Linen: Difference between revisions

Next edit →

VisualWikitext

Revision as of 06:51, 28 September 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "about".

File:Handkerchief.jpg

A linen handkerchief with drawn thread work around the edges

File:Linen cloth.jpg

Linen cloth recovered from Qumran Cave 1 near the Dead Sea

File:Textielmuseum-cabinet-02.jpg

Flax stem, fiber, yarn and woven and knitted linen textiles

Linen (Template:IPAc-en) is a textile made from the fibers of the flax plant.

Linen is very strong and absorbent, and it dries faster than cotton. Because of these properties, linen is comfortable to wear in hot weather and is valued for use in garments. Linen textiles can be made from flax plant fiber, yarn, as well as woven and knitted. Linen also has other distinctive characteristics, such as its tendency to wrinkle. It takes significantly longer to harvest than a material like cotton, although both are natural fibers. It is also more difficult to weave than cotton.^[1]

Linen textiles appear to be some of the oldest in the world; their history goes back many thousands of years. Dyed flax fibers found in a cave in the Caucasus (present-day Georgia) suggest the use of woven linen fabrics from wild flax may date back over 30,000 years.^[2] Linen was used in ancient civilizations including Mesopotamia^[3] and ancient Egypt, and linen is mentioned in the Bible. In the 18th century and beyond, the linen industry was important in the economies of several countries in Europe as well as the American colonies.

Textiles in a linen weave texture, even when made of cotton, hemp, or other non-flax fibers, are also loosely referred to as "linen".

Etymology

The word linen is of West Germanic origin^[4] and cognate to the Latin name for the flax plant, Script error: No such module "Lang"., and the earlier Greek Script error: No such module "Lang". (Script error: No such module "Lang".).

This word history has given rise to a number of other terms in English, most notably line, from the use of a linen (flax) thread to determine a straight line. It is also etymologically related to a number of other terms, including lining, because linen was often used to create an inner layer for clothing,^[5] and lingerie, from French, which originally denoted underwear made of linen.^[6]

History

File:A bag of white linen, unopened. Contains rolls of linen only. Foundation deposit, Heb Sed Chapel at Lahun, Fayum, Egypt. 12th Dynasty. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London.jpg

A bag of white linen, unopened. Contains rolls of linen. Foundation deposit, Heb Sed Chapel at Lahun, Faiyum, Egypt. 12th Dynasty. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London.

People in various parts of the world began weaving linen at least several thousand years ago.^[7] It was also recovered from Qumran Cave 1 near the Dead Sea.^[8]

Early history

The discovery of dyed flax fibers in a cave in Southern Caucasus, West Asia (modern-day country of Georgia) dated to 36,000 years ago suggests that ancient people used wild flax fibers to create linen-like fabrics from an early date.^[9]^[10]

Fragments of straw, seeds, fibers, yarns, and various types of fabrics, including linen samples, dating to about 8,000 BC have been found in Swiss lake dwellings.^[11]

Woven flax textile fragments have been "found between infant and child" in a burial at Çatalhöyük, a large settlement dating to around 7,000 BC.^[12] To the southeast, in ancient Mesopotamia, flax was domesticated and linen was produced.^[13] It was used mainly by the wealthier class of the society, including priests.^[14] The Sumerian poem of the courtship of Inanna mentions flax and linen.^[15]

In ancient Egypt, linen was used for mummification and for burial shrouds. It was also worn as clothing on a daily basis; white linen was worn because of the extreme heat.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". For example, the Tarkhan dress, considered to be among the oldest woven garments in the world and dated to between 3482 and 3102 BC, is made of linen.^[16] Plutarch wrote that the priests of Isis also wore linen because of its purity.^[17]^[18] Linen was sometimes used as a form of currency in ancient Egypt.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". Egyptian mummies were wrapped in linen as a symbol of light and purity, and as a display of wealth. Some of these fabrics, woven from hand-spun yarns, were very fine for their day, but are coarse compared with modern linen.^[19]

File:Prices edict grades.jpg

Diocletian's 4th-century maximum prices edict showing prices for three grades of linen across the Roman Empire

The earliest written documentation of a linen industry comes from the Linear B tablets of Pylos, Greece.^[20]^[21] There are many references to linen throughout the Bible.^[22]

File:Ancient Coptic material.jpg

Ancient Coptic material

Middle Ages

By the Middle Ages, there was a thriving trade in German flax and linen. The trade spread throughout Germany by the 9th century and spread to Flanders and Brabant by the 11th century. The Lower Rhine was a center of linen making in the Middle Ages.^[23] Flax was cultivated and linen used for clothing in Ireland by the 11th century.^[24] Evidence suggests that flax may have been grown and sold in Southern England in the 12th and 13th centuries.^[25] Textiles, primarily linen and wool, were produced in decentralized home weaving mills.^[26]

Modern history

Linen continued to be valued for garments in the 16th century^[27] and beyond. Specimens of linen garments worn by historical figures have survived. For example, a linen cap worn by Emperor Charles V was carefully preserved after his death in 1558.^[27]

There is a long history of the production of linen in Ireland. When the Edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685, many of the Huguenots who fled France settled in the British Isles and elsewhere. They brought improved methods for linen production with them, contributing to the growth of the linen industry in Ireland in particular.^[28] Among them was Louis Crommelin, a leader who was appointed overseer of the royal linen manufacture of Ireland. He settled in the town of Lisburn near Belfast, which is itself perhaps the most famous linen producing center throughout history; during the Victorian era the majority of the world's linen was produced in the city, which gained it the name Linenopolis.^[29] Although the linen industry was already established in Ulster, Louis Crommelin found scope for improvement in weaving, and his efforts were so successful that he was appointed by the Government to develop the industry over a much wider range than the small confines of Lisburn and its surroundings. The direct result of his good work was the establishment, under statute, of the Board of Trustees of the Linen Manufacturers of Ireland in the year 1711. Several grades were produced including coarse lockram.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". The Living Linen Project was set up in 1995 as an oral archive of the knowledge of the Irish linen industry, which was at that time still available within a nucleus of people who formerly worked in the industry in Ulster.

