastern Africa	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis roei Gray, 1826	Australia	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis rubiginosa Reeve, 1846	Lord Howe Island	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis rubra Leach, 1814	Southern and Eastern Australia	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis rufescens Swainson, 1822	Western North America	Template:IUCN status, apparently secure (global, US); critically imperiled (Canada)^[70]
Haliotis rugosa Lamarck, 1822	South Africa; Madagascar; Mauritius; Red Sea	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis scalaris (Leach, 1814)	Southern and Western Australia	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis semiplicata Menke, 1843	Western Australia	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis sorenseni Bartsch, 1940	California, US; Baja California, Mexico	Template:IUCN status, critically imperiled (global, US, California);^[64]^[71] Endangered NMFS^[72]
Haliotis spadicea Donovan, 1808	South Africa	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis speciosa Reeve, 1846 (synonym of H. tuberculata)	Eastern South Africa	Not evaluated
Haliotis squamosa Gray, 1826	Southern Madagascar	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis stomatiaeformis Reeve, 1846	Malta; Sicily	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis supertexta Lischke, 1870 (synonym of H. diversicolor)	Japan; Sao Tome	Not evaluated
Haliotis thailandis Dekker & Patamakanthin, 2001 (synonym of H. papulata)	Andaman Sea	Not evaluated
Haliotis tuberculata Linnaeus, 1758	Ireland (introduced); Channel Islands; Azores; Canary Islands; Madeira; Brittany; Great Britain	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis unilateralis Lamarck, 1822	Gulf of Aqaba; East Africa; Seychelles;	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis varia Linnaeus, 1758	Mascarene Basin; Red Sea; Sri Lanka; Western Pacific;	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis virginea Gmelin, 1791	New Zealand; Chatham Islands; Auckland Islands; Campbell Island	Template:IUCN status
Haliotis walallensis Stearns, 1899	Western North America	Template:IUCN status

A dorsal view of a live ass's ear abalone, Haliotis asinina

A dorsal view of a live ass's ear abalone, Haliotis asinina
The pink abalone, Haliotis corrugata

The pink abalone, Haliotis corrugata
The black abalone, Haliotis cracherodii

The black abalone, Haliotis cracherodii
Dorsal (left) and ventral (right) views of the blacklip abalone, Haliotis rubra

Dorsal (left) and ventral (right) views of the blacklip abalone, Haliotis rubra
The white abalone, Haliotis sorenseni

The white abalone, Haliotis sorenseni
A shell of Haliotis varia form dohrniana

A shell of Haliotis varia form dohrniana

Fossil species

†Haliotis benoisti Cossmann, 1896 (Aquitaine, France)
†Haliotis flemingi Powell, 1938 (New Zealand)
†Haliotis lomaensis Anderson, 1902
†Haliotis mathesonensis (Eagle, 1996)
†Haliotis (Marinauris) matihetihensis (Eagle, 1999)
†Haliotis powelli C. A. Fleming, 1952
†Haliotis stalennuyi Owen & Berschauer, 2017
†Haliotis volhynica Eichwald, 1829
†Haliotis waitemataensis Powell, 1938

Synonyms

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Citations

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Notes

Template:Notelist

References

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Template:Refend

External links

Template:Sister project Template:Sister project

Template:Cite EB1911
Abalone: Species Diversity
ABMAP: The Abalone Mapping Project
Abalone biology
Conchology
Hardy's Internet Guide to Marine Gastropods : Shell Catalog
book on crafting with Abalone Shell Template:Webarchive
Fisheries Western Australia – Abalone Fact Sheet
Imagemap of worldwide abalone distribution
Oman's Abalone Harvest
Template:Usurped Pro abalone diver, Mallacoota, Victoria (1967)
Template:Usurped Tathra NSW(1961), Abalone (1963)
Fathom magazine "The Abalone Divers" Pages 43,44,45 (1972)Template:Dead link
Abalone Healing Properties

Template:Commercial molluscs Template:Commercial fish topics Template:Edible molluscs Template:Jewellery Template:Authority control

de:Seeohren ja:アワビ#人間との関わり

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Abalone: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 00:34, 22 October 2025

