Lynn Conway: Difference between revisions

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'''Lynn Ann Conway''' (January 2, 1938 – June 9, 2024) was an American [[computer scientist]], [[electrical engineer]], and [[transgender activist]].
'''Lynn Ann Conway''' (January 2, 1938 – June 9, 2024) was an American [[computer scientist]], [[electrical engineer]], and [[transgender rights activist]].


In the 1960s, while working at [[IBM]], Conway invented generalized dynamic instruction handling, a key advancement used in [[out-of-order execution]], used by most modern computer processors to improve performance. IBM fired Conway in 1968 after she revealed her intention to undergo a [[gender transition]], which the company apologized for in 2020.
In the 1960s, while working at [[IBM]], Conway invented generalized dynamic instruction handling, a key advancement used in [[out-of-order execution]], used by most modern computer processors to improve performance. IBM fired Conway in 1968 after she revealed her intention to undergo a [[gender transition]], which the company apologized for in 2020.
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Following her transition, Conway adopted a new name and identity and restarted her career. She worked at [[Xerox PARC]] from 1973 to 1983, where she led the "LSI Systems" group. She initiated the [[Mead–Conway VLSI chip design revolution]] in very large-scale integrated ([[VLSI]]) microchip design, which reshaped the field of microchip design during the 1980s.
Following her transition, Conway adopted a new name and identity and restarted her career. She worked at [[Xerox PARC]] from 1973 to 1983, where she led the "LSI Systems" group. She initiated the [[Mead–Conway VLSI chip design revolution]] in very large-scale integrated ([[VLSI]]) microchip design, which reshaped the field of microchip design during the 1980s.


Conway joined the [[University of Michigan]] as a professor of [[electrical engineering]] and [[computer science]] in 1985. She retired from active teaching and research in 1998 as [[Professor emeritus#Other designations|professor emerita]]. Conway began publicly discussing her gender transition in 1999 and was a [[transgender activism|transgender activist]] until her death in 2024.
Conway joined the [[University of Michigan]] as a professor of [[electrical engineering]] and [[computer science]] in 1985. She retired from active teaching and research in 1998 as [[Professor emeritus#Other designations|professor emerita]]. Conway began publicly discussing her gender transition in 1999 and was a [[transgender rights activist]] until her death in 2024.


==Early life and education==
==Early life and education==
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In 2020, [[National Academy of Engineering]] President [[John L. Anderson]] stated that "Lynn Conway is not only a revolutionary pioneer in the design of VLSI systems ... But just as important, Lynn has been very brave in telling her own story, and her perseverance has been a reminder to society that it should not be blind to the innovations of women, people of color, or others who don't fit long outdated – but unfortunately, persistent – perceptions of what an engineer looks like."<ref name=":1" />
In 2020, [[National Academy of Engineering]] President [[John L. Anderson]] stated that "Lynn Conway is not only a revolutionary pioneer in the design of VLSI systems ... But just as important, Lynn has been very brave in telling her own story, and her perseverance has been a reminder to society that it should not be blind to the innovations of women, people of color, or others who don't fit long outdated – but unfortunately, persistent – perceptions of what an engineer looks like."<ref name=":1" />


Conway named the phenomenon of women and people of color being overlooked in historical accounts of innovations "the Conway Effect."<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=CSDL {{!}} IEEE Computer Society |url=https://www.computer.org/csdl/magazine/co/2018/10/mco2018100066/17D45WXIkDI |access-date=June 12, 2024 |website=www.computer.org |archive-date=December 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208031250/https://www.computer.org/csdl/magazine/co/2018/10/mco2018100066/17D45WXIkDI |url-status=live }}</ref> She described it in the [[IEEE Computer Society]]'s ''Computer'' magazine: "This is seldom deliberate—rather, it's a result of the accumulation of advantage by those who are expected to innovate."<ref name=":2" />
{{Anchor|Conway effect}}
Conway coined the "Conway effect" to describe the phenomenon where people "othered" by society, such as women and people of color, are overlooked in later historical accounts of innovations.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=CSDL {{!}} IEEE Computer Society |url=https://www.computer.org/csdl/magazine/co/2018/10/mco2018100066/17D45WXIkDI |access-date=June 12, 2024 |website=www.computer.org |archive-date=December 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208031250/https://www.computer.org/csdl/magazine/co/2018/10/mco2018100066/17D45WXIkDI |url-status=live }}</ref> She described it in the [[IEEE Computer Society]]'s ''Computer'' magazine: "This is seldom deliberate—rather, it's a result of the accumulation of advantage by those who are expected to innovate."<ref name=":2" /> The effect drew inspiration from the [[Matilda effect]] and [[Matthew effect]].