The linen industry was increasingly critical in the economies of Europe^[30]^[31] in the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and then in Germany, industrialization and machine production replaced manual work and production moved from the home to new factories.^[26]

Linen was also an important product in the American colonies, where it was brought over with the first settlers and became the most commonly used fabric and a valuable asset for colonial households.^[32] The homespun movement encouraged the use of flax to make home spun textiles.^[33] Through the 1830s, most farmers in the northern United States continued to grow flax for linen to be used for the family's clothing.^[34]

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, linen was very significant to Russia and its economy. At one time it was the country's greatest export item and Russia produced about 80% of the world's fiber flax crop.^[11]

In December 2006, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the International Year of Natural Fibres in order to raise people's awareness of linen and other natural fibers.^[35]

Uses

File:Green Pleated Linen Dress, 'Irish Moss' by Sybil Connolly - Full Length Back.jpg

Green Pleated Linen Dress, 'Irish Moss' by Irish fashion designer Sybil Connolly

Many products can be made with linen, such as clothing, bed sheets, aprons, bags, towels (swimming, bath, beach, body and wash towels), napkins, runners, and upholstery. It is used especially in sailcloth and lent cloth, sewing threads, handkerchiefs, table cloth, sheets, collars, cuffs etc..

Today, linen is usually an expensive textile produced in relatively small quantities. It has a long staple (individual fiber length) relative to cotton and other natural fibers.^[36]

Linen fabric has been used for table coverings, bed coverings and clothing for centuries. The significant cost of linen derives not only from the difficulty of working with the thread but also because the flax plant itself requires a great deal of attention. In addition, flax thread is not elastic, and therefore it is difficult to weave without breaking threads. Thus linen is considerably more expensive to manufacture than cotton.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

The collective term "linens" is still often used generically to describe a class of woven or knitted bed, bath, table and kitchen textiles traditionally made of flax-based linen but today made from a variety of fibers. The term "linens" refers to lightweight undergarments such as shirts, chemises, waist-shirts, lingerie (a cognate with linen), and detachable shirt collars and cuffs, all of which were historically made almost exclusively out of linen. The inner layer of fine composite cloth garments (as for example dress jackets) was traditionally made of linen, hence the word lining.^[37]

Over the past 30 years the end use for linen has changed dramatically. Approximately 70% of linen production in the 1990s was for apparel textiles, whereas in the 1970s only about 5% was used for fashion fabrics.^[38]

Linen uses range across bed and bath fabrics (tablecloths, bath towels, dish towels, bed sheets); home and commercial furnishing items (wallpaper/wall coverings, upholstery, window treatments); apparel items (suits, dresses, skirts, shirts); and industrial products (luggage, canvases, sewing thread).^[36] It was once the preferred yarn for hand-sewing the uppers of moccasin-style shoes (loafers), but has been replaced by synthetics.

A linen handkerchief, pressed and folded to display the corners, was a standard decoration of a well-dressed man's suit during most of the first part of the 20th century.

Nowadays, linen is one of the most preferred materials for bed sheets due to its durability and hypoallergenic properties. Linen can be up to three times stronger than cotton. This is because the cellulose fibers in linen yarn are slightly longer and wrapped tighter than those found in cotton yarn, which gives it great durability and allows linen products to be long-lasting.^[39]

Currently researchers are working on a cotton/flax blend to create new yarns which will improve the feel of denim during hot and humid weather.^[40] Conversely, some brands such as 100% Capri specially treat the linen to look like denim.^[41]

Linen fabric is one of the preferred traditional supports for oil painting. In the United States cotton is popularly used instead, as linen is many times more expensive there, restricting its use to professional painters. In Europe, however, linen is usually the only fabric support available in art shops; in the UK both are freely available with cotton being cheaper. Linen is preferred to cotton for its strength, durability and archival integrity.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Linen is also used extensively by artisan bakers. Known as a couche, the flax cloth is used to hold the dough into shape while in the final rise, just before baking. The couche is heavily dusted with flour which is rubbed into the pores of the fabric. Then the shaped dough is placed on the couche. The floured couche makes a "non stick" surface to hold the dough. Then ridges are formed in the couche to keep the dough from spreading.

In the past, linen was also used for books (the only surviving example of which is the Liber Linteus). Due to its strength, in the Middle Ages linen was used for shields, gambesons, and bowstrings; in classical antiquity it was used to make a type of body armour, referred to as a linothorax. Additionally, linen was commonly used to make riggings, sail-cloths, nets, ropes, and canvases because the tensility of the cloth would increase by 20% when wet.^[42]

Because of its strength when wet, Irish linen is a very popular wrap of pool/billiard cues, due to its absorption of sweat from hands.^[43]

In 1923, the German city Bielefeld issued banknotes printed on linen.^[44] United States currency paper is made from 25% linen and 75% cotton.^[45]

Flax fiber

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".

Description

File:Labeledstemforposter copy new.jpg

Flax stem cross-section, showing locations of underlying tissues. Ep = epidermis; C = cortex; BF = bast fibres; P = phloem; X = xylem; Pi = pith

Linen is a bast fiber. Flax fibers vary in length from about 25 to 150 mm (1 to 6 in) and average 12–16 micrometers in diameter. There are two varieties: shorter tow fibers used for coarser fabrics and longer line fibers used for finer fabrics. Flax fibers can usually be identified by their "nodes" which add to the flexibility and texture of the fabric.

The cross-section of the linen fiber is made up of irregular polygonal shapes which contribute to the coarse texture of the fabric.^[46]

Properties

Linen fabric feels cool to touch, a phenomenon which indicates its higher conductivity (the same principle that makes metals feel "cold"). It is smooth, making the finished fabric lint-free, and gets softer the more it is washed. However, constant creasing in the same place in sharp folds will tend to break the linen threads. This wear can show up in collars, hems, and any area that is iron creased during laundering. Linen's poor elasticity means that it easily wrinkles.