Contents

Names

Description

Distribution

Evolutionary history

Structure and properties of the shell

Diseases and pests

Human use

Farming

Consumption

Sport harvesting

Australia

United States

New Zealand

South Africa

Channel Islands, Brittany and Normandy

Decorative items

Indigenous use

Threat of extinction

Species

Extant species

Fossil species

Synonyms

See also

Citations

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|Common name for a group of sea snails}}
 {{About||other uses||the Abelone grape|Chasselas}}
-{{mergefrom|Haliotis|date=March 2025}}
 {{redirect|Ormer|the restaurant|Ormer (restaurant)}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
-[[File:LivingAbalone.JPG|thumb|Living abalone in tank showing epipodium and tentacles, anterior end to the right.]]
+{{Automatic taxobox
+| fossil_range = {{Fossil range | Late Cretaceous | Recent | ref=<ref name="Geiger1999">{{harvnb|Geiger|Groves|1999|p=872}}</ref> }}
+| image = LivingAbalone.JPG
+| image_caption = Living abalone in tank showing epipodium and tentacles, anterior end to the right
+| display_parents = 3
+| parent_authority = [[Constantine Samuel Rafinesque|Rafinesque]], 1815
+| taxon = Haliotis
+| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
+| type_species = ''Haliotis asinina''
+| type_species_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]
+| synonyms_ref = <ref name="WoRMS">{{harvnb|Gofas|Tran|Bouchet|2014}}</ref>
+| synonyms = * ''Euhaliotis'' <small>[[Wilhelm August Wenz|Wenz]], 1938</small>
+* ''Eurotis'' <small>Habe & Kosuge, 1964</small>
+* ''Exohaliotis'' <small>[[Bernard Charles Cotton|Cotton]] & Godfrey, 1933</small>
+* ''Haliotis (Haliotis)'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758</small>
+* ''Haliotis (Marinauris)'' <small>Iredale, 1937</small>
+* ''Haliotis (Nordotis)'' <small>Habe & Kosuge, 1964</small>
+* ''Haliotis (Notohaliotis)'' <small>[[Bernard Charles Cotton|Cotton]] & Godfrey, 1933</small>
+* ''Haliotis (Padollus)'' <small>[[Pierre Denys de Montfort|Montfort]], 1810</small>
+* ''Haliotis (Paua)'' <small>[[Charles Fleming (ornithologist)|C. Fleming]], 1953</small>
+* ''Haliotis (Sulculus)'' <small>[[Henry Adams (zoologist)|H. Adams]] & [[Arthur Adams (zoologist)|A. Adams]], 1854</small>
+* ''Marinauris'' <small>[[Tom Iredale|Iredale]], 1927</small>
+* ''Neohaliotis'' <small>[[Bernard Charles Cotton|Cotton]] & Godfrey, 1933</small>
+* ''Nordotis'' <small>Habe & Kosuge, 1964</small>
+* ''Notohaliotis'' <small>[[Bernard Charles Cotton|Cotton]] & Godfrey, 1933</small>
+* ''Ovinotis'' <small>[[Bernard Charles Cotton|Cotton]], 1943</small>
+* ''Padollus''<small> [[Pierre Denys de Montfort|Montfort]], 1810</small>
+* ''Paua'' <small>[[Charles Fleming (ornithologist)|C. Fleming]], 1953</small>
+* ''Sanhaliotis'' <small>[[Tom Iredale|Iredale]], 1929</small>
+* ''Schismotis'' <small>[[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1856</small>
+* ''Teinotis'' <small>[[Henry Adams (zoologist)|H. Adams]] & [[Arthur Adams (zoologist)|A. Adams]], 1854</small>
+* ''Tinotis'' <small>[[Paul Henri Fischer|P. Fischer]], 1885</small> <small>(invalid: unjustified emendation of Teinotis)</small>
+* ''Usahaliotis'' <small>Habe & Kosuge, 1964</small>
+}}
+'''Abalone''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-abalone.ogg|ˈ|æ|b|ə|l|oʊ|n|i}} or {{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|b|ə|ˈ|l|oʊ|n|i}}; via Spanish {{lang|es|abulón}}, from <!--{{etyl|css|en}}--> [[Rumsen language|Rumsen]] ''aulón''<!--{{term|aulón}}-->) are [[sea snails]] in the genus '''''Haliotis''''', the [[Monotypic taxon|only genus]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Haliotidae'''.<ref name="WoRMS">{{harvnb|Gofas|Tran|Bouchet|2014}}</ref> Abalone shells are distinctive for their flattened, ear-like shape, [[nacreous]] interior, and row of holes used for respiration. The flesh of abalone is widely considered to be a [[delicacy]], and is consumed raw or cooked by a variety of [[cuisine]]s. Abalone are globally distributed, with approximately 70 known species alive today. Though some species are small, the largest abalone can attain a length of {{convert|300|mm|in}}.
-'''Abalone''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-abalone.ogg|ˈ|æ|b|ə|l|oʊ|n|i}} or {{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|b|ə|ˈ|l|oʊ|n|i}}; via Spanish {{lang|es|abulón}}, from <!--{{etyl|css|en}}--> [[Rumsen language|Rumsen]] ''aulón''<!--{{term|aulón}}-->) is a [[common name]] for any small to very large [[marine life|marine]] [[gastropod]] [[mollusc]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Haliotidae]], which once contained six [[genera]] but now contains only one genus, ''[[Haliotis]]''.<ref name="WoRMS">{{harvnb|Gofas|Tran|Bouchet|2014}}</ref> Other [[common name]]s are '''ear shells''', '''sea ears''', and, now rarely, '''muttonfish''' or '''muttonshells''' in parts of [[Australia]], '''ormer''' in the [[United Kingdom]], '''perlemoen''' in [[South Africa]], and '''pāua''' in [[New Zealand]].<ref name="MtSS">{{harvnb|Beesley|Ross|Wells|1998}}{{page needed|date=August 2014}}</ref> The number of abalone species recognized worldwide ranges between 30<ref name="DCMD">{{harvnb|Dauphin|Cuif|Mutvei|Denis|1989|p=9}}</ref> and 130<ref name="Cox">{{harvnb|Cox|1962|p=8}}</ref> with over 230 species-level taxa described. The most comprehensive treatment of the family considers 56 species valid, with 18 additional [[subspecies]].<ref name="GO">{{harvnb|Geiger|Owen|2012}}{{page needed|date=August 2014}}</ref>
+==Names==
+Other [[common name]]s for abalone are ear shells, sea ears, and, now rarely, muttonfish or muttonshells in parts of [[Australia]], ormer in the [[United Kingdom]], perlemoen in [[South Africa]], and [[pāua]] in [[New Zealand]].<ref name="MtSS">{{harvnb|Beesley|Ross|Wells|1998}}{{page needed|date=August 2014}}</ref>
-The [[gastropod shell|shell]]s of abalone have a low, open spiral structure, and are characterized by several open respiratory pores in a row near the shell's outer edge. The thick inner layer of the shell is composed of [[nacre]], which in many species is highly [[iridescence|iridescent]], giving rise to a range of strong, changeable colors which make the shells attractive to humans as [[ornament (art)|ornament]]s, [[jewelry]], and as a source of colorful [[mother-of-pearl]].
-The flesh of abalone is widely considered to be a [[delicacy]], and is consumed raw or cooked by a variety of [[cuisine]]s.
 ==Description==
@@ Line 16: / Line 46: @@
 Most abalone vary in size from {{convert|20|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} (''[[Haliotis pulcherrima]]'') to {{convert|200|mm|in|0|abbr=on}}. The largest species,  ''[[Haliotis rufescens]]'', reaches {{convert|300|mm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|1993|p=7}}</ref>
+The [[gastropod shell|shell]]s of abalone have a low, open spiral structure, and are characterized by several open respiratory pores in a row near the shell's outer edge. The thick inner layer of the shell is composed of [[nacre]], which in many species is highly [[iridescence|iridescent]], giving rise to a range of strong, changeable colors which make the shells attractive to humans as [[ornament (art)|ornament]]s, [[jewelry]], and as a source of colorful [[mother-of-pearl]].
 The shell of abalone is [[wikt:convex|convex]], rounded to oval in shape, and may be highly arched or very flattened. The shell of the majority of species has a small, flat [[Spire (mollusc)|spire]] and two to three [[Whorl (mollusc)|whorls]]. The last whorl, known as the [[body whorl]], is [[wikt:auriform|auriform]], meaning that the shell resembles an ear, giving rise to the common name "ear shell". ''[[Haliotis asinina]]'' has a somewhat different shape, as it is more elongated and distended. The shell of ''Haliotis cracherodii cracherodii'' is also unusual as it has an [[wikt:ovate|ovate]] form, is [[wikt:imperforate|imperforate]], shows an [[wikt:exsert|exserted]] spire, and has prickly ribs.
-A [[mantle (mollusc)|mantle]] cleft in the shell impresses a groove in the shell, in which are the row of holes characteristic of the genus. These holes are respiratory apertures for venting water from the gills and for releasing sperm and eggs into the water column.<ref name=Anderson/> They make up what is known as the [[selenizone]], which forms as the shell grows. This series of eight to 38 holes is near the anterior margin. Only a small number is generally open. The older holes are gradually sealed up as the shell grows and new holes form. Each species has a typical number of open holes, between four and 10, in the selenizone. An abalone has no [[Operculum (gastropod)|operculum]]. The [[Aperture (mollusc)|aperture]] of the shell is very wide and [[wikt:nacreous|nacreous]].<ref name=Anderson>{{cite web |url=http://www.marinebio.net/marinescience/06future/abintro.htm |title=Abalone Introduction |author=Anderson, Jenny |year=2003 |work=Marine Science |accessdate=10 March 2021 }}</ref>
+A [[mantle (mollusc)|mantle]] cleft in the shell impresses a groove in the shell, in which are the row of holes characteristic of the genus. These holes are respiratory apertures for venting water from the gills and for releasing sperm and eggs into the water column.<ref name=Anderson/> They make up what is known as the [[selenizone]], which forms as the shell grows. This series of eight to 38 holes is near the anterior margin. Only a small number is generally open. The older holes are gradually sealed up as the shell grows and new holes form. Each species has a typical number of open holes, between four and 10, in the selenizone. An abalone has no [[Operculum (gastropod)|operculum]]. The [[Aperture (mollusc)|aperture]] of the shell is very wide and [[wikt:nacreous|nacreous]].<ref name=Anderson>{{cite web |url=http://www.marinebio.net/marinescience/06future/abintro.htm |title=Abalone Introduction |author=Anderson, Jenny |year=2003 |work=Marine Science |access-date=10 March 2021 }}</ref>
 The exterior of the shell is striated and dull. The color of the shell is very variable from species to species, which may reflect the animal's diet.<ref name=MtSS /> The iridescent [[nacre]] that lines the inside of the shell varies in color from silvery white, to pink, red and green-red to deep blue, green to purple.
@@ Line 26: / Line 58: @@