In 2023, Lynn Conway collaborated with Jim Boulton to create ''Lines in the Sand'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boulton |first=Jim |title=Lines in the Sand, The Lynn Conway Story (Unsung Heroes of the Information Age) |publisher=Unsung Heroes |year=2024 |publication-date=February 21, 2024 |asin=B0CW1LNGFD}}</ref> a short comic book that tells the story of the invention VLSI. The launch event<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mw2jAZmnIqU |title=Lynn Conway – If you want to change the future, start living as if you're already there |date=April 26, 2024 |last=The Centre for Computing History |access-date=June 6, 2024 |via=YouTube |archive-date=June 6, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240606130617/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mw2jAZmnIqU |url-status=live }}</ref> took place at the [[Centre for Computing History]] on November 23, 2023.
In 2023, Lynn Conway collaborated with Jim Boulton to create ''Lines in the Sand'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boulton |first=Jim |title=Lines in the Sand, The Lynn Conway Story (Unsung Heroes of the Information Age) |publisher=Unsung Heroes |year=2024 |publication-date=February 21, 2024 |asin=B0CW1LNGFD}}</ref> a short comic book that tells the story of the invention VLSI. The launch event<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mw2jAZmnIqU |title=Lynn Conway – If you want to change the future, start living as if you're already there |date=April 26, 2024 |last=The Centre for Computing History |access-date=June 6, 2024 |via=YouTube |archive-date=June 6, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240606130617/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mw2jAZmnIqU |url-status=live }}</ref> took place at the [[Centre for Computing History]] on November 23, 2023.


==Transgender activism==
==Transgender rights activism==
When nearing retirement, Conway learned that the story of her early work at [[IBM]] might soon be revealed through the investigations of Mark Smotherman that were being prepared for a 2001 publication.<ref name=smoth01/> She began [[coming out]] in 1999 to friends and colleagues about her gender transition,<ref name=BD06LC>[http://www.logoonline.com/shows/dyn/beautiful_daughters/personality.jhtml?personalityId=6829 "Beautiful Daughters Cast: Lynn Conway"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003024813/http://www.logoonline.com/shows/dyn/beautiful_daughters/personality.jhtml?personalityId=6829 |date=October 3, 2008 }}, LOGO Channel, 2006</ref><ref name=ED03a>[http://electronicdesign.com/Articles/Index.cfm?ArticleID=5836&pg=3 "Class Notes: 2002 Inductees: Here's how many of our 2002 Hall Of Famers enjoy their leisure time and how they still give back to society"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003000938/http://electronicdesign.com/Articles/Index.cfm?ArticleID=5836&pg=3 |date=October 3, 2008}}, Doris Kilbane, Electronic Design, October 20, 2003.</ref><ref name=ASEEPrismOct2011>[http://www.prism-magazine.org/oct11/feature_03.cfm "Secrets Are Out: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender engineers are no longer willing to hide their true selves"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112205657/http://www.prism-magazine.org/oct11/feature_03.cfm |date=November 12, 2011 }} Jaimie Schock, Prism Magazine, American Society of Engineering Education, October 2011, pp. 44–47.</ref> using her website to tell her story.<ref name=conI/> Her life story was then more widely reported in 2000 in profiles in ''[[Scientific American]]''<ref name=sciam00/> and the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''.<ref name=hiltzik/> In a later ''[[Forbes]]'' interview, Conway commented "From the 1970s to 1999 I was recognized as breaking the gender barrier in the computer science field as a woman, but in 2000 it became the transgender barrier I was breaking."<ref name=":1" />
When nearing retirement, Conway learned that the story of her early work at [[IBM]] might soon be revealed through the investigations of Mark Smotherman that were being prepared for a 2001 publication.<ref name=smoth01/> She began [[coming out]] in 1999 to friends and colleagues about her gender transition,<ref name=BD06LC>[http://www.logoonline.com/shows/dyn/beautiful_daughters/personality.jhtml?personalityId=6829 "Beautiful Daughters Cast: Lynn Conway"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003024813/http://www.logoonline.com/shows/dyn/beautiful_daughters/personality.jhtml?personalityId=6829 |date=October 3, 2008 }}, LOGO Channel, 2006</ref><ref name=ED03a>[http://electronicdesign.com/Articles/Index.cfm?ArticleID=5836&pg=3 "Class Notes: 2002 Inductees: Here's how many of our 2002 Hall Of Famers enjoy their leisure time and how they still give back to society"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003000938/http://electronicdesign.com/Articles/Index.cfm?ArticleID=5836&pg=3 |date=October 3, 2008}}, Doris Kilbane, Electronic Design, October 20, 2003.</ref><ref name=ASEEPrismOct2011>[http://www.prism-magazine.org/oct11/feature_03.cfm "Secrets Are Out: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender engineers are no longer willing to hide their true selves"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112205657/http://www.prism-magazine.org/oct11/feature_03.cfm |date=November 12, 2011 }} Jaimie Schock, Prism Magazine, American Society of Engineering Education, October 2011, pp. 44–47.</ref> using her website to tell her story.<ref name=conI/> Her life story was then more widely reported in 2000 in profiles in ''[[Scientific American]]''<ref name=sciam00/> and the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''.<ref name=hiltzik/> In a later ''[[Forbes]]'' interview, Conway commented "From the 1970s to 1999 I was recognized as breaking the gender barrier in the computer science field as a woman, but in 2000 it became the transgender barrier I was breaking."<ref name=":1" />