Mildew, perspiration, and bleach can damage the fabric, but because it is not made from animal fibers (keratin) it is impervious to clothes moths and carpet beetles. Linen is relatively easy to take care of, since it resists dirt and stains, has no lint or pilling tendency, and can be dry-cleaned, machine-washed, or steamed. It can withstand high temperatures, and has only moderate initial shrinkage.^[46]

Linen should not be dried too much by tumble drying, and it is much easier to iron when damp. Linen wrinkles very easily, and thus some more formal garments require ironing often, in order to maintain perfect smoothness. Nevertheless, the tendency to wrinkle is often considered part of linen's particular "charm", and many modern linen garments are designed to be air-dried on a good clothes hanger and worn without the necessity of ironing.

A characteristic often associated with linen yarn is the presence of slubs, or small, soft, irregular lumps, which occur randomly along its length. In the past, slubs were traditionally considered to be defects, and were associated with low-quality linen. However, in the case of many present-day linen fabrics, particularly in the decorative furnishing industry, slubs are considered as part of the aesthetic appeal of an expensive natural product. In addition, slubs do not compromise the integrity of the fabric, and therefore they are not viewed as a defect. However, the very finest linen has very consistent diameter threads, with no slubs at all.

Linen can degrade in a few weeks when buried in soil. Linen is more biodegradable than cotton, making it an eco friendly fiber.^[47]

Measure

The standard measure of bulk linen yarn is the "lea", which is the number of yards in a pound of linen divided by 300. For example, a yarn having a size of 1 lea will give 300 yards per pound. The fine yarns used in handkerchiefs, etc. might be 40 lea, and give 40x300 = 12,000 yards per pound. This is a specific length therefore an indirect measurement of the fineness of the linen (i.e. the number of length units per unit mass). The symbol is NeL. The metric unit, Nm, is more commonly used in continental Europe. This is the number of 1,000 m lengths per kilogram. In China, the English Cotton system unit, NeC, is common. This is the number of 840 yard lengths in a pound.

Production method

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote".

Linen is laborious to manufacture.^[48]

File:Linum usitatissimum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-088.jpg

Details of the flax plant, from which linen fibers are derived

File:LinenMechanicalHarvesting-Summer2009-Belgium.JPG

Mechanical baling of flax in Belgium. On the left side, cut flax is waiting to be baled.

The quality of the finished linen product is often dependent upon growing conditions and harvesting techniques. To generate the longest possible fibers, flax is either hand-harvested by pulling up the entire plant or stalks are cut very close to the root. After harvesting, the plants are dried, and then the seeds are removed through a mechanized process called "rippling" (threshing) and winnowing.

File:Rhof-flachsbearbeitung.ogv

Retting, scutching, and heckling (narration in German)

File:Bäuerliche Leinenweberei - 4. Die Herstellung von Leinwand.webm

Handweaving of linen (narration in German)

The fibers must then be loosened from the stalk. This is achieved through retting, a process which uses bacteria to decompose the pectin that binds the fibers together. Natural retting methods take place in tanks and pools, or directly in the fields. There are also chemical retting methods; these are faster, but are typically more harmful to the environment and to the fibers themselves.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

After retting, the stalks are ready for scutching, which takes place between August and December. Scutching removes the woody portion of the stalks by crushing them between two metal rollers, so that the parts of the stalk can be separated. The fibers are removed and the other parts such as linseed, shives, and tow are set aside for other uses. Next the fibers are heckled: the short fibers are separated with heckling combs by 'combing' them away, to leave behind only the long, soft flax fibers.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

After the fibers have been separated and processed, they are typically spun into yarns and woven or knit into linen textiles. These textiles can then be bleached, dyed, printed on, or finished with a number of treatments or coatings.^[46]

An alternate production method is known as "cottonizing" which is quicker and requires less equipment. The flax stalks are processed using traditional cotton machinery; however, the finished fibers often lose the characteristic linen look.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Producers

In 2018, according to the United Nations' repository of official international trade statistics, China was the top exporter of woven linen fabrics by trade value, with a reported $732.3 million in exports; Italy ($173.0 million), Belgium ($68.9 million) and the United Kingdom ($51.7 million) were also major exporters.^[49]

References

↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ ^a ^b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Flax and Linen Textiles in the Mycenaean palatial economy Template:Webarchive
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ ^a ^b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ ^a ^b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ ^a ^b Textiles, Ninth Edition by Sara J. Kadolph and Anna L. Langford. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall
↑ lining. Dictionary.com. Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian. Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". (accessed: October 3, 2014).
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ ^a ^b ^c Classifications & Analysis of Textiles: A Handbook by Karen L. LaBat, Ph.D. and Carol J. Salusso, Ph.A. University of Minnesota, 2003
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

External links

Template:Sister project Template:Sister project Template:Collier's poster

Template:Sister-inline

Script error: No such module "Navbox". Template:Fabric Template:Clothing materials and parts Template:Authority control

[1] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[2] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[McCorriston-3] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[4] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[5] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[6] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[7] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[8] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[9] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[10] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[Akin-11] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[12] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[13] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[14] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[15] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[16] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[17] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[18] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[19] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[20] Flax and Linen Textiles in the Mycenaean palatial economy Template:Webarchive

[21] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[22] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[23] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[24] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[25] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[Textiltechnikum-26] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[Pollen_1914-27] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[28] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[Prance-29] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[30] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[31] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[32] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[33] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[34] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[UN_2009-35] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[textiles-36] Textiles, Ninth Edition by Sara J. Kadolph and Anna L. Langford. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall

[37] . Dictionary.com. Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian. Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". (accessed: October 3, 2014).