 These snails cling solidly with their broad, muscular foot to rocky surfaces at [[Sublittoral zone|sublittoral]] depths, although some species such as ''[[Haliotis cracherodii]]'' used to be common in the [[intertidal zone]]. Abalone reach maturity at a relatively small size. Their [[fecundity]] is high and increases with their size, laying from 10,000 to 11 million eggs at a time. The [[spermatozoa]] are [[wikt:filiform|filiform]] and pointed at one end, and the anterior end is a rounded head.<ref name="Tryon1">{{harvnb|Tryon|1880|p=46}}</ref>
+The [[larva]]e are [[Lecithotrophic#Larval development strategies|lecithotrophic]]. The adults are [[herbivorous]] and feed with their [[Radula#The seven basic types|rhipidoglossan]] radula on [[macroalgae]], preferring red or brown algae. Sizes vary from {{cvt|20|mm|in|frac=32}} (''[[Haliotis pulcherrima]]'') to {{cvt|200|mm|in|frac=8}}, while ''[[Haliotis rufescens]]'' is the largest of the genus at {{cvt|12|in|cm|order=flip}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|1993|p=7}}</ref>
 ==Distribution==
 [[File:Abalone Santo Andre Povoa de Varzim.jpg|thumb|Abalone with a live sponge on its shell in [[Póvoa de Varzim]], [[Portugal]]]]
-The haliotid family has a worldwide distribution, along the coastal waters of every continent, except the Pacific coast of South America, the Atlantic coast of North America, the [[Arctic]], and [[Antarctica]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014g}}</ref> The majority of abalone species are found in cold waters, such as off the coasts of New Zealand, South Africa, Australia, Western North America, and Japan.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CrjwoUa9YBEC&q=National%20Geographic%20Field%20Guide%20to%20the%20Water's%20Edge&pg=PP1|title=National Geographic Field Guide to the Water's Edge|last=Leatherman|first=Stephen|publisher=National Geographic|year=2012|isbn=978-1426208683|series=National Geographic Field Guides|pages=93}}</ref>
+The haliotid family has a worldwide distribution, along the coastal waters of every continent, except the Pacific coast of South America, the Atlantic coast of North America, the [[Arctic]], and [[Antarctica]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014g}}</ref> The majority of abalone species are found in cold waters, such as off the coasts of New Zealand, South Africa, Australia, Western North America, and Japan.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CrjwoUa9YBEC&q=National%20Geographic%20Field%20Guide%20to%20the%20Water's%20Edge&pg=PP1|title=National Geographic Field Guide to the Water's Edge|last=Leatherman|first=Stephen|publisher=National Geographic|year=2012|isbn=978-1-4262-0868-3|series=National Geographic Field Guides|pages=93}}</ref>
+==Evolutionary history==
+Abalone are members of the clade [[Vetigastropoda]], though their precise position within the clade is uncertain. Despite their inclusion in the order [[Lepetellida]], they do not appear to be particularly closely related to other members of the order and may be more closely related to [[Trochoidea (superfamily)|Trochoidea]], or alternatively outside of a clade uniting Trochoidea with the rest of Lepetellida.{{sfn|Cunha|Reimer|Giribet|2021|p=1016}} The earliest known fossil abalone are known from the [[Campanian]] age of the Late Cretaceous. The few known Cretaceous abalone fossils have all been found in North America, suggesting that the group may have originated there, although other possibilities have been suggested, including a central Indo-Pacific origin based on where abalone are most diverse today.{{sfn|Groves|Alderson|2008|p=25}} Haliotidae may have evolved from the [[Pleurotomariida|pleurotomariidan]] families [[Temnotropidae]] or [[Trochotomidae]].{{sfn|Karapunar|Höhna|Nützel|2024|p=19}} ''[[Trochotoma frydai]]'',{{efn|''Trochotoma frydai'' was originally described as a species of ''[[Temnotropis]]'',{{sfn|Kiel|Bandel|2000|pp=271–272}} but reassigned to ''[[Trochotoma]]'' by Karapunar and Nützel in 2021.{{sfn|Karapunar|Nützel|2021|pp=6,36}}}} from the Campanian of Spain, closely resembles the Cretaceous abalone ''[[Haliotis antillesensis]]'' except in having a slit instead of a row of tremata.{{sfn|Kiel|Bandel|2000|pp=271–272}}{{sfn|Bandel|2009|p=20}}
 ==Structure and properties of the shell==
 The shell of the abalone is exceptionally strong and is composed of a tightly packed [[calcium carbonate]] matrix. Layered among the matrix is an endogenous protein further strengthening the shell. Due to the unique structure of the shell, a force applied directly to the shell matrix will more likely cause the shedding of layers as opposed to cracking or shattering. [[Material science|Material scientists]] are currently studying this structure for insight into stronger [[Ablative armor|ablative]] protective tools such as [[body armor]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lin|Meyers|2005|p=27 & 38}}</ref>
-The dust created by grinding and cutting abalone shell is dangerous; appropriate safeguards must be taken to protect people from inhaling these particles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/medicalpubs/diseasemanagement/pulmonary/hypersensitivity-pneumonitis/#table1|title=Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis|website=www.clevelandclinicmeded.com|access-date=17 January 2018}}</ref>
+The dust created by grinding and cutting abalone shell is dangerous; appropriate safeguards must be taken to protect people from inhaling these particles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/medicalpubs/diseasemanagement/pulmonary/hypersensitivity-pneumonitis/#table1|title=Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis|website=www.clevelandclinicmeded.com|access-date=17 January 2018|archive-date=15 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115184732/http://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/medicalpubs/diseasemanagement/pulmonary/hypersensitivity-pneumonitis/#table1}}</ref>
 ==Diseases and pests==
@@ Line 40: / Line 77: @@
 ==Human use==
-Abalone have been harvested as a source of food and esthetics since prehistory. Abalone shells and associated materials, like their claw-like [[pearls]] and [[mother of pearl|nacre]], have been used as jewelry and for buttons, buckles, and inlay.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Haliotis Linnaeus, 1758|url=https://www.gbif.org/species/113517568|access-date=27 May 2021|website=www.gbif.org|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Colliers">{{harvnb|Loosanoff|1997|p=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=What are abalone pearls?|date=22 August 2019 |url=https://pearlwise.pro/what-are-abalone-pearls}}</ref>  These shells have been found in archaeological sites around the world, ranging from 100,000-year-old deposits at Blombos Cave in South Africa to historic Chinese abalone middens on California's Northern Channel Islands.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Henshilwood |display-authors=et al.|title=A 100,000-Year-Old Ochre-Processing Workshop at [[Blombos Cave]], South Africa|journal=Science|date=October 2011|volume=334|issue=6053|pages=219–222|doi=10.1126/science.1211535|pmid=21998386|bibcode=2011Sci...334..219H|s2cid=40455940}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Braje, Erlandson & Rick|title=An Historic Chinese Abalone Fishery on California's Northern Channel Islands|journal=Historical Archaeology|date=2007|volume=41|issue=4|pages=117–128|doi=10.1007/BF03377298|s2cid=164710632}}</ref>  For at least 12,000 years, abalone were harvested to such an extent around the [[Channel Islands (California)|Channel Islands]] that shells in the area decreased in size four thousand years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Haliotis Linnaeus, 1758|url=https://www.gbif.org/species/113517568|access-date=27 May 2021|website=www.gbif.org|language=en}}</ref>
+Abalone have been harvested as a source of food and esthetics since prehistory. Abalone shells and associated materials, like their claw-like [[pearls]] and [[mother of pearl|nacre]], have been used as jewelry and for buttons, buckles, and inlay.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Haliotis Linnaeus, 1758|url=https://www.gbif.org/species/113517568|access-date=27 May 2021|website=www.gbif.org|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Colliers">{{harvnb|Loosanoff|1997|p=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=What are abalone pearls?|date=22 August 2019|url=https://pearlwise.pro/what-are-abalone-pearls|access-date=13 January 2022|archive-date=15 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115063828/https://pearlwise.pro/what-are-abalone-pearls/}}</ref>  These shells have been found in archaeological sites around the world, ranging from 100,000-year-old deposits at Blombos Cave in South Africa to historic Chinese abalone middens on California's Northern Channel Islands.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Henshilwood |display-authors=et al.|title=A 100,000-Year-Old Ochre-Processing Workshop at [[Blombos Cave]], South Africa|journal=Science|date=October 2011|volume=334|issue=6053|pages=219–222|doi=10.1126/science.1211535|pmid=21998386|bibcode=2011Sci...334..219H|s2cid=40455940}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Braje, Erlandson & Rick|title=An Historic Chinese Abalone Fishery on California's Northern Channel Islands|journal=Historical Archaeology|date=2007|volume=41|issue=4|pages=117–128|doi=10.1007/BF03377298|s2cid=164710632}}</ref>  For at least 12,000 years, abalone were harvested to such an extent around the [[Channel Islands (California)|Channel Islands]] that shells in the area decreased in size four thousand years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Haliotis Linnaeus, 1758|url=https://www.gbif.org/species/113517568|access-date=27 May 2021|website=www.gbif.org|language=en}}</ref>
 ===Farming===
@@ Line 63: / Line 100: @@
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20161010215256/http://www.oceangrown.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Ocean-Grown-Information-Memorandum-Approved-Screen.pdf
   |archive-date = 10 October 2016
-|url-status     = dead
- |df           = dmy-all
 }}</ref> a commercial "sea ranch" was set up in [[Flinders Bay]], Western Australia to raise abalone. The ranch is based on an artificial reef made up of 5,000 separate concrete abalone habitat units, which can host 400 abalone each. The reef is seeded with young abalone from an onshore hatchery.
@@ Line 99: / Line 134: @@
 ====Australia====