After sharing her story publicly, Conway began working in [[Transgender rights movement|transgender activism]] to raise awareness, protect and expand [[Legal status of transgender people|trans rights]], and promote understanding of gender identity and the process of gender transition.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/conway.html |title=Lynn Conway's homepage |website=Ai.eecs.umich.edu |access-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-date=February 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213120909/http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/conway.html |url-status=live }}</ref> She provided assistance to numerous other transgender women and maintained a website providing medical resources and emotional advice.<ref name="translation">{{cite web |url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/conway-Translation%20status.htm |title=Status of translations of Lynn's webpages, 12-10-13 |date=December 10, 2013 |access-date=December 23, 2013 |archive-date=December 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206065239/http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/conway-Translation%20status.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> She maintained a website titled "Transsexual Women's Successes" to, in her words, "provide role models for individuals who are facing gender transition."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TSsuccesses/TSsuccesses.html |title=Transsexual Women's Successes |website=Ai.eecs.umich.edu |access-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-date=February 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213102417/http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TSsuccesses/TSsuccesses.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Her website also provided news related to transgender issues and information on [[gender-affirming surgery]] and academic inquiries into the prevalence of [[transsexualism]]<ref name="prevalence">Olyslager F, Conway L (2008). [https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TS/Prevalence/TvG_Paper/Transsexualism_is_more_common_than_you_think.pdf Transseksualiteit komt vaker voor dan u denkt <nowiki>[Transsexualism is more common than you think].</nowiki>] ''Tijdschrift voor Genderstudies'', Vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 39–51, 2008. ([https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TS/Prevalence/TvG_Paper/Summaries-English.pdf abstract in English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307110129/https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TS/Prevalence/TvG_Paper/Transsexualism_is_more_common_than_you_think.pdf |date=March 7, 2023 }})</ref> and transgender and transsexual issues in general.<ref name="HRCProfile">{{cite web |url=http://www.hrc.org/issues/3469.htm |title="Profile: Lynn Conway," Human Rights Campaign (HRC) website |publisher=HRC |access-date=December 5, 2013 |archive-date=November 3, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103234020/http://www.hrc.org/issues/3469.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="LGBTHistoryMonthProfile">{{cite web |url=http://www.lgbthistorymonth.org.uk/history/lynnconway.htm |title=Biographies of famous LGBT people: Science: Professor Lynn Conway, Lesbian Gay Bisexual Trans History Month website |publisher=Lgbthistorymonth.org.uk |access-date=December 5, 2013 |archive-date=April 6, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140406095129/http://www.lgbthistorymonth.org.uk/history/lynnconway.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref>
After sharing her story publicly, Conway began working in [[Transgender rights movement|transgender rights activism]] to raise awareness, protect and expand [[Legal status of transgender people|trans rights]], and promote understanding of gender identity and the process of gender transition.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/conway.html |title=Lynn Conway's homepage |website=Ai.eecs.umich.edu |access-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-date=February 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213120909/http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/conway.html |url-status=live }}</ref> She provided assistance to numerous other transgender women and maintained a website providing medical resources and emotional advice.<ref name="translation">{{cite web |url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/conway-Translation%20status.htm |title=Status of translations of Lynn's webpages, 12-10-13 |date=December 10, 2013 |access-date=December 23, 2013 |archive-date=December 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206065239/http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/conway-Translation%20status.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> She maintained a website titled "Transsexual Women's Successes" to, in her words, "provide role models for individuals who are facing gender transition."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TSsuccesses/TSsuccesses.html |title=Transsexual Women's Successes |website=Ai.eecs.umich.edu |access-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-date=February 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213102417/http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TSsuccesses/TSsuccesses.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Her website also provided news related to transgender issues and information on [[gender-affirming surgery]] and academic inquiries into the prevalence of [[transsexualism]]<ref name="prevalence">Olyslager F, Conway L (2008). [https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TS/Prevalence/TvG_Paper/Transsexualism_is_more_common_than_you_think.pdf Transseksualiteit komt vaker voor dan u denkt <nowiki>[Transsexualism is more common than you think].</nowiki>] ''Tijdschrift voor Genderstudies'', Vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 39–51, 2008. ([https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TS/Prevalence/TvG_Paper/Summaries-English.pdf abstract in English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307110129/https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TS/Prevalence/TvG_Paper/Transsexualism_is_more_common_than_you_think.pdf |date=March 7, 2023 }})</ref> and transgender and transsexual issues in general.<ref name="HRCProfile">{{cite web |url=http://www.hrc.org/issues/3469.htm |title="Profile: Lynn Conway," Human Rights Campaign (HRC) website |publisher=HRC |access-date=December 5, 2013 |archive-date=November 3, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103234020/http://www.hrc.org/issues/3469.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="LGBTHistoryMonthProfile">{{cite web |url=http://www.lgbthistorymonth.org.uk/history/lynnconway.htm |title=Biographies of famous LGBT people: Science: Professor Lynn Conway, Lesbian Gay Bisexual Trans History Month website |publisher=Lgbthistorymonth.org.uk |access-date=December 5, 2013 |archive-date=April 6, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140406095129/http://www.lgbthistorymonth.org.uk/history/lynnconway.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref>