[38] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[39] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[agr_research-40] Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

[MH-41] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[42] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[43] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[44] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[45] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[classifications-46] Classifications & Analysis of Textiles: A Handbook by Karen L. LaBat, Ph.D. and Carol J. Salusso, Ph.A. University of Minnesota, 2003

[47] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[48] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[49] Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

@@ Line 9: / Line 9: @@
 Linen is very strong and absorbent, and it dries faster than [[cotton]]. Because of these properties, linen is comfortable to wear in hot weather and is valued for use in garments. Linen textiles can be made from flax plant fiber, yarn, as well as woven and knitted. Linen also has other distinctive characteristics, such as its tendency to wrinkle. It takes significantly longer to harvest than a material like cotton, although both are natural fibers. It is also more difficult to weave than cotton.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-12 |title=What Is Cotton and What Is Linen? Cotton vs. Linen Fabrics |url=https://www.masterclass.com/articles/what-is-cotton-and-what-is-linen |website=MasterClass }}</ref>
-Linen textiles appear to be some of the oldest in the world; their history goes back many thousands of years. Dyed flax fibers found in a cave in the Caucasus (present-day [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]) suggest the use of woven linen fabrics from wild flax may date back over 30,000 years.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kvavadze |first1=Eliso |last2=Bar-Yosef |first2=Ofer |last3=Belfer-Cohen |first3=Anna |last4=Boaretto |first4=Elisabetta |last5=Jakeli |first5=Nino |last6=Matskevich |first6=Zinovi |last7=Meshveliani |first7=Tengiz |date=2009-09-11 |title=30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1175404 |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5946 |pages=1359 |doi=10.1126/science.1175404 |pmid=19745144 |bibcode=2009Sci...325.1359K |s2cid=206520793 |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Linen was used in ancient civilizations including [[Mesopotamia]]<ref name="McCorriston">{{cite journal |last1=McCorriston |first1=Joy |title=Textile Extensification, Alienation, and Social Stratification in Ancient Mesopotamia |journal=Current Anthropology |date=1997 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=517–535 |doi=10.1086/204643 |jstor=10.1086/204643 |s2cid=154123464 }}</ref> and [[ancient Egypt]], and linen is mentioned in the [[Bible]]. In the 18th century and beyond, the linen industry was important in the economies of several countries in Europe as well as the American colonies.
+Linen textiles appear to be some of the oldest in the world; their history goes back many thousands of years. Dyed flax fibers found in a cave in the Caucasus (present-day [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]) suggest the use of woven linen fabrics from wild flax may date back over 30,000 years.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kvavadze |first1=Eliso |last2=Bar-Yosef |first2=Ofer |last3=Belfer-Cohen |first3=Anna |last4=Boaretto |first4=Elisabetta |last5=Jakeli |first5=Nino |last6=Matskevich |first6=Zinovi |last7=Meshveliani |first7=Tengiz |date=2009-09-11 |title=30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1175404 |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5946 |page=1359 |doi=10.1126/science.1175404 |pmid=19745144 |bibcode=2009Sci...325.1359K |s2cid=206520793 |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Linen was used in ancient civilizations including [[Mesopotamia]]<ref name="McCorriston">{{cite journal |last1=McCorriston |first1=Joy |title=Textile Extensification, Alienation, and Social Stratification in Ancient Mesopotamia |journal=Current Anthropology |date=1997 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=517–535 |doi=10.1086/204643 |jstor=10.1086/204643 |s2cid=154123464 }}</ref> and [[ancient Egypt]], and linen is mentioned in the [[Bible]]. In the 18th century and beyond, the linen industry was important in the economies of several countries in Europe as well as the American colonies.
 Textiles in a [[linen weave]] texture, even when made of cotton, [[hemp]], or other non-flax fibers, are also loosely referred to as "linen".
 ==Etymology==
-The word ''linen'' is of [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]] origin<ref>{{cite web |title=linen |url=https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/linen |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803104231/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/linen |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 3, 2020 |website=Lexico.com |publisher=Oxford |access-date=22 May 2020}}</ref> and [[cognate]] to the [[Latin]] name for the [[flax]] plant, {{lang|la|linum}}, and the earlier [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|λινόν}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|linón}}).
+The word ''linen'' is of [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]] origin<ref>{{cite web |title=linen |url=https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/linen |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803104231/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/linen |archive-date=August 3, 2020 |website=Lexico.com |publisher=Oxford |access-date=22 May 2020}}</ref> and [[cognate]] to the [[Latin]] name for the [[flax]] plant, {{lang|la|linum}}, and the earlier [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|λινόν}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|linón}}).
 This word history has given rise to a number of other terms in English, most notably ''[[line (geometry)|line]],'' from the use of a linen (flax) [[yarn|thread]] to determine a straight line. It is also etymologically related to a number of other terms, including ''[[lining (sewing)|lining]]'', because linen was often used to create an inner layer for clothing,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/line |title=line |access-date=2018-01-25 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126012710/https://www.etymonline.com/word/line |archive-date=2018-01-26 |encyclopedia=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |first=Douglas |last=Harper }}</ref> and ''[[lingerie]]'', from French, which originally denoted underwear made of linen.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Harper |first=Douglas |title=lingerie (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/lingerie |encyclopedia=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |access-date=22 May 2020 }}</ref>
@@ Line 21: / Line 21: @@
 [[File:A bag of white linen, unopened. Contains rolls of linen only. Foundation deposit, Heb Sed Chapel at Lahun, Fayum, Egypt. 12th Dynasty. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London.jpg|thumb|A bag of white linen, unopened. Contains rolls of linen. [[Foundation deposit]], [[Heb Sed]] Chapel at [[El Lahun|Lahun]], [[Faiyum]], Egypt. [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|12th Dynasty]]. The [[Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology]], London.]]