-[[Tasmania]] supplies about 25% of the yearly world abalone harvest.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014}}</ref> Around 12,500 Tasmanians recreationally fish for [[Haliotis rubra|blacklip]] and [[Haliotis laevigata|greenlip]] abalone. For blacklip abalone, the size limit varies between {{convert|138|mm|in|abbr=on}} for the southern end of the state and {{convert|127|mm|in|abbr=on}} for the northern end of the state.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014a}}</ref> Greenlip abalone have a minimum size of {{convert|145|mm|in|abbr=on}}, except for an area around [[Perkins Bay]] in the north of the state where the minimum size is {{convert|132|mm|in}}. With a recreational abalone licence, the bag limit is 10 per day, with a total possession limit of 20. [[Scuba diving]] for abalone is allowed, and has a rich history in Australia. (Scuba diving for abalone in the states of [[New South Wales]] and [[Western Australia]] is illegal; a [[free-diving]] catch limit of two is allowed).<ref>{{cite web|title=FRDC blacklip abalone|url=http://fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/blacklip_abalone.aspx|access-date=5 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909021551/http://www.fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/blacklip_abalone.aspx|archive-date=9 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=FRDC greenlip abalone|url=http://fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/greenlip_abalone.aspx|access-date=5 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160904073427/http://www.fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/greenlip_abalone.aspx|archive-date=4 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
+[[Tasmania]] supplies about 25% of the yearly world abalone harvest.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014}}</ref> Around 12,500 Tasmanians recreationally fish for [[Haliotis rubra|blacklip]] and [[Haliotis laevigata|greenlip]] abalone. For blacklip abalone, the size limit varies between {{convert|138|mm|in|abbr=on}} for the southern end of the state and {{convert|127|mm|in|abbr=on}} for the northern end of the state.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014a}}</ref> Greenlip abalone have a minimum size of {{convert|145|mm|in|abbr=on}}, except for an area around [[Perkins Bay]] in the north of the state where the minimum size is {{convert|132|mm|in}}. With a recreational abalone licence, the bag limit is 10 per day, with a total possession limit of 20. [[Scuba diving]] for abalone is allowed, and has a rich history in Australia. (Scuba diving for abalone in the states of [[New South Wales]] and [[Western Australia]] is illegal; a [[free-diving]] catch limit of two is allowed).<ref>{{cite web|title=FRDC blacklip abalone|url=http://fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/blacklip_abalone.aspx|access-date=5 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909021551/http://www.fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/blacklip_abalone.aspx|archive-date=9 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=FRDC greenlip abalone|url=http://fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/greenlip_abalone.aspx|access-date=5 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160904073427/http://www.fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/greenlip_abalone.aspx|archive-date=4 September 2016}}</ref>
 [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] has had an active abalone fishery since the late 1950s. The state is sectioned into three fishing zones, Eastern, Central and Western, with each fisher required a zone-allocated licence. Harvesting is performed by divers using surface-supplied air "hookah" systems operating from runabout-style, outboard-powered boats. While the diver seeks out colonies of abalone amongst the reef beds, the deckhand operates the boat, known as working "live" and stays above where the diver is working. Bags of abalone pried from the rocks are brought to the surface by the diver or by way of "shot line", where the deckhand drops a weighted rope for the catch bag to be connected then retrieved. Divers measure each abalone before removing from the reef and the deckhand remeasures each abalone and removes excess weed growth from the shell. Since 2002, the Victorian industry has seen a significant decline in catches, with the total allowable catch reduced from 1440 to 787 tonnes for the 2011/12 [[fishing year]], due to dwindling stocks and most notably the abalone virus [[ganglioneuritis]], which is fast-spreading and lethal to abalone stocks.
@@ Line 137: / Line 172: @@
 ==== Channel Islands, Brittany and Normandy ====
-Ormers (''[[Green ormer|Haliotis tuberculata]]'') are considered a delicacy in the British [[Channel Islands]] as well as in adjacent areas of France, and are pursued with great alacrity by the locals. This, and a recent lethal bacterial disease,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://jerseyeveningpost.com/island-life/history-heritage/ormers/ |title=Ormers « Jersey Evening Post |access-date=18 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618131323/http://jerseyeveningpost.com/island-life/history-heritage/ormers/ |archive-date=18 June 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> has led to a dramatic depletion in numbers since the latter half of the 19th century, and "ormering" is now strictly regulated to preserve stocks. The gathering of ormers is now restricted to a number of 'ormering tides', from 1 January to 30 April, which occur on the full or new moon and two days following. No ormers may be taken from the beach that are under {{convert|80|mm|in}} in shell length. Gatherers are not allowed to wear wetsuits or even put their heads underwater. Any breach of these laws is a criminal offence and can lead to a fine of up to £5,000 or six months in prison.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014b}}</ref> The demand for ormers is such that they led to the world's first underwater arrest, when Mr. Kempthorne-Leigh of [[Guernsey]] was arrested by a police officer in full diving gear when illegally diving for ormers.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|1969|p=16}}</ref>
+Ormers (''[[Green ormer|Haliotis tuberculata]]'') are considered a delicacy in the British [[Channel Islands]] as well as in adjacent areas of France, and are pursued with great alacrity by the locals. This, and a recent lethal bacterial disease,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://jerseyeveningpost.com/island-life/history-heritage/ormers/ |title=Ormers « Jersey Evening Post |access-date=18 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618131323/http://jerseyeveningpost.com/island-life/history-heritage/ormers/ |archive-date=18 June 2015 }}</ref> has led to a dramatic depletion in numbers since the latter half of the 19th century, and "ormering" is now strictly regulated to preserve stocks. The gathering of ormers is now restricted to a number of 'ormering tides', from 1 January to 30 April, which occur on the full or new moon and two days following. No ormers may be taken from the beach that are under {{convert|80|mm|in}} in shell length. Gatherers are not allowed to wear wetsuits or even put their heads underwater. Any breach of these laws is a criminal offence and can lead to a fine of up to £5,000 or six months in prison.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014b}}</ref> The demand for ormers is such that they led to the world's first underwater arrest, when Mr. Kempthorne-Leigh of [[Guernsey]] was arrested by a police officer in full diving gear when illegally diving for ormers.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|1969|p=16}}</ref>
 <gallery class="center">
@@ Line 150: / Line 185: @@
 File:HK Food Chinese Seafood Dinner 鮑魚仔 Steamed Abalone with Mandarin orange peels.JPG|Abalone with [[mandarin orange]] peels.
 File:Abalone (dish) - in Macau.jpg|Abalone (dish) - in [[Macau]]
+Abalone Served With Rice in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 20241115.jpg|Abalone Served with Rice
+HK YTM Jordan Road n Canton Road 青葉海鮮酒家 Holly Seafood Restaurant diner food 鮑魚粉絲煲 Steamed Abalones With Vermicelli June 2025 R12S 03.jpg|Steamed Abalones With Vermicelli
 </gallery>
@@ Line 163: / Line 200: @@
 ==Species==
-{{Main|Haliotis}}
+The number of species that are recognized within the genus ''Haliotis'' has fluctuated over time, and depends on the source that is consulted. The number of recognized species range from 30<ref name="DCMD">{{harvnb|Dauphin|Cuif|Mutvei|Denis|1989|p=9}}</ref> to 130.<ref name="Cox">{{harvnb|Cox|1962|p=8}}</ref> As of 2025, 70 extant species were listed as accepted in MolluscaBase.<ref name="MBase2025">{{cite web | url = https://molluscabase.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=138050 | title = Haliotis Linnaeus, 1758 | work = MolluscaBase | access-date = 2025-07-27 }}</ref> This list finds a compromise using the WoRMS database, plus some species that have been added, for a total of 57.<ref name="WoRMS"/><ref>{{harvnb|Abbott|Dance|2000}}</ref> The majority of abalone have not been rated for conservation status. Those that have been reviewed tend to show that the abalone in general is an animal that is declining in numbers, and will need protection throughout the globe.
-The number of species that are recognized within the genus ''Haliotis'' has fluctuated over time, and depends on the source that is consulted. The number of recognized species range from 30<ref name=DCMD/> to 130.<ref name=Cox/> This list finds a compromise using the WoRMS database, plus some species that have been added, for a total of 57.<ref name="WoRMS"/><ref>{{harvnb|Abbott|Dance|2000}}</ref> The majority of abalone have not been rated for conservation status. Those that have been reviewed tend to show that the abalone in general is an animal that is declining in numbers, and will need protection throughout the globe.
+=== Extant species ===
+{| class="wikitable"
+|+ Species of abalone
+! Species !! Range !! Conservation status