She also advocated for [[equal opportunity|equal opportunities]] and [[employment protection legislation|employment protections]] for [[transgender people]] in high-technology industry,<ref name="HP01">[https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/HP/HP.html "Embracing Diversity – HP employees in Fort Collins, Colorado, welcome Dr. Lynn Conway"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031215759/http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/HP/HP.html |date=October 31, 2022 }}, hpNOW, February 8, 2001.</ref><ref name="FCC01">[https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/ColoradoanArticle/HP-CSU-lynncon.html "Computer pioneer speaks from the heart about diversity: Transsexual talks at HP, CSU"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217150950/https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/ColoradoanArticle/HP-CSU-lynncon.html |date=February 17, 2023 }}, by Kate Forgach, Fort Collins Coloradoan, January 26, 2001.</ref><ref name="Adv01">[https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/Advocate/Advocate.html "Chipping Away at Prejudice"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217150942/https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/Advocate/Advocate.html |date=February 17, 2023 }}, by Sarah Wildman, The Advocate, March 13, 2001.</ref><ref name="Intel03">[https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/Intel/iglobe.htm "What's pride got to do with it?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205034136/http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/Intel/iglobe.htm |date=December 5, 2022 }}, by Teri Warner, Employee Communications, Circuit for Employees@Intel, July 1, 2003.</ref><ref name="PT03">[https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/PersonnelToday/PersonnelToday_com%20-%20Why%20HR%20should%20wake%20up%20to%20the%20needs%20of%20transsexual%20employees.htm "Why HR should wake up to the needs of transsexual employees"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406203357/https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/PersonnelToday/PersonnelToday_com%20-%20Why%20HR%20should%20wake%20up%20to%20the%20needs%20of%20transsexual%20employees.htm |date=April 6, 2023 }}, by Christine Burns, Personnel Today, November 18, 2003.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TS/O%26E/Raytheon/Raytheon%20Adds%20GI%26E.html |title=Professor Lynn Conway, Guest at Out & Equal |access-date=April 10, 2018 |website=Ai.eecs.umich.edu |archive-date=October 9, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009193229/http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TS/O%26E/Raytheon/Raytheon%20Adds%20GI%26E.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and for elimination of the [[gender identity disorder|pathologization of transgender people]] by the psychiatric community.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.queerty.com/dr-kenneth-zuckers-war-on-transgenders-20090206/ |title=Dr. Kenneth Zucker's War on Transgenders |publisher=Queerty |date=February 6, 2009 |access-date=May 17, 2009 |archive-date=April 9, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409152513/http://www.queerty.com/dr-kenneth-zuckers-war-on-transgenders-20090206/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Chagmion |last=Antoine |author-link=Chagmion Antoine |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JBRCo1KDX_o |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/JBRCo1KDX_o |archive-date=December 21, 2021 |url-status=live |title=Transgender Crusader – A professor at the University of Michigan is taking on the psychiatric community's ideas about transgendered people and mental illness |publisher=CBS News / YouTube |date=March 6, 2009}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
She also advocated for [[equal opportunity|equal opportunities]] and [[employment protection legislation|employment protections]] for [[transgender people]] in high-technology industry,<ref name="HP01">[https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/HP/HP.html "Embracing Diversity – HP employees in Fort Collins, Colorado, welcome Dr. Lynn Conway"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031215759/http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/HP/HP.html |date=October 31, 2022 }}, hpNOW, February 8, 2001.</ref><ref name="FCC01">[https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/ColoradoanArticle/HP-CSU-lynncon.html "Computer pioneer speaks from the heart about diversity: Transsexual talks at HP, CSU"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217150950/https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/ColoradoanArticle/HP-CSU-lynncon.html |date=February 17, 2023 }}, by Kate Forgach, Fort Collins Coloradoan, January 26, 2001.</ref><ref name="Adv01">[https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/Advocate/Advocate.html "Chipping Away at Prejudice"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217150942/https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/Advocate/Advocate.html |date=February 17, 2023 }}, by Sarah Wildman, The Advocate, March 13, 2001.</ref><ref name="Intel03">[https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/Intel/iglobe.htm "What's pride got to do with it?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205034136/http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/Intel/iglobe.htm |date=December 5, 2022 }}, by Teri Warner, Employee Communications, Circuit for Employees@Intel, July 1, 2003.</ref><ref name="PT03">[https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/PersonnelToday/PersonnelToday_com%20-%20Why%20HR%20should%20wake%20up%20to%20the%20needs%20of%20transsexual%20employees.htm "Why HR should wake up to the needs of transsexual employees"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406203357/https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Media/PersonnelToday/PersonnelToday_com%20-%20Why%20HR%20should%20wake%20up%20to%20the%20needs%20of%20transsexual%20employees.htm |date=April 6, 2023 }}, by Christine Burns, Personnel Today, November 18, 2003.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TS/O%26E/Raytheon/Raytheon%20Adds%20GI%26E.html |title=Professor Lynn Conway, Guest at Out & Equal |access-date=April 10, 2018 |website=Ai.eecs.umich.edu |archive-date=October 9, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009193229/http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TS/O%26E/Raytheon/Raytheon%20Adds%20GI%26E.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and for elimination of the [[gender identity disorder|pathologization of transgender people]] by the psychiatric community.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.queerty.com/dr-kenneth-zuckers-war-on-transgenders-20090206/ |title=Dr. Kenneth Zucker's War on Transgenders |publisher=Queerty |date=February 6, 2009 |access-date=May 17, 2009 |archive-date=April 9, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409152513/http://www.queerty.com/dr-kenneth-zuckers-war-on-transgenders-20090206/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Chagmion |last=Antoine |author-link=Chagmion Antoine |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JBRCo1KDX_o |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/JBRCo1KDX_o |archive-date=December 21, 2021 |url-status=live |title=Transgender Crusader – A professor at the University of Michigan is taking on the psychiatric community's ideas about transgendered people and mental illness |publisher=CBS News / YouTube |date=March 6, 2009}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
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* {{cite news |title=THE MPC ADVENTURES: Experiences with the Generation of VLSI Design and Implementation Methodologies |last=Conway |first=L. |url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/VLSI/MPCAdv/MPCAdv.pdf |date=February 1981 |magazine=Xerox PARC Technical Report VLSI-81-2}}
* {{cite news |title=THE MPC ADVENTURES: Experiences with the Generation of VLSI Design and Implementation Methodologies |last=Conway |first=L. |url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/VLSI/MPCAdv/MPCAdv.pdf |date=February 1981 |magazine=Xerox PARC Technical Report VLSI-81-2}}
* {{cite journal |title=The Design of VLSI Design Methods |last=Conway |first=L. |url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/VLSI/ESSCIRC82/The%20Design%20of%20VLSI%20Design%20Methods.pdf |date=September 23, 1982 |journal=Proc. VUB European Solid-State Circuits Conference (Invited Lecture) |location=Vrije Universiteit Brüssel, Brussels, Belgium |pages=106–117}}
* {{cite journal |title=The Design of VLSI Design Methods |last=Conway |first=L. |url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/VLSI/ESSCIRC82/The%20Design%20of%20VLSI%20Design%20Methods.pdf |date=September 23, 1982 |journal=Proc. VUB European Solid-State Circuits Conference (Invited Lecture) |location=Vrije Universiteit Brüssel, Brussels, Belgium |pages=106–117}}
* {{cite news |date=2012 |title=Reminiscences of the VLSI Revolution: How a Series of Failures Triggered a Paradigm Shift in Digital Design |last=Conway |first=Lynn |url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Memoirs/VLSI/Lynn_Conway_VLSI_Reminiscences.pdf |access-date=|magazine=Solid-State Circuits Magazine |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=8–31 |publisher=IEEE |doi=10.1109/MSSC.2012.2215752}}
* {{cite journal |date=2012 |last=Conway |first=Lynn |title=Reminiscences of the VLSI Revolution: How a Series of Failures Triggered a Paradigm Shift in Digital Design |journal=IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine |url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Memoirs/VLSI/Lynn_Conway_VLSI_Reminiscences.pdf |access-date= |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=8–31 |publisher=IEEE |doi=10.1109/MSSC.2012.2215752}}
* {{cite news |title=The Disappeared: Beyond Winning and Losing |last=Conway |first=L. |url=https://www.computer.org/csdl/magazine/co/2018/10/mco2018100066/17D45WXIkDI |date=October 2018 |magazine=Computer |publisher=IEEE Computer Society |pages=66–73 |volume=51}}
* {{cite news |title=The Disappeared: Beyond Winning and Losing |last=Conway |first=L. |url=https://www.computer.org/csdl/magazine/co/2018/10/mco2018100066/17D45WXIkDI |date=October 2018 |magazine=Computer |publisher=IEEE Computer Society |pages=66–73 |volume=51}}
* {{cite book |last=Conway |first=Lynn |chapter=IBM-ACS: Reminiscences and Lessons Learned from a 1960's Supercomputer Project |chapter-url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Memoirs/ACS/Lynn_Conway_ACS_Reminiscences.pdf |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=C. B. |editor2-last=Lloyd |editor2-first=J. L. |title=Dependable and Historic Computing: Essays Dedicated to Brian Randell on the Occasion of his 75th Birthday |date=2011 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |pages=185–224 |isbn=978-3-642-24541-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Conway |first=Lynn |chapter=IBM-ACS: Reminiscences and Lessons Learned from a 1960's Supercomputer Project |chapter-url=https://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Memoirs/ACS/Lynn_Conway_ACS_Reminiscences.pdf |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=C. B. |editor2-last=Lloyd |editor2-first=J. L. |title=Dependable and Historic Computing: Essays Dedicated to Brian Randell on the Occasion of his 75th Birthday |date=2011 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |pages=185–224 |isbn=978-3-642-24541-1}}