-People in various parts of the world began weaving linen at least several thousand years ago.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beckert |first1=Sven |title=Empire of Cotton |date=2014 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=978-0375414145 |page=5 |ref=Beckert}}</ref> It was also recovered from [[Qumran Caves|Qumran Cave 1]] near the Dead Sea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sukenik |first1=Naama |last2=Shamir |first2=Orit |date=2011 |title=Qumran Textiles and the Garments of Qumran's Inhabitants |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156851711x570427 |journal=Dead Sea Discoveries |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=206–225 |doi=10.1163/156851711x570427 |issn=0929-0761|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
+People in various parts of the world began weaving linen at least several thousand years ago.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beckert |first1=Sven |title=Empire of Cotton |date=2014 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-375-41414-5 |page=5 |ref=Beckert}}</ref> It was also recovered from [[Qumran Caves|Qumran Cave 1]] near the Dead Sea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sukenik |first1=Naama |last2=Shamir |first2=Orit |date=2011 |title=Qumran Textiles and the Garments of Qumran's Inhabitants |journal=Dead Sea Discoveries |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=206–225 |doi=10.1163/156851711x570427 |issn=0929-0761}}</ref>
 === Early history ===
-The discovery of dyed flax fibers in a cave in [[Southern Caucasus]], [[West Asia]] (modern day country, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]) dated to 36,000 years ago suggests that ancient people used wild flax fibers to create linen-like fabrics from an early date.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Balter |first=M. |date=2009 |title=Clothes Make the (Hu) Man |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5946 |page=1329 |doi=10.1126/science.325_1329a |pmid=19745126 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kvavadze |first1=E. |last2=Bar-Yosef |first2=O. |last3=Belfer-Cohen |first3=A. |last4=Boaretto |first4=E. |last5=Jakeli |first5=N. |last6=Matskevich |first6=Z. |last7=Meshveliani |first7=T. |date=2009 |title=30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:4270521 |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5946 |page=1359 |doi=10.1126/science.1175404 |pmid=19745144 |bibcode=2009Sci...325.1359K |s2cid=206520793 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
+The discovery of dyed flax fibers in a cave in [[Southern Caucasus]], [[West Asia]] (modern-day country of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]) dated to 36,000 years ago suggests that ancient people used wild flax fibers to create linen-like fabrics from an early date.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Balter |first=M. |date=2009 |title=Clothes Make the (Hu) Man |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5946 |page=1329 |doi=10.1126/science.325_1329a |pmid=19745126 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kvavadze |first1=E. |last2=Bar-Yosef |first2=O. |last3=Belfer-Cohen |first3=A. |last4=Boaretto |first4=E. |last5=Jakeli |first5=N. |last6=Matskevich |first6=Z. |last7=Meshveliani |first7=T. |date=2009 |title=30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:4270521 |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5946 |page=1359 |doi=10.1126/science.1175404 |pmid=19745144 |bibcode=2009Sci...325.1359K |s2cid=206520793 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
-Fragments of straw, seeds, fibers, yarns, and various types of fabrics, including linen samples, dating to about 8,000 BC have been found in Swiss lake dwellings.<ref name="Akin">{{cite journal |last=Akin |first=Danny E. |date=30 December 2012 |title=Linen Most Useful: Perspectives on Structure, Chemistry, and Enzymes for Retting Flax |journal=ISRN Biotechnology |volume=2013 |page=186534 |doi=10.5402/2013/186534 |pmid=25969769 |pmc=4403609 |ref=Akin |doi-access=free }}</ref>
+Fragments of straw, seeds, fibers, yarns, and various types of fabrics, including linen samples, dating to about 8,000 BC have been found in Swiss lake dwellings.<ref name="Akin">{{cite journal |last=Akin |first=Danny E. |date=30 December 2012 |title=Linen Most Useful: Perspectives on Structure, Chemistry, and Enzymes for Retting Flax |journal=ISRN Biotechnology |volume=2013 |article-number=186534 |doi=10.5402/2013/186534 |pmid=25969769 |pmc=4403609 |ref=Akin |doi-access=free }}</ref>
-Woven flax textile fragments have been "found between infant and child" in a burial at [[Çatalhöyük]], a large settlement dating to around 7,000 BC.<ref>{{Cite report |title=Çatalhöyük 2013 Archive Report |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/206552281/Archive-Report-2013 |website=Scribd.com }}</ref> To the southeast, in ancient [[Mesopotamia]], flax was domesticated and linen was produced.<ref>{{cite book |last=Potts |first=Daniel T. |title=Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations |date=1997 |publisher=The Athlone Press |isbn=0-485-93001-3 |page=119 }}</ref> It was used mainly by the wealthier class of the society, including priests.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roberts |first=Peter |title=HSC Ancient History |publisher=Pascal Press |year=2006 |isbn=9781741251784 |page=63 }}</ref> The [[Sumerian art|Sumerian]] poem of the courtship of [[Inanna]] mentions flax and linen.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kramer |first=Samuel Noah |date=20 December 1963 |title=Cuneiform Studies and the History of Literature: The Sumerian Sacred Marriage Texts |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=107 |issue=6 |jstor=986108 |pages=504–505 }}</ref>
+Woven flax textile fragments have been "found between infant and child" in a burial at [[Çatalhöyük]], a large settlement dating to around 7,000 BC.<ref>{{Cite report |title=Çatalhöyük 2013 Archive Report |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/206552281/Archive-Report-2013 |website=Scribd.com }}</ref> To the southeast, in ancient [[Mesopotamia]], flax was domesticated and linen was produced.<ref>{{cite book |last=Potts |first=Daniel T. |title=Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations |date=1997 |publisher=The Athlone Press |isbn=0-485-93001-3 |page=119 }}</ref> It was used mainly by the wealthier class of the society, including priests.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roberts |first=Peter |title=HSC Ancient History |publisher=Pascal Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-74125-178-4 |page=63 }}</ref> The [[Sumerian art|Sumerian]] poem of the courtship of [[Inanna]] mentions flax and linen.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kramer |first=Samuel Noah |date=20 December 1963 |title=Cuneiform Studies and the History of Literature: The Sumerian Sacred Marriage Texts |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=107 |issue=6 |jstor=986108 |pages=504–505 }}</ref>