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis alfredensis]]'' <small>[[Paul Bartsch|Bartsch]], 1915</small>{{efn|This species, depending on the source is its own species<ref name=WAlfred>{{harvnb|Tran|Bouchet|2009}}</ref> or is a synonym of ''Haliotis speciosa''.<ref>{{harvnb|EoL|2014}}</ref>}} || [[South Africa]] ||| {{IUCN status|DD|78748407|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis arabiensis]]'' <small>Owen, Regter & Van Laethem, 2016</small> || Off Yemen and Oman||| {{IUCN status|NT|157247863|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis asinina]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]</small> || [[Philippines]]; [[Indonesia]]; [[Australia]]; [[Japan]]; [[Thailand]]; [[Vietnam]] ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78749198|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis australis]]'' <small>[[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1791</small> || [[New Zealand]] ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78763353|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis brazieri]]'' <small>[[George French Angas|Angas]], 1869</small> || Eastern Australia ||| {{IUCN status|NT|78763607|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis clathrata]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1846</small> || [[Seychelles]]; [[Comores]]; [[Madagascar]]; [[Mauritius]]; [[Kenya]] ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78763614|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis coccoradiata]]'' <small>Reeve, 1846</small> || Eastern Australia ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78763643|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis corrugata]]'' <small>[[William Wood (zoologist)|Wood]], 1828</small> || [[California]], US; [[Baja California peninsula|Baja California]], [[Mexico]] ||| {{IUCN status|CR|78763727|1}}, Species of Concern [[NMFS|National Marine Fisheries Service]];<ref>{{harvnb|Neuman|2007}}</ref> Vulnerable (global) and imperiled (California) [[California Department of Fish and Wildlife]]<ref name="DFG">{{harvnb|State of California|2011}}</ref>
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis cracherodii]]'' <small>[[William Elford Leach|Leach]], 1814</small> || California, US; Baja California, Mexico ||| {{IUCN status|CR|41880|1}}, Vulnerable (Global, Nation: US, State: California) [[California Department of Fish and Wildlife]];<ref name="DFG" /><ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014f}}</ref> Listed endangered [[NMFS|National Marine Fisheries Service]]<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2009}}</ref>
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis cyclobates]]'' <small>[[François Péron|Péron]] & [[Charles Alexandre Lesueur|Lesueur]], 1816</small> || Southern Australia ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78763977|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis dalli]]'' <small>Henderson, 1915</small> || [[Galapagos Islands]], western [[Colombia]]||| {{IUCN status|DD|78764148|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis discus]]'' <small>Reeve, 1846</small> || [[Japan]]; [[South Korea]] ||| {{IUCN status|EN|78764186|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis dissona]]'' <small>([[Tom Iredale|Iredale]], 1929)</small> || Australia; [[New Caledonia]] ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78764274|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis diversicolor]]'' <small>Reeve, 1846</small> || Japan; Australia; [[Southeast Asia]] ||| {{IUCN status|DD|78764384|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis drogini]]'' <small>[[Buzz Owen|Owen]] & Reitz, 2012</small> || [[Cocos Island]]||| {{IUCN status|VU|78764677|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis elegans]]'' <small>Koch & [[Rodolfo Amando Philippi|Philippi]], 1844</small> || Western Australia ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78764711|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis exigua]]'' <small>[[Wilhelm Dunker|Dunker, R.W.]], 1877</small> (synonym of ''H. diversicolor'') ||Japan  ||| Not evaluated
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis fatui]]'' <small>[[Daniel L. Geiger|Geiger]], 1999</small> || [[Tonga]] [[Mariana Islands]] ||| {{IUCN status|DD|78764797|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis fulgens]]'' <small>[[Rodolfo Amando Philippi|Philippi]], 1845</small> || California, US; Baja California, Mexico ||| {{IUCN status|CR|78768961|1}}, Vulnerable (Global, State: California [[California Department of Fish and Wildlife]]);<ref name="DFG" /> Species of Concern [[National Marine Fisheries Service|NMFS]]<ref>{{harvnb|Neuman|2009}}</ref>
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis geigeri]]'' <small>Owen, 2014</small> ||São Tomé and Príncipe Islands ||| {{IUCN status|VU|78768971|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis gigantea]]'' <small>Gmelin, 1791</small> || Japan ||| {{IUCN status|EN|78768975|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis glabra]]'' <small>[[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1791</small> || [[Philippines]]; [[Vietnam]] ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78768980|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis iris]]'' <small>Gmelin, 1791</small> || New Zealand ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78769001|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis jacnensis]]'' <small>Reeve, 1846</small> || Japan; [[Nicobar Islands]]; [[Ryukyu Islands]]; [[Pacific Islands]]; ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78769011|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis kamtschatkana]]'' <small>Jonas, 1845</small> || Western North America ||| {{IUCN status|EN|61743|1}}, Imperiled ([[Alaska]], [[British Columbia]]), Vulnerable (global, US), critically imperiled (California);<ref name="DFG" /><ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014c}}</ref> Species of Concern NMFS<ref>{{harvnb|Gustafson|Rumsey|2007}}</ref>
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis laevigata]]'' <small>[[Edward Donovan|Donovan]], 1808</small> || South Australia; [[Tasmania]] ||| {{IUCN status|VU|78769674|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis madaka]]'' <small>(Habe, 1977)</small> || Japan; South Korea ||| {{IUCN status|EN|78769692|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis mariae]]'' <small>[[William Wood (zoologist)|Wood]], 1828</small> || [[Oman]]; [[Yemen]] ||| {{IUCN status|EN|78769871|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis marmorata]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]</small> || [[Liberia]]; [[Ivory Coast]]; [[Ghana]] ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78769875|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis melculus]]'' <small>([[Tom Iredale|Iredale]], 1927)</small> ||Australia ([[New South Wales]], [[Queensland]]) ||| {{IUCN status|VU|78771080|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis midae]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]</small> || South Africa ||| {{IUCN status|EN|78771094|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis mykonosensis]]'' <small>Owen, Hanavan & Hall, 2001</small> || [[Greece]]; [[Turkey]]; [[Tunisia]] ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78771101|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis ovina]]'' <small>Gmelin, 1791</small> || [[Thailand]]; [[Vietnam]]; southern part of the Pacific Ocean; [[Andaman Islands]]; [[Maldives]]; Ryukyu Islands ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78771163|1}}
+|-
+|''[[Haliotis papulata]]'' <small>Reeve, 1846</small>
+|Australia; Papua New Guinea; Philippines; Sri Lanka; Thailand
+|{{IUCN status|LC|161334052|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis parva]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]</small> || South Africa; [[Angola]]  ||| {{IUCN status|DD|78771325|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis pirimoana]]'' <small>Walton, Marshall, Rawlence & Spencer, 2024</small> || [[Manawatāwhi / Three Kings Islands]], New Zealand<ref name="Walton-2024"/><ref name="TheConversation1"/> ||| Not evaluated
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis planata]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1882</small> || Ryukyu Islands; [[Sri Lanka]]; [[Indonesia]]; Fiji; [[Andaman Sea]] ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78771329|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis pourtalesii]]'' <small>[[William Healey Dall|Dall]], 1881</small> || Eastern US; [[Gulf of Mexico]]; Eastern South America; northern [[Colombia]] ||| {{IUCN status|DD|78771388|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis pulcherrima]]'' <small>Gmelin, 1791</small> || [[Polynesia]] ||| {{IUCN status|DD|78771440|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis queketti]]'' <small>[[Edgar Albert Smith|E.A. Smith]], 1910</small> || Eastern Africa ||| {{IUCN status|DD|78771516|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis roei]]'' <small>[[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1826</small> || Australia ||| {{IUCN status|NT|78771528|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis rubiginosa]]'' <small>Reeve, 1846</small> || [[Lord Howe Island]] ||| {{IUCN status|CR|78771575|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis rubra]]'' <small>[[William Elford Leach|Leach]], 1814</small> || Southern and Eastern Australia ||| {{IUCN status|VU|78771579|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis rufescens]]'' <small>[[William Swainson|Swainson]], 1822</small> || Western North America ||| {{IUCN status|CR|78771583|1}}, apparently secure (global, US); critically imperiled (Canada)<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014d}}</ref>
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis rugosa]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1822</small> || South Africa; Madagascar; [[Mauritius]]; [[Red Sea]] ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78771608|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis scalaris]]'' <small>([[William Elford Leach|Leach]], 1814)</small> || Southern and Western Australia ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78771632|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis semiplicata]]'' <small>[[Karl Theodor Menke|Menke]], 1843</small> || Western Australia ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78771692|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis sorenseni]]'' <small>Bartsch, 1940</small> || California, US; Baja California, Mexico ||| {{IUCN status|CR|78771696|1}}, critically imperiled (global, US, California);<ref name="DFG" /><ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014e}}</ref> Endangered NMFS<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2001}}</ref>
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis spadicea]]'' <small>Donovan, 1808</small> || South Africa ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78771700|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis speciosa]]'' <small>Reeve, 1846</small> (synonym of ''H. tuberculata'')