Latest revision as of 20:18, 19 June 2025

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Lynn Ann Conway (January 2, 1938 – June 9, 2024) was an American computer scientist, electrical engineer, and transgender rights activist.

In the 1960s, while working at IBM, Conway invented generalized dynamic instruction handling, a key advancement used in out-of-order execution, used by most modern computer processors to improve performance. IBM fired Conway in 1968 after she revealed her intention to undergo a gender transition, which the company apologized for in 2020.

Following her transition, Conway adopted a new name and identity and restarted her career. She worked at Xerox PARC from 1973 to 1983, where she led the "LSI Systems" group. She initiated the Mead–Conway VLSI chip design revolution in very large-scale integrated (VLSI) microchip design, which reshaped the field of microchip design during the 1980s.

Conway joined the University of Michigan as a professor of electrical engineering and computer science in 1985. She retired from active teaching and research in 1998 as professor emerita. Conway began publicly discussing her gender transition in 1999 and was a transgender rights activist until her death in 2024.

Early life and education

Conway was born in Mount Vernon, New York, on January 2, 1938 to Christine Alice (née Burney) Savage (1904–1977) and Rufus Savage (1904–1966).[1][2][3][4] Raised as a boy, Conway was brought up in Hartsdale and White Plains, New York, as a shy child who experienced gender dysphoria. After her parents divorced in 1945, Conway and her younger brother, Blair Savage (1941–2022), were raised by their mother. Conway became fascinated by astronomy (building a Template:Convert reflector telescope one summer) and did well in math and science in school.[5]

After graduating from White Plains High School in 1955, Conway entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and began an attempted gender transition in 1957. Facing a lack of social and medical support, she withdrew from MIT in 1959 and eventually detransitioned.[5]

After working as an electronics technician for several years, Conway resumed education at Columbia University's School of Engineering and Applied Science, earning B.S. and M.S.E.E. degrees in 1962 and 1963.[5][6]