-In [[ancient Egypt]], linen was used for mummification and for burial shrouds. It was also [[Clothing in ancient Egypt|worn as clothing]] on a daily basis; white linen was worn because of the extreme heat.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} For example, the [[Tarkhan dress]], considered to be among the oldest woven garments in the world and dated to between 3482 and 3102 BC, is made of linen.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lobell |first=Jarretta |date=2016 |title=Dressing for the Ages |journal=Archeology |volume=69 |issue=3 |issn=0003-8113 |page=9 }}</ref> [[Plutarch]] wrote that the priests of [[Isis]] also wore linen because of its purity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Plutarch |s2cid=4092286 |editor1-last=Babbitt |editor1-first=Frank Cole |title=Isis and Osiris |journal=Nature |year=1940 |volume=146 |issue=3695 |page=262 |doi=10.1038/146262e0 |bibcode=1940Natur.146U.262. |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Isis_and_Osiris*/A.html |access-date=3 June 2020|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Warden |first=Alex. J. |title=The linen trade, ancient and modern |date=1867 |publisher=Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts & Green |page=214 |hdl=2027/hvd.32044019641166 |edition=2nd }}</ref> Linen was sometimes used as a form of currency in ancient Egypt.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Egyptian [[Mummy|mummies]] were wrapped in linen as a symbol of light and purity, and as a display of wealth. Some of these fabrics, woven from hand-spun yarns, were very fine for their day, but are coarse compared with modern linen.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harris |first=Thaddeus Mason |title=The natural history of the Bible; or, A description of all the quadrupeds, birds, fishes [&c.] mentioned in the Sacred scriptures |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof00harriala |access-date=23 October 2012 |date=1824 |page=[https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof00harriala/page/135 135] }}</ref> When the tomb of the Pharaoh [[Ramses II]], who died in 1213 BC, was discovered in 1881, the linen wrappings were in a state of perfect preservation after more than 3000 years.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} In the [[Ulster Museum]], [[Belfast]] there is the mummy of '[[Takabuti]]' the daughter of a priest of [[Amun]], who died 2,500 years ago.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nmni.com/our-museums/ulster-museum/Things-to-see/Takabuti-the-ancient-Egyptian-mummy.aspx |title=Takabuti the ancient Egyptian mummy |website=NMNI.com |publisher=Ulster Museum, Egyptian Gallery }}</ref> The linen on this mummy is also in a perfect state of preservation.
+In [[ancient Egypt]], linen was used for mummification and for burial shrouds. It was also [[Clothing in ancient Egypt|worn as clothing]] on a daily basis; white linen was worn because of the extreme heat.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} For example, the [[Tarkhan dress]], considered to be among the oldest woven garments in the world and dated to between 3482 and 3102 BC, is made of linen.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lobell |first=Jarretta |date=2016 |title=Dressing for the Ages |journal=Archeology |volume=69 |issue=3 |issn=0003-8113 |page=9 }}</ref> [[Plutarch]] wrote that the priests of [[Isis]] also wore linen because of its purity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Plutarch |s2cid=4092286 |editor1-last=Babbitt |editor1-first=Frank Cole |title=Isis and Osiris |journal=Nature |year=1940 |volume=146 |issue=3695 |page=262 |doi=10.1038/146262e0 |bibcode=1940Natur.146U.262. |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Isis_and_Osiris*/A.html |access-date=3 June 2020|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Warden |first=Alex. J. |title=The linen trade, ancient and modern |date=1867 |publisher=Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts & Green |page=214 |hdl=2027/hvd.32044019641166 |edition=2nd }}</ref> Linen was sometimes used as a form of currency in ancient Egypt.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Egyptian [[Mummy|mummies]] were wrapped in linen as a symbol of light and purity, and as a display of wealth. Some of these fabrics, woven from hand-spun yarns, were very fine for their day, but are coarse compared with modern linen.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harris |first=Thaddeus Mason |title=The natural history of the Bible; or, A description of all the quadrupeds, birds, fishes [&c.] mentioned in the Sacred scriptures |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof00harriala |access-date=23 October 2012 |date=1824 |page=[https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof00harriala/page/135 135] }}</ref>
-[[File:Prices edict grades.jpg|thumb|[[Diocletian]]'s 4th century maximum prices edict showing prices for 3 grades of linen across the [[Roman Empire]]]]
+[[File:Prices edict grades.jpg|thumb|[[Diocletian]]'s 4th-century maximum prices edict showing prices for three grades of linen across the [[Roman Empire]]]]
-The earliest written documentation of a linen industry comes from the [[Linear B]] tablets of [[Pylos]], [[Greece]], where linen is depicted as an [[ideogram]] and also written as "li-no" ([[Greek language|Greek]]: λίνον, ''linon''), and the female linen workers are cataloged as "li-ne-ya" (λίνεια, ''lineia'').<ref>[http://www3.lu.se/klass/textiles/throughsociety.html#rouge Flax and Linen Textiles in the Mycenaean palatial economy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411124925/http://www3.lu.se/klass/textiles/throughsociety.html |date=2008-04-11 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Robkin |first=A.L.H. |date=1 January 1979 |jstor=504148 |title=The Agricultural Year, the Commodity SA and the Linen Industry of Mycenaean Pylos |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.2307/504148 }}</ref>
+The earliest written documentation of a linen industry comes from the [[Linear B]] tablets of [[Pylos]], Greece.<ref>[http://www3.lu.se/klass/textiles/throughsociety.html#rouge Flax and Linen Textiles in the Mycenaean palatial economy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411124925/http://www3.lu.se/klass/textiles/throughsociety.html |date=2008-04-11 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Robkin |first=A.L.H. |date=1 January 1979 |jstor=504148 |title=The Agricultural Year, the Commodity SA and the Linen Industry of Mycenaean Pylos |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.2307/504148 }}</ref> There are many references to linen throughout the [[Bible]].<ref>{{cite web |title=What Is Linen? Everything You Need to Know About Using and Caring for Linen |url=https://www.masterclass.com/articles/what-is-linen-everything-you-need-to-know-about-using-and-caring-for-linen |publisher=MasterClass |access-date=4 June 2020 }}</ref>
 [[File:Ancient Coptic material.jpg|thumb|upright|Ancient [[Copts|Coptic]] material]]
@@ Line 44: / Line 44: @@
 Linen continued to be valued for garments in the 16th century<ref name="Pollen 1914">{{cite journal |last=Pollen |first=John Hungerford |date=1914 |title=Ancient Linen Garments |journal=The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs |volume=25 |issue=136 |jstor=859719 |pages=231–237 }}</ref> and beyond. Specimens of linen garments worn by historical figures have survived. For example, a linen cap worn by [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles V]] was carefully preserved after his death in 1558.<ref name="Pollen 1914" />