+| Eastern South Africa ||| Not evaluated
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis squamosa]]'' <small>[[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1826</small> || Southern Madagascar ||| {{IUCN status|DD|78771710|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis stomatiaeformis]]'' <small>Reeve, 1846</small> || [[Malta]]; [[Sicily]]||| {{IUCN status|VU|78772043|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis supertexta]]'' <small>[[Karl Emil Lischke|Lischke]], 1870</small> (synonym of ''H. diversicolor'') || Japan; [[Sao Tome]] ||| Not evaluated
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis thailandis]]'' <small>Dekker & Patamakanthin, 2001</small> (synonym of ''H. papulata'') || Andaman Sea ||| Not evaluated
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis tuberculata]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]</small> || [[Ireland]] (introduced); [[Channel Islands]]; [[Azores]]; [[Canary Islands]]; [[Madeira]]; [[Brittany]]; [[Great Britain]] ||| {{IUCN status|VU|78772221|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis unilateralis]]'' <small>Lamarck, 1822</small> || [[Gulf of Aqaba]]; East Africa; [[Seychelles]]; ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78772250|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis varia]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]</small> || [[Mascarene Basin]]; Red Sea; Sri Lanka; Western Pacific; ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78772274|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis virginea]]'' <small>Gmelin, 1791</small> || New Zealand; [[Chatham Islands]]; [[Auckland Islands]]; [[Campbell Island, New Zealand|Campbell Island]] ||| {{IUCN status|LC|78772279|1}}
+|-
+| ''[[Haliotis walallensis]]'' <small>Stearns, 1899</small> || Western North America || {{IUCN status|CR|78772302|1}}
+|}
 <gallery class="center">
@@ Line 175: / Line 337: @@
 File:Haliotis varia f. dohrniana 001.jpg|A shell of ''[[Haliotis varia]]'' form ''dohrniana''
 </gallery>
+=== Fossil species ===
+* †''[[Haliotis benoisti]]'' <small>Cossmann, 1896</small> (Aquitaine, France)
+* †''[[Haliotis flemingi]]'' <small>Powell, 1938</small> (New Zealand)
+* †''[[Haliotis lomaensis]]'' <small>Anderson, 1902</small>
+* †''[[Haliotis mathesonensis]]'' <small>(Eagle, 1996)</small>
+* †''[[Haliotis (Marinauris) matihetihensis]]'' <small>(Eagle, 1999)</small>
+* †''[[Haliotis powelli]]'' <small>C. A. Fleming, 1952</small>
+* †''[[Haliotis stalennuyi]]'' <small>Owen & Berschauer, 2017</small>
+* †''[[Haliotis volhynica]]'' <small>Eichwald, 1829</small>
+* †''[[Haliotis waitemataensis]]'' <small>Powell, 1938</small>
 ==Synonyms==
@@ Line 186: / Line 359: @@
 == Citations ==
 {{Reflist|30em}}
+==Notes==
+{{notelist}}
 == References ==
 {{Refbegin|2}}
 * {{cite book | last1 = Abbott | first1 = R. Tucker | last2 = Dance | first2 = S. Peter | title = Compendium of Seashells | url = https://archive.org/details/Compendium_of_Seashells_by_S._Peter_Dance | year = 2000 | publisher = Odyssey Publishing | isbn = 978-0-9661720-0-3 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/Compendium_of_Seashells_by_S._Peter_Dance/page/n29 19]–23 | edition = 4th }}
-* {{cite web |last=Akimichi |first=Tomoya |year=1999 |url=http://www.kikkoman.com/foodforum/thejapanesetablebackissues/10.shtml |title=The Enduring Appeal of Abalone |access-date=16 August 2014 |website=Kikkoman Food Forum |publisher=Kikkoman.com |archive-date=18 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140818214320/http://www.kikkoman.com/foodforum/thejapanesetablebackissues/10.shtml |url-status=dead }}
+* {{cite web |last=Akimichi |first=Tomoya |year=1999 |url=http://www.kikkoman.com/foodforum/thejapanesetablebackissues/10.shtml |title=The Enduring Appeal of Abalone |access-date=16 August 2014 |website=Kikkoman Food Forum |publisher=Kikkoman.com |archive-date=18 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140818214320/http://www.kikkoman.com/foodforum/thejapanesetablebackissues/10.shtml }}
 * {{cite web |author=Anon |year=2014 |url=http://www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/SCAN-75F423?open |title=Abalone Viral Ganglioneuritis |access-date=16 August 2014 |website=Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment |publisher=Tasmanian Government |archive-date=23 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823161219/http://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/sea-fishing-aquaculture/commercial-fishing/abalone-fishery/abalone-disease-and-biosecurity/abalone-viral-ganglioneuritis |url-status=live }}
 * {{cite web |author=Anon |year=2014a |url=http://www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/ALIR-4YNVZ7?open#GreenlipAbaloneSizeL |title=Abalone Fishing |access-date=16 August 2014 |archive-date=26 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726193648/http://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/sea-fishing-aquaculture/recreational-fishing/abalone-fishing |publisher=Tasmanian Government |website=Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment |url-status=live }}
 * {{cite web |author=Anon |year=2014b |url=http://www.visitguernsey.com/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=85634&p=0 |title=Ormering Tides 2014 |access-date=16 August 2014 |archive-date=19 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819082514/http://www.visitguernsey.com/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=85634&p=0 |website=visitguernsey.com |publisher=State of Guernsey Commerce and Employment |url-status=live }}
-* {{cite web | author = Anon | year = 2014c | url = http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=113951&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | access-date = 22 August 2014 | title = ''Haliotis kamtschatkana'' – Jonas, 1845 | website = NatureServe Explorer | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120301/http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=113951&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | archive-date = 26 August 2014 | url-status = dead }}
+* {{cite web | author = Anon | year = 2014c | url = http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=113951&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | access-date = 22 August 2014 | title = ''Haliotis kamtschatkana'' – Jonas, 1845 | website = NatureServe Explorer | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120301/http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=113951&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | archive-date = 26 August 2014 }}
-* {{cite web | author = Anon | year = 2014d | url = http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=107385&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | access-date = 22 August 2014 | title = ''Haliotis refescens'' – Swainson, 1822 | website = NatureServe Explorer | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140826160903/http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=107385&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | archive-date = 26 August 2014 | url-status = dead }}
+* {{cite web | author = Anon | year = 2014d | url = http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=107385&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | access-date = 22 August 2014 | title = ''Haliotis refescens'' – Swainson, 1822 | website = NatureServe Explorer | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140826160903/http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=107385&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | archive-date = 26 August 2014 }}
-* {{cite web | author = Anon | year = 2014e | url = http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=116467&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | access-date = 22 August 2014 | title = ''Haliotis sorenseni'' – Bartsch, 1940 | website = NatureServe Explorer | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140826115417/http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=116467&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | archive-date = 26 August 2014 | url-status = dead }}
+* {{cite web | author = Anon | year = 2014e | url = http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=116467&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | access-date = 22 August 2014 | title = ''Haliotis sorenseni'' – Bartsch, 1940 | website = NatureServe Explorer | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140826115417/http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=116467&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | archive-date = 26 August 2014 }}
-* {{cite web | author = Anon | year = 2014f | url = http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=120086&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | access-date = 22 August 2014 | title = ''Haliotis cracherodii'' – Leach, 1814 | website = NatureServe Explorer | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120205/http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=120086&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | archive-date = 26 August 2014 | url-status = dead }}
+* {{cite web | author = Anon | year = 2014f | url = http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=120086&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | access-date = 22 August 2014 | title = ''Haliotis cracherodii'' – Leach, 1814 | website = NatureServe Explorer | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120205/http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=120086&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=814921&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=814921&selectedIndexes=120086&selectedIndexes=814920&selectedIndexes=113951&selectedIndexes=107385&selectedIndexes=116467 | archive-date = 26 August 2014 }}
 * {{cite web | author = Anon | year = 2014g | url = http://iobis.org/mapper/?taxon=Haliotis | title = Distribution Map: Haliotis | access-date = 22 August 2014 | website = Ocean Biogeographic Information System }}
-* {{cite web | author = Anon | year = 2012 | url = http://www.fishtech.com/abaloneinfo.html | title = Abalone Information: Introduction | access-date = 16 August 2014 | website = Fishtech | archive-date = 13 November 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071113063321/http://www.fishtech.com/abaloneinfo.html | url-status = dead }}