Early research at IBM

Conway was recruited by IBM Research in Yorktown Heights, New York, in 1964, and was soon selected to join the architecture team designing an advanced supercomputer, working alongside John Cocke, Brian Randell, Herbert Schorr, Ed Sussenguth, Fran Allen and other IBM researchers on the Advanced Computing Systems (ACS) project, inventing multiple-issue out-of-order dynamic instruction scheduling while working there.[7][8][9][10][11] The Computer History Museum has stated that "The ACS architecture ... appears to have been the first 'superscalar' design".[12]

Gender transition

After learning about Harry Benjamin's pioneering research in healthcare for transsexual women, which included the feasibility of sex reassignment surgery, Conway sought his assistance. Struggling with severe clinical depression due to gender dysphoria, she contacted Benjamin, who agreed to provide counseling and prescribed hormone replacement therapy, which Conway resumed in 1967.[13]

While struggling with life in a male role, Conway had married a woman in 1963 and had two children. Under the legal constraints then in place, she was denied access to their children after transitioning.[13]

Although she had hoped to be allowed to transition on the job, IBM fired Conway in 1968 after she revealed her intention to transition.[14] In 2020, IBM publicly apologized to Conway for firing her at a public event with Diane Gherson, then IBM's senior vice president of human relations. At the event, Conway was awarded the IBM Lifetime Achievement Award for her work at IBM and later work.[15][16]

Post-transition career

Template:External image Upon completing her gender transition in 1968, Conway took a new name and identity and restarted her career in stealth-mode as a contract programmer at Computer Applications, Inc. She then worked as a digital system designer and computer architect at Memorex from 1969 to 1972.[13][17]

Conway joined Xerox PARC in 1973, where she led the "LSI Systems" group under Bert Sutherland.[18][19] When in PARC, Conway founded the multiproject wafers (MPW) technology.[20] Collaborating with Ivan Sutherland and Carver Mead on very-large-scale integration (VLSI) design methodology, she co-authored Introduction to VLSI Systems, a groundbreaking work that would soon become a standard textbook in chip design, used in nearly 120 universities by 1983.[21][22][23][24] With over 70,000 copies sold, and the new integration of her MPC79/MOSIS innovations, the Mead and Conway revolution became part of VLSI design.[22][25]

In 1978, Conway served as a visiting associate professor of electrical engineering and computer science at MIT, teaching a now-famous VLSI design course based on a Mead–Conway text draft.[13] The course validated the new design methods and textbook and established the syllabus and instructor's guidebook used in later courses worldwide.[26][27]

Among Conway's contributions was the invention of dimensionless, scalable design rules that greatly simplified chip design and design tools,[8][6][28] and invention of a new form of internet-based infrastructure for rapid prototyping and short-run fabrication of large numbers of chip designs.[8][29] They aimed to address the escalating complexity of chip design, as traditional methods struggled to keep pace with Moore's law.[30] The new infrastructure was institutionalized as the Metal Oxide Semiconductor Implementation Service (MOSIS) system in 1981. Mead and Conway received Electronics magazine's annual award of achievement in 1981.[31][32] VLSI researcher Charles Seitz commented that "MOSIS represented the first period since the pioneering work of Eckert and Mauchley on the ENIAC in the late 1940s that universities and small companies had access to state-of-the-art digital technology."[29]

The impact and research methods underlying the development of the Mead–Conway VLSI design methodology and the MOSIS prototype are detailed in a 1981 Xerox report,[33] the Euromicro Journal,[34] and several historical overviews of computing.[29][35][36][37][38][39][40][41] Mead-Conway's methods also came under ethnographic study in 1980 by PARC anthropologist Lucy Suchman, who published her interviews with Conway in 2021.[42][43]

In 1983, Conway left Xerox to join DARPA, where she was a key architect of the United States Department of Defense's Strategic Computing Initiative.[6][44] In a contemporary USA Today article about Conway's joining DARPA, Mark Stefik, a Xerox scientist who worked with her, said "Lynn would like to live five lives in the course of one life".[45] Douglas Fairbairn, a former Xerox associate, said "She figures out a way so that everybody wins."[45] In The Net Effect, sociologist Thomas Streeter wrote that Conway’s decision to join DARPA reflected her rejection of antiwar liberalism.[46]

Conway joined the University of Michigan in 1985 as professor of electrical engineering and computer science and associate dean of engineering. There, she specialized in visual communications and designing control systems for hybrid internet and broadband-cable user interfaces.[6] She retired from active teaching and research in 1998 as professor emerita at Michigan.[47][48]

Computer science legacy

The Mead–Conway VLSI chip design revolution quickly spread through research universities and the computing industry during the 1980s. It fostered the growth of the electronic design automation industry, established the foundry model for chip design and manufacturing, and spurred a wave of influential technology startups throughout the 1980s and 1990s.[7][8][9][12][49]

In the fall of 2012, the IEEE published a special issue of the IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine devoted to Conway's career,[50][51] including a career memoir by Conway[14] and peer commentaries by Chuck House,[52] former Director of Engineering at HP, Carlo Séquin,[53] and Kenneth L Shepard.[54][52] James F. Gibbons stated in his tribute that Conway, from his perspective, "was the singular force behind the entire 'foundry' development that emerged."[52][54][55] Subsequently the scope of Conway's contributions gained wider retrospective attention. "Since I didn't #LookLikeanEngineer, few people caught on to what I was really doing back in the 70s and 80s," Conway later said.[16]