-There is a long history of the production of linen in Ireland. When the [[Edict of Nantes]] was revoked in 1685, many of the [[Huguenots]] who fled France settled in the British Isles and elsewhere. They brought improved methods for linen production with them, contributing to the growth of the linen industry in [[Ireland]] in particular.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lutton |first=S.C. |title=Background history of Linen from the flax in the field to finished linen cloth |journal=Journal of Craigavon Historical Society |volume=8 |issue=1 |url=http://www.craigavonhistoricalsociety.org.uk/rev/luttonhistoryoflinen.html |access-date=5 June 2020 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512024057/http://www.craigavonhistoricalsociety.org.uk/rev/luttonhistoryoflinen.html |archive-date=12 May 2021 }}</ref> Among them was [[Louis Crommelin]], a leader who was appointed overseer of the royal linen manufacture of Ireland. He settled in the town of [[Lisburn]] near [[Belfast]], which is itself perhaps the most famous linen producing center throughout history; during the Victorian era the majority of the world's linen was produced in the city, which gained it the name [[Linenopolis]].<ref name="Prance">{{cite book |last=Prance |first=Sir Ghillean |title=The Cultural History of Plants |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781135958114 |page=295 }}</ref> Although the linen industry was already established in Ulster, Louis Crommelin found scope for improvement in weaving, and his efforts were so successful that he was appointed by the Government to develop the industry over a much wider range than the small confines of Lisburn and its surroundings. The direct result of his good work was the establishment, under statute, of the Board of Trustees of the Linen Manufacturers of Ireland in the year 1711. Several grades were produced including coarse [[lockram]].{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} The [[Living Linen]] Project was set up in 1995 as an oral archive of the knowledge of the [[Irish linen]] industry, which was at that time still available within a nucleus of people who formerly worked in the industry in [[Ulster]].
+There is a long history of the production of linen in Ireland. When the [[Edict of Nantes]] was revoked in 1685, many of the [[Huguenots]] who fled France settled in the British Isles and elsewhere. They brought improved methods for linen production with them, contributing to the growth of the linen industry in [[Ireland]] in particular.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lutton |first=S.C. |title=Background history of Linen from the flax in the field to finished linen cloth |journal=Journal of Craigavon Historical Society |volume=8 |issue=1 |url=http://www.craigavonhistoricalsociety.org.uk/rev/luttonhistoryoflinen.html |access-date=5 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512024057/http://www.craigavonhistoricalsociety.org.uk/rev/luttonhistoryoflinen.html |archive-date=12 May 2021 }}</ref> Among them was [[Louis Crommelin]], a leader who was appointed overseer of the royal linen manufacture of Ireland. He settled in the town of [[Lisburn]] near [[Belfast]], which is itself perhaps the most famous linen producing center throughout history; during the Victorian era the majority of the world's linen was produced in the city, which gained it the name [[Linenopolis]].<ref name="Prance">{{cite book |last=Prance |first=Sir Ghillean |title=The Cultural History of Plants |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-95811-4 |page=295 }}</ref> Although the linen industry was already established in Ulster, Louis Crommelin found scope for improvement in weaving, and his efforts were so successful that he was appointed by the Government to develop the industry over a much wider range than the small confines of Lisburn and its surroundings. The direct result of his good work was the establishment, under statute, of the Board of Trustees of the Linen Manufacturers of Ireland in the year 1711. Several grades were produced including coarse [[lockram]].{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} The [[Living Linen]] Project was set up in 1995 as an oral archive of the knowledge of the [[Irish linen]] industry, which was at that time still available within a nucleus of people who formerly worked in the industry in [[Ulster]].
 The linen industry was increasingly critical in the economies of Europe<ref>{{cite journal |last=Takei |first=Akihiro |title=The First Irish Linen Mills, 1800–1824 |journal=Irish Economic and Social History |date=1994 |volume=21 |pages=28–38 |doi=10.1177/033248939402100102 |jstor=24341383 |s2cid=199275871 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Belfanti |first=Marco |s2cid=108825085 |title=Reviewed Work: The European Linen Industry in Historical Perspective by Brenda Collins, Philip Ollerenshaw |journal=Technology and Culture |date=2006 |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=193–195 |doi=10.1353/tech.2006.0056 |jstor=40061028 }}</ref> in the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and then in Germany, industrialization and machine production replaced manual work and production moved from the home to new factories.<ref name="Textiltechnikum" />
@@ Line 53: / Line 53: @@
 In December 2006, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the [[International Year of Natural Fibres]] in order to raise people's awareness of linen and other [[natural fiber]]s.<ref name="UN 2009">{{cite web |title=Profiles of 15 of the world's major plant and animal fibres |url=http://www.fao.org/natural-fibres-2009/about/15-natural-fibres/en/ |website=International Year of Natural Fibres 2009 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |access-date=15 May 2020 }}</ref>
-One study suggests that the functional properties of linen fabric can be improved by incorporating chitosan-citric acid and phytic acid thiourea. The effects of this process include improved levels of antibacterial activity, increased wrinkle resistance, flame retardancy, UV protection, and antioxidant properties. Additionally, the linen fabric was able to retain durability for about 20 washes.<ref>{{citation |title=Multifunctional modification of linen fabrics using chitosan-based formulations 2018 }}</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=May 2025}}
-===Religion===
-There are many references to linen throughout the [[Bible]], reflecting the textile's entrenched presence in human cultures.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Is Linen? Everything You Need to Know About Using and Caring for Linen |url=https://www.masterclass.com/articles/what-is-linen-everything-you-need-to-know-about-using-and-caring-for-linen |publisher=MasterClass |access-date=4 June 2020 }}</ref> Linen is mentioned in Proverbs 31, a passage describing a noble wife. {{bibleverse|Proverbs|31:22}} says, "She makes coverings for her bed; she is clothed in fine linen and purple." Fine white linen is also worn by angels in the New Testament.<ref>{{bibleverse|Revelation|15:6}}</ref> In the [[Book of Joshua]], [[Rahab]], a prostitute in [[Jericho]], hides two Israelite spies under bundles of flax.