+* {{cite web | author = Anon | year = 2012 | url = http://www.fishtech.com/abaloneinfo.html | title = Abalone Information: Introduction | access-date = 16 August 2014 | website = Fishtech | archive-date = 13 November 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071113063321/http://www.fishtech.com/abaloneinfo.html }}
 * {{cite web |author=Anon |url=http://www.mg.co.za/article/2007-04-11-six-arrested-in-massive-perlemoen-bust |title=Six Arrested in Massive Abalone Bust |access-date=16 August 2014 |website=Mail & Guardian |date=11 April 2007 |archive-date=19 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819092014/http://mg.co.za/article/2007-04-11-six-arrested-in-massive-perlemoen-bust |url-status=live }}
 * {{cite web |author=Anon |date=14 January 2009 |website=Federal Register: The Daily Journal of the United States |title=Endangered and Threatened Species; Endangered Status for Black Abalone |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2009/01/14/E9-635/endangered-and-threatened-wildlife-and-plants-endangered-status-for-black-abalone |access-date=22 August 2014 |archive-date=26 August 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826114139/https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2009/01/14/E9-635/endangered-and-threatened-wildlife-and-plants-endangered-status-for-black-abalone }}
@@ Line 205: / Line 381: @@
 * {{cite web |author=Anon |date=29 May 2001 |website=Federal Register: The Daily Journal of the United States |title=Endangered and Threatened Species; Endangered Status for White Abalone |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2001/05/29/01-13430/endangered-and-threatened-species-endangered-status-for-white-abalone |access-date=22 August 2014 |archive-date=29 July 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729124601/https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2001/05/29/01-13430/endangered-and-threatened-species-endangered-status-for-white-abalone }}
 * {{cite news | author = Anon | date = 15 January 1969 | title = Illegal Ormering Brings First Underwater Arrest | url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1696&dat=19690115&id=YNIdAAAAIBAJ&pg=5024,1908518 | newspaper = Park City Daily News | location = Bowling Green, KY }}
+* {{Cite journal| volume = 10| pages = 5–47| last = Bandel| first = Klaus| title = The slit bearing nacreous Archaeogastropoda of the Triassic tropical reefs in the St. Cassian Formation with evaluation of the taxonomic value of the selenizone| journal = Berliner Geowissenschaftliche Abhandlungen E| date = 2009-11-11}}
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 * {{cite journal | last = Cox | first = Keith W. | year = 1962 | title = California abalone, family Haliotidae | journal = The Resources Agency of California Department of Fish and Game: Fish Bulletin | volume = 118 | issn = 6306-2593  }}
+* {{Cite journal| doi = 10.1093/sysbio/syab071| issn = 1063-5157| volume = 71| issue = 4| pages = 1009–1022| last1 = Cunha| first1 = Tauana Junqueira| last2 = Reimer| first2 = James Davis| last3 = Giribet| first3 = Gonzalo| title = Investigating sources of conflict in deep phylogenomics of vetigastropod snails| journal = Systematic Biology| date = 2021-10-18| pmc = 9249062}}
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 * {{cite web |author=EoL |year=2014 |url=http://eol.org/pages/3048993/overview |website=Encyclopedia of Life |access-date=21 August 2014 |archive-date=21 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821215843/http://eol.org/pages/3048993/overview |title=Haliotis speciosa: Splendid Abalone |url-status=live }}
-* {{cite book |last=Freeman |first=Kylie A. |title=Aquaculture and Related Biological Attributes of Abalone Species in Australia – A Review |journal=Fisheries Research Report |volume=128 |date=June 2001 |publisher=Department of Fisheries |location=North Beach, WA, Australia |issn=1035-4549 |isbn=978-0-7309-8456-6 |url=http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/Documents/research_reports/frr128.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819083131/http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/Documents/research_reports/frr128.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 August 2014 }}
+* {{cite book |last=Freeman |first=Kylie A. |title=Aquaculture and Related Biological Attributes of Abalone Species in Australia – A Review |journal=Fisheries Research Report |volume=128 |date=June 2001 |publisher=Department of Fisheries |location=North Beach, WA, Australia |issn=1035-4549 |isbn=978-0-7309-8456-6 |url=http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/Documents/research_reports/frr128.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819083131/http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/Documents/research_reports/frr128.pdf |archive-date=19 August 2014 }}
-* {{cite web |last=Gayot |first=Alain |year=2010 |url=http://www.thefoodpaper.com/features/abalonefarm.html |title=Maritime Morsels: Fresh Abalone in California |access-date=16 August 2014 |website=Gayot: The Guide to the Good Life |publisher=The Food Paper |archive-date=19 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819171613/http://www.gayot.com/restaurants/features/abalone-facts.html |url-status=dead }}
+* {{cite web |last=Gayot |first=Alain |year=2010 |url=http://www.thefoodpaper.com/features/abalonefarm.html |title=Maritime Morsels: Fresh Abalone in California |access-date=16 August 2014 |website=Gayot: The Guide to the Good Life |publisher=The Food Paper |archive-date=19 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819171613/http://www.gayot.com/restaurants/features/abalone-facts.html }}
 * {{cite journal | last1 = Geiger | first1 = Daniel L. | last2 = Groves | first2 = Lindsey T. | title = Review of Fossil Abalone (Gastropoda, Vetigastropoda, Haliotidae) with Comparison to Recent Species | journal = Journal of Paleontology | volume = 73 | issue = 5 | pages = 872–885 | doi = 10.1017/S0022336000040713| date = September 1999 | bibcode = 1999JPal...73..872G | s2cid = 87537607 | issn = 0022-3360  }}
 * {{cite book | last1 = Geiger | first1 = Daniel L.| last2 = Owen | first2 = Buzz | year = 2012 | title = Abalone: Worldwide Haliotidae | location =  Hackenheim, Germany | publisher = Conchbooks | isbn = 978-3-9397-6743-5  }}
 * {{cite web |last1=Gofas |first1=Serge |last2=Tran |first2=Bastien |last3=Bouchet |first3=Phillippe |year=2014 |title=WoRms Taxon Details: ''Haliotis'' Linnaeus, 1758 |website=WoRMS (World Register of Marine Species) |access-date=16 August 2014 |archive-date=10 October 2014 |url=http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=138050 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141010200912/http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=138050 |url-status=live }}
+* {{Cite journal| volume = 50| issue = 1| pages = 24–26| last1 = Groves| first1 = Lindsey T| last2 = Alderson| first2 = John M| title = Earliest record of the genus Haliotis (Mollusca: Gastropoda) from the Late Cretaceous (Campanian) of Los Angeles County, California| journal = The Veliger| date = 2008-03-11}}
 * {{cite web |last1=Gustafson |first1=Rick |last2=Rumsey |first2=Scott |date=1 November 2007 |access-date=22 August 2014 |archive-date=7 October 2012 |url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/pintoabalone_detailed.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007180626/http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/pintoabalone_detailed.pdf |title=Species of Concern: Pinto Abalone ''Haliotis Kamtschatkana'' |website=NOAA: National Marine Fisheries Service |url-status=live }}
 * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Hoiberg | editor-first = Dale H. | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica| edition = 15th | year = 1993 | publisher =  Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | volume = 1: A-ak Bayes | location = Chicago, IL | isbn = 978-0-85229-961-6 | lccn = 2002113989 | title = The New Encyclopaedia Britannica }}
 * {{cite book | last = Jones | first = Glenn A. | editor1-last = Starkey | editor1-first = David J. | editor2-last = Holm | editor2-first = Poul | editor3-last = Barnard | editor3-first = Michaela | title = Oceans Past: Management Insights from the History of Marine Animal Populations | chapter = "Quite the Choicest Protein Dish": The Costs of Consuming Seafood in American Restaurants, 1850–2006 | location = London, UK | publisher = Earthscan | isbn = 978-1-84407-527-0 | year = 2008  }}
+* {{Cite journal| doi = 10.11646/zootaxa.5042.1.1| eissn = 1175-5334 | issn = 1175-5326| volume = 5042| issue = 1| pages = 1–165| last1 = Karapunar| first1 = Baran| last2 = Nützel| first2 = Alexander| title = Slit-band gastropods (Pleurotomariida) from the Upper Triassic St. Cassian Formation and their diversity dynamics in the Triassic| journal = Zootaxa| date = 2021-09-24}}
+* {{Cite journal| doi = 10.1080/14772019.2024.2384141| volume = 22| issue = 1| last1 = Karapunar| first1 = Baran| last2 = Höhna| first2 = Sebastian| last3 = Nützel| first3 = Alexander| title = Phylogeny of the longest existing gastropod clade (Pleurotomariida) reconstructed with Bayesian and parsimony methods and its implications on gastropod shell characters | journal = Journal of Systematic Palaeontology| date = 2024-09-18}}
+* {{Cite journal| volume = 34| pages = 269–277| last1 = Kiel| first1 = Steffen| last2 = Bandel| first2 = Klaus| title = New slit-bearing Archaeogastropoda from the Late Cretaceous of Spain| journal = Berliner Geowissenschaftliche Abhandlungen E| date = 2000}}
 * {{cite journal | last1 = Lin | first1 = Albert | last2 = Meyers | first2 = Marc André | doi = 10.1016/j.msea.2004.06.072 | title = Growth and Structure in Abalone Shell | date = 15 January 2005 | journal = Materials Science and Engineering: A | volume = 390 | issue = 1–2 | issn = 0921-5093 | pages = 27–41  }}
 * {{cite book | last = Linnaeus | first = Carl | author-link = Carl Linnaeus | year = 1758 | title = Systema Naturæ per Regna Tria Naturæ, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis | trans-title = The System of Nature Through the Three Kingdoms of Nature, According to Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, With the Characteristics, Differences, Synonyms, and Locations | edition = Decima [10th] | volume = 1 | publisher = Laurentii Salvii | location = Holmia [Stockholm], Sweden | url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#page/5/mode/1up | language = la }}