In 2020, National Academy of Engineering President John L. Anderson stated that "Lynn Conway is not only a revolutionary pioneer in the design of VLSI systems ... But just as important, Lynn has been very brave in telling her own story, and her perseverance has been a reminder to society that it should not be blind to the innovations of women, people of color, or others who don't fit long outdated – but unfortunately, persistent – perceptions of what an engineer looks like."[16]

Script error: No such module "anchor". Conway coined the "Conway effect" to describe the phenomenon where people "othered" by society, such as women and people of color, are overlooked in later historical accounts of innovations.[56] She described it in the IEEE Computer Society's Computer magazine: "This is seldom deliberate—rather, it's a result of the accumulation of advantage by those who are expected to innovate."[56] The effect drew inspiration from the Matilda effect and Matthew effect.

In 2023, Lynn Conway collaborated with Jim Boulton to create Lines in the Sand,[57] a short comic book that tells the story of the invention VLSI. The launch event[58] took place at the Centre for Computing History on November 23, 2023.

Transgender rights activism

When nearing retirement, Conway learned that the story of her early work at IBM might soon be revealed through the investigations of Mark Smotherman that were being prepared for a 2001 publication.[7] She began coming out in 1999 to friends and colleagues about her gender transition,[59][60][61] using her website to tell her story.[5] Her life story was then more widely reported in 2000 in profiles in Scientific American[10] and the Los Angeles Times.[13] In a later Forbes interview, Conway commented "From the 1970s to 1999 I was recognized as breaking the gender barrier in the computer science field as a woman, but in 2000 it became the transgender barrier I was breaking."[16]

After sharing her story publicly, Conway began working in transgender rights activism to raise awareness, protect and expand trans rights, and promote understanding of gender identity and the process of gender transition.[62] She provided assistance to numerous other transgender women and maintained a website providing medical resources and emotional advice.[63] She maintained a website titled "Transsexual Women's Successes" to, in her words, "provide role models for individuals who are facing gender transition."[64] Her website also provided news related to transgender issues and information on gender-affirming surgery and academic inquiries into the prevalence of transsexualism[65] and transgender and transsexual issues in general.[66][67]

She also advocated for equal opportunities and employment protections for transgender people in high-technology industry,[68][69][70][71][72][73] and for elimination of the pathologization of transgender people by the psychiatric community.[74][75]

Conway was a critic of Blanchard's transsexualism typology.[76] Along with Andrea James and Deirdre McCloskey, she was a key person in the campaign against J. Michael Bailey's book about the theory, The Man Who Would Be Queen.[77][78] Conway and McCloskey accused Bailey of conducting research on human subjects without their knowledge, sending letters to Northwestern University about this alleged misconduct.[76]

Alice Dreger, in her book Galileo's Middle Finger, criticized Conway for filing a lawsuit against Bailey. Conway alleged Bailey lacked a clinical psychologist license when he wrote letters in support of a young trans woman seeking to transition. Dreger countered that Bailey did not need a license as he provided his services without compensation. Dreger noted that Bailey was transparent in his letters, detailing his brief interactions with the women and his qualifications, which likely explained why Illinois authorities did not act on the complaint.[79] Conway responded, accusing Dreger of misrepresenting the controversy by portraying it as a personal attack on Bailey rather than addressing the broader protest from the trans community.[80]

Conway was a cast member in the first all-transgender performance of The Vagina Monologues in Los Angeles in 2004,[81] and appeared in a Logo documentary film about that event entitled Beautiful Daughters.[59][82]

In 2009, Conway was named one of the "Stonewall 40 trans heroes" on the 40th anniversary of the Stonewall riots by the International Court System and the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force.[83][84]

In 2013, with support from many tech industry leaders, Conway and Leandra Vicci of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill lobbied the directors of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers for transgender inclusion in their code of ethics.[85] The code became fully LGBT inclusive in January 2014.[86][87][88]

In 2014, Time Magazine named Conway as one of "21 Transgender People Who Influenced American Culture".[89]

In 2015, she was selected for inclusion in "The Trans100"[90] and was interviewed in 2020 for inclusion in the Trans Activism Oral History Project.[91]

Personal life and death

Conway married a woman in 1963, and they had two daughters together. Following their divorce in 1968, Conway was denied access to their children.[13]

In 1987, Conway met her husband Charles "Charlie" Rogers, a professional engineer who shared her interest in the outdoors, including whitewater canoeing and motocross racing.[13][92] They soon started living together and bought a house with Template:Convert of meadow, marsh, and woodland in rural Jackson, Michigan in 1994.[13] They were married on August 13, 2002.[11][59][93] In 2014, the University of Michigan's The Michigan Engineer alumni magazine documented the connections between Conway's engineering explorations and her personal life.[94][95]

Conway died from a heart condition at her home on June 9, 2024, at the age of 86.[96][97]

Awards and honors

Conway received a number of awards and distinctions:

Selected works

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Patents

References

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Further reading

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External links

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Template:Authority control

  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ a b c d Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ a b c d Template:Cite magazine
  7. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ a b c d e Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ a b Dianne Lynch, "The Secret Behind 'Project Y': One Woman's Success Story — 'What Works, Works' Template:Webarchive", ABCNews.com, November 29, 2001.
  12. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ a b c d e f g h Hiltzik, Michael A. (November 19, 2000.) "Through the Gender Labyrinth." Template:Webarchive. Los Angeles Times, Los Angeles Times Magazine, page 1. (Free reprint Template:Webarchive. Retrieved on September 19, 2007.)
  14. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ a b c d Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ The MIT'78 VLSI System Design Course: A Guidebook for the Instructor of VLSI System Design Template:Webarchive, Lynn Conway, Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, August 12, 1979.
  27. ↑ Paul Penfield "The VLSI Revolution at MIT" by Paul Penfield Template:Webarchive 2014 MIT EECS Connector, Spring 2014, pp. 11–13.
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ a b c National Research Council (1999), Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research, National Academy Press (excerpt Template:Webarchive)
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  32. ↑ "The MOSIS Service – More than 50,000 designs in 25 years of operation", http://www.mosis.com/ Template:Webarchive, 2008
  33. ↑ THE MPC Adventures: Experiences with the Generation of VLSI Design and Implementation Methodologies Template:Webarchive, Lynn Conway, Xerox PARC Technical Report VLSI-81-2, January 19, 1981.
  34. ↑ THE MPC Adventures: Experiences with the Generation of VLSI Design and Implementation Methodologies Template:Webarchive, by Lynn Conway, Microprocessing and Microprogramming – The Euromicro Journal, Vol. 10, No. 4, November 1982, pp 209–228.
  35. ↑ Allocating Federal Funds for Science and Technology Template:Webarchive, by Committee on Criteria for Federal Support of Research and Development, National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, Institute of Medicine, National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington DC, 1995, page 75.
  36. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  37. ↑ Evolving the High Performance Computing and Communications Initiative to Support the Nation's Information Infrastructure Template:Webarchive, by Committee to Study High Performance Computing and Communications: Status of a Major Initiative, National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington DC, 1995, page 20.
  38. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  40. ↑ The VLSI Archive Template:Webarchive, by Lynn Conway, Electronic Design News, June 3, 2009.
  41. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  44. ↑ Dwight B. Davis "Assessing the Stragetic Computing Initiative," by Dwight B. Davis Template:Webarchive High Technology, Vol. 5, No. 4, April 1985.
  45. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  59. ↑ a b c "Beautiful Daughters Cast: Lynn Conway" Template:Webarchive, LOGO Channel, 2006
  60. ↑ "Class Notes: 2002 Inductees: Here's how many of our 2002 Hall Of Famers enjoy their leisure time and how they still give back to society" Template:Webarchive, Doris Kilbane, Electronic Design, October 20, 2003.
  61. ↑ "Secrets Are Out: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender engineers are no longer willing to hide their true selves" Template:Webarchive Jaimie Schock, Prism Magazine, American Society of Engineering Education, October 2011, pp. 44–47.
  62. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  65. ↑ Olyslager F, Conway L (2008). Transseksualiteit komt vaker voor dan u denkt [Transsexualism is more common than you think]. Tijdschrift voor Genderstudies, Vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 39–51, 2008. (abstract in English Template:Webarchive)
  66. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  67. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  68. ↑ "Embracing Diversity – HP employees in Fort Collins, Colorado, welcome Dr. Lynn Conway" Template:Webarchive, hpNOW, February 8, 2001.
  69. ↑ "Computer pioneer speaks from the heart about diversity: Transsexual talks at HP, CSU" Template:Webarchive, by Kate Forgach, Fort Collins Coloradoan, January 26, 2001.
  70. ↑ "Chipping Away at Prejudice" Template:Webarchive, by Sarah Wildman, The Advocate, March 13, 2001.
  71. ↑ "What's pride got to do with it?" Template:Webarchive, by Teri Warner, Employee Communications, Circuit for Employees@Intel, July 1, 2003.
  72. ↑ "Why HR should wake up to the needs of transsexual employees" Template:Webarchive, by Christine Burns, Personnel Today, November 18, 2003.
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  75. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Template:Cbignore
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  81. ↑ VDay LA 2004 Commemorative Page Template:Webarchive, DeepStealth Productions, Los Angeles California, 2004.
  82. ↑ "Beautiful Daughters" Template:Webarchive, a documentary by Josh Aronson and Ariel Orr Jordan, LOGO Channel, 2006.
  83. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  93. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  94. ↑ Nicole Casal Moore,"Life, Engineered: How Lynn Conway reinvented her world and ours Template:Webarchive The Michigan Engineer, College of Engineering, University of Michigan, Fall 2014, pp. 42–49.
  95. ↑ Marcin Szczepanski and Evan Dougherty,"A Place to Be Wild Template:Webarchive," Michigan Engineering, October 8, 2014.
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  98. ↑ "The 1981 Achievement Award – Lynn Conway, Carver Mead" Template:Webarchive by Martin Marshall, Larry Waller, and Howard Wolff, Electronics, October 20, 1981
  99. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  104. ↑ NAE Member Directory, Section 05. Template:Webarchive (year from The White House Office of the Press Secretary Template:Webarchive)
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  107. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., Trinity Reporter, Trinity College, Hartford, CN, Winter 98.
  108. ↑ "Electronic Design Hall of Fame – 2002 Inductees" Template:Webarchive, Electronic Design, October 21, 2002.
  109. ↑ "NOGLSTP to Honor Aberson, Conway, and Raytheon at Awards Ceremony in February" Template:Webarchive, Press Release, National Organization of Gay and Lesbian Scientists and Technical Professionals, January 25, 2005.
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