 * {{cite book | last = Linnaeus | first = Carl | author-link = Carl Linnaeus | year = 1767 | title = Systema Naturæ | trans-title = The System of Nature | edition = Duodecima [12th] | volume = 1, Part 2 | publisher = Laurentii Salvii | location = Holmia [Stockholm], Sweden | url = http://dfg-viewer.de/show/?tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=http%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fmets_export.php%3FPPN%3DPPN362053723&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=1&tx_dlf%5Bdouble%5D=0&cHash=0d2840d4a6a1753fdcc8095dba46df58 | language = la }}
 * {{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Loosanoff | first1 = Victor L. | editor-last = Johnston | editor-first = Bernard | encyclopedia = Collier's Encyclopedia | title = Abalone | edition = 1st | year = 1997 | publisher = P. F. Collier | volume = I: A to Ameland | location = New York, NY  }}
-* {{cite iucn |author=McDougall, P.T. |author2=Ploss, J. |author3=Tuthill, J. |date=2006 |title=''Haliotis kamtschatkana'' |volume=2006 |page=e.T61743A12552981 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T61743A12552981.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}
+* {{cite iucn |author=McDougall, P.T. |author2=Ploss, J. |author3=Tuthill, J. |date=2006 |title=''Haliotis kamtschatkana'' |volume=2006 |article-number=e.T61743A12552981 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T61743A12552981.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}
 * {{cite web |last=Neuman |first=Melissa |date=10 June 2009 |access-date=22 August 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/greenabalone_detailed.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304111523/http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/greenabalone_detailed.pdf |title=Species of Concern: Green Abalone ''Haliotis fulgens'' |website=NOAA: National Marine Fisheries Service |url-status=live }}
 * {{cite web |last=Neuman |first=Melissa |date=2 November 2007 |access-date=22 August 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/pinkabalone_detailed.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050111/http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/pinkabalone_detailed.pdf |title=Species of Concern: Pink Abalone ''Haliotis corrugata'' |website=NOAA: National Marine Fisheries Service |url-status=live }}
 * {{cite journal | last = Simon | first = Carol A. | year = 2011 | title = Polydora and Dipolydora (Polychaeta: Spionidae) Associated With Molluscs on the South Coast of South Africa, With Descriptions of Two New Species | journal = [[African Invertebrates]] | volume = 52 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–50 | issn = 1681-5556  | doi=10.5733/afin.052.0104| bibcode = 2011AfrIn..52...39S | doi-access = free }}
 * {{cite news |last=Simons |first=Stefan |date=14 April 2010 |url=http://www.spiegel.de/reise/europa/0,1518,688155,00.html |title=Abalone-Zucht in der Bretagne: Sylvains Meerestrüffel |trans-title=Abalone Farming in Brittany: Sylvain Sea Truffles |access-date=16 August 2014 |language=de |newspaper=Spiegel Online |archive-date=4 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204012756/http://www.spiegel.de/reise/europa/abalone-zucht-in-der-bretagne-sylvains-meerestrueffel-a-688155.html |url-status=live }}
-* {{cite iucn |author=Smith, G. |author2=Stamm, C. |author3=Petrovic, F. |collaboration=McGill University |date=2003 |title=''Haliotis cracherodii'' |volume=2003 |page=e.T41880A10566196 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2003.RLTS.T41880A10566196.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}
+* {{cite iucn |author=Smith, G. |author2=Stamm, C. |author3=Petrovic, F. |collaboration=McGill University |date=2003 |title=''Haliotis cracherodii'' |volume=2003 |article-number=e.T41880A10566196 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2003.RLTS.T41880A10566196.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}
 * {{cite book | last = Smookler | first = Michael | title = San Mateo County Coast | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KWtomVo9nekC | year = 2005 | publisher = Arcadia Publishing | isbn = 978-0-7385-3061-1 }}
 * {{cite web |author=State of California |year=2014 |url=https://govt.westlaw.com/calregs/Document/I1F5125905A1D11E39E99E44D51D26567?viewType=FullText&originationContext=documenttoc&transitionType=CategoryPageItem&contextData=(sc.Default) |title=Title 14, Division 1, Subdivision 1, Chapter 4, Article 1, §29.15 Abalone |website=Westlaw |access-date=16 August 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055236/https://govt.westlaw.com/calregs/Document/I1F5125905A1D11E39E99E44D51D26567?viewType=FullText&originationContext=documenttoc&transitionType=CategoryPageItem&contextData=(sc.Default) |url-status=live }}
-* {{cite web |author=State of California |date=January 2011 |url=http://www.dfg.ca.gov/biogeodata/cnddb/pdfs/spanimals.pdf |title=Special Animals (898 Taxa) |website=State of California: Division of Fish and Game |access-date=22 August 2014 |archive-date=24 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140124164328/http://www.dfg.ca.gov/biogeodata/cnddb/pdfs/spanimals.pdf |url-status=dead }}
+* {{cite web |author=State of California |date=January 2011 |url=http://www.dfg.ca.gov/biogeodata/cnddb/pdfs/spanimals.pdf |title=Special Animals (898 Taxa) |website=State of California: Division of Fish and Game |access-date=22 August 2014 |archive-date=24 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140124164328/http://www.dfg.ca.gov/biogeodata/cnddb/pdfs/spanimals.pdf }}
 * {{cite web |author=State of California |year=2008 |url=https://govt.westlaw.com/calregs/Document/I07609D1057DC11E29076D3281F28AB91?viewType=FullText&originationContext=documenttoc&transitionType=StatuteNavigator&contextData=(sc.Default) |title=Title 14, Division 1, Subdivision 1, Chapter 4, Article 1, §29.16 Abalone Report Card and Tagging Requirements (FG 2915, See Section 701) |website=Westlaw |access-date=16 August 2014 |archive-date=25 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225013830/https://govt.westlaw.com/calregs/Document/I07609D1057DC11E29076D3281F28AB91?viewType=FullText&originationContext=documenttoc&transitionType=CategoryPageItem&contextData=(sc.Default) |url-status=live }}
 * {{cite magazine |last=Taggart |first=Stewart |date=25 January 2002 |url=https://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,49847,00.html |title=Abalone Farming on a Boat |access-date=16 August 2014 |magazine=Wired |archive-date=12 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612200225/http://archive.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2002/01/49847 |url-status=live }}
 * {{cite web |last1=Tran |first1=Bastien |last2=Bouchet |first2=Phillippe |year=2009 |url=http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=445309 |website=WoRMS: World Register of Marine Species |title=WoRMS Taxon Details: ''Haliotis corrugata oweni'' Talmadge, 1966 |access-date=19 August 2014 |archive-date=17 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017054534/http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=445309 |url-status=live }}
 * {{cite book | last = Tryon | first = George W. Jr. | author-link = George Washington Tryon | year = 1880 | title = Manual of Conchology; Structural and Systematic With Illustrations of the Species | volume = II: Muricinæ, Purpurinæ | publisher = Academy of Natural Sciences | location = Philadelphia, PA | url = https://archive.org/details/manualofconcholo2tryo | format = PDF }}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Westaway |first1=Cameron |last2=Norriss |first2=Jeff |date=October 1997 |url=http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/Documents/management_papers/fmp109.pdf |title=Abalone Aquaculture in Western Australia |journal=Fisheries Management Paper |volume=109 |issn=0819-4327 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819084356/http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/Documents/management_papers/fmp109.pdf |archive-date=19 August 2014 }}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Westaway |first1=Cameron |last2=Norriss |first2=Jeff |date=October 1997 |url=http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/Documents/management_papers/fmp109.pdf |title=Abalone Aquaculture in Western Australia |journal=Fisheries Management Paper |volume=109 |issn=0819-4327 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819084356/http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/Documents/management_papers/fmp109.pdf |archive-date=19 August 2014 }}
 {{Refend}}
@@ Line 255: / Line 437: @@
 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130423151728/http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/Documents/recreational_fishing/fact_sheets/fact_sheet_abalone.pdf Fisheries Western Australia – Abalone Fact Sheet]
 * [https://archive.today/20060315181535/http://web.uct.ac.za/depts/zoology/abnet/species.html Imagemap of worldwide abalone distribution]
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190412044614/http://www.omanholiday.co.uk/Abalone-in-Dhofar-by-Tony-Walsh-for-Emirates-Open-Skies-Magazine.pdf Oman’s Abalone Harvest ]
+* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190412044614/http://www.omanholiday.co.uk/Abalone-in-Dhofar-by-Tony-Walsh-for-Emirates-Open-Skies-Magazine.pdf Oman's Abalone Harvest ]
 * {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110717004848/http://www.thejohnharding.com/archives/00001521.htm]}} Pro abalone diver, Mallacoota, Victoria (1967)
 * {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081120222458/http://www.thejohnharding.com/archives/00000954.htm]}} Tathra NSW(1961), Abalone (1963)
@@ Line 272: / Line 454: @@
 [[Category:Organic gemstones]]
 [[Category:Mollusc common names]]
-[[Category:South Australian cuisine]]
+[[Category:Cuisine of South Australia]]
 [[de:Seeohren]]  <!-- Do not remove. Connection through Wikidata is not possible as [[Haliotis]] is already referencing to [[:de:Seeohren]]. -->
 [[ja:アワビ#人間との関わり]]

Abalone: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 00:34, 22 October 2025

Names

Description

Distribution

Evolutionary history

Structure and properties of the shell

Diseases and pests

Human use

Farming

Consumption

Sport harvesting

Australia

United States

New Zealand

South Africa

Channel Islands, Brittany and Normandy

Decorative items

Indigenous use

Threat of extinction

Species

Extant species

Fossil species

Synonyms

See also

Citations

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