-In [[Judaism]], the only law concerning which fabrics may be interwoven together in clothing concerns the mixture of linen and [[wool]], called ''[[shaatnez]]''; it is restricted in {{bibleverse||Deuteronomy|22:11|HE}} "Thou shalt not wear a mingled stuff, wool and linen together" and {{bibleverse||Leviticus|19:19|HE}}, "...neither shall there come upon thee a garment of two kinds of stuff mingled together." There is no explanation for this in the [[Torah]] itself and it is categorized as a type of law known as ''chukim'', a statute beyond man's ability to comprehend.<ref name="religion">The Jewish Primer, by Shmuel Himelstein. New York, NY: Facts On File, 1990.</ref> First-century Romano-Jewish historian [[Josephus]] suggested that the reason for the prohibition was to keep the laity from wearing the official garb of the priests,<ref>Etz Hayim p. 1118</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=January 2017}}<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/ant-4.htm|title=Antiquities of the Jews|last=Josephus|translator-last=Whiston|chapter=8.11}}</ref> while medieval Sephardic Jewish philosopher [[Maimonides]] thought that the reason was that heathen priests wore such mixed garments.<ref>Guide for the Perplexed 3:37</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=January 2017}} Others explain that it is because God often forbids mixtures of disparate kinds, not designed by God to be compatible in a certain way, with mixing animal and vegetable fibers being similar to having two different types of plowing animals yoked together; also, such commands serve both a practical as well as allegorical purpose, perhaps here preventing a priestly garment that would cause discomfort (or excessive sweat) in a hot climate.<ref>Jamieson, Fausset, Brown commentary, Lv. 19:19</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=January 2017}}
 == Uses ==
@@ Line 68: / Line 61: @@
 Today, linen is usually an expensive textile produced in relatively small quantities. It has a long [[Staple (textiles)|staple]] (individual fiber length) relative to cotton and other [[natural fiber]]s.<ref name="textiles">''Textiles'', Ninth Edition by Sara J. Kadolph and Anna L. Langford. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall</ref>
-Linen fabric has been used for table coverings, bed coverings and clothing for centuries. The significant cost of linen derives not only from the difficulty of working with the thread but also because the flax plant itself requires a great deal of attention. In addition, flax thread is not elastic, and therefore it is difficult to weave without breaking threads. Thus linen is considerably more expensive to manufacture than cotton.{{Cn|date=October 2022}}
+Linen fabric has been used for table coverings, bed coverings and clothing for centuries. The significant cost of linen derives not only from the difficulty of working with the thread but also because the flax plant itself requires a great deal of attention. In addition, flax thread is not elastic, and therefore it is difficult to weave without breaking threads. Thus linen is considerably more expensive to manufacture than cotton.{{Citation needed|date=October 2022}}
 The collective term "[[linens]]" is still often used generically to describe a class of [[weaving|woven]] or [[knitting|knitted]] bed, bath, table and kitchen textiles traditionally made of flax-based linen but today made from a variety of fibers. The term "linens" refers to lightweight [[undergarment]]s such as shirts, [[chemise]]s, waist-shirts, [[lingerie]] (a cognate with ''linen''), and detachable shirt collars and cuffs, all of which were historically made almost exclusively out of linen. The inner layer of fine composite cloth garments (as for example dress jackets) was traditionally made of linen, hence the word ''lining''.<ref>lining. Dictionary.com. Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian. {{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/lining |title=Lining &#124; Define Lining at Dictionary.com |access-date=2014-10-04 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006115259/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/lining |archive-date=2014-10-06 }} (accessed: October 3, 2014).</ref>
@@ Line 78: / Line 71: @@
 A linen [[handkerchief]], pressed and folded to display the corners, was a standard decoration of a well-dressed man's [[Suit (clothing)|suit]] during most of the first part of the 20th century.
-Nowadays, linen is one of the most preferred materials for bed sheets due to its durability and hypoallergenic properties. Linen can be up to three times stronger than cotton. This is because the [[Cellulose fiber|cellulose fibers]] in linen yarn are slightly longer and wrapped tighter than those found in cotton yarn. This gives it great durability and allows linen products to be long-lasting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Behera |first=B.K. |date=2007-03-01 |title=Comfort and Handle Behaviour of Linen-Blended Fabrics |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/aut-2007-070104/html |journal=AUTEX Research Journal |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=33–47 |doi=10.1515/aut-2007-070104 |issn=2300-0929}}</ref>
+Nowadays, linen is one of the most preferred materials for bed sheets due to its durability and hypoallergenic properties. Linen can be up to three times stronger than cotton. This is because the [[cellulose fiber]]s in linen yarn are slightly longer and wrapped tighter than those found in cotton yarn, which gives it great durability and allows linen products to be long-lasting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Behera |first=B.K. |date=2007-03-01 |title=Comfort and Handle Behaviour of Linen-Blended Fabrics |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/aut-2007-070104/html |journal=AUTEX Research Journal |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=33–47 |doi=10.1515/aut-2007-070104 |issn=2300-0929}}</ref>
 Currently researchers are working on a cotton/flax blend to create new yarns which will improve the feel of denim during hot and humid weather.<ref name="agr_research">{{cite magazine |title=Flax Fiber Offers Cotton Cool Comfort |magazine=Agricultural Research |date=November 2005 }}</ref> Conversely, some brands such as 100% Capri specially treat the linen to look like denim.<ref name="MH">{{cite web|url=https://www.miamiherald.com/latest-news/article1964798.html|title=Just add water|newspaper=Miami Herald|date=5 June 2014|access-date=11 March 2020}}</ref>
-Linen fabric is one of the preferred traditional supports for [[oil painting]]. In the United States cotton is popularly used instead, as linen is many times more expensive there, restricting its use to professional painters. In Europe, however, linen is usually the only fabric support available in art shops; in the UK both are freely available with cotton being cheaper. Linen is preferred to cotton for its strength, durability and [[archival]] integrity.{{Cn|date=October 2022}}
+Linen fabric is one of the preferred traditional supports for [[oil painting]]. In the United States cotton is popularly used instead, as linen is many times more expensive there, restricting its use to professional painters. In Europe, however, linen is usually the only fabric support available in art shops; in the UK both are freely available with cotton being cheaper. Linen is preferred to cotton for its strength, durability and [[archival]] integrity.{{Citation needed|date=October 2022}}
 Linen is also used extensively by artisan bakers. Known as a [[couche]], the flax cloth is used to hold the dough into shape while in the final rise, just before baking. The couche is heavily dusted with flour which is rubbed into the pores of the fabric. Then the shaped dough is placed on the couche. The floured couche makes a "non stick" surface to hold the dough. Then ridges are formed in the couche to keep the dough from spreading.
-In the past, linen was also used for books (the only surviving example of which is the [[Liber Linteus]]). Due to its strength, in the [[Middle Ages]] linen was used for [[shield]]s, [[gambeson]]s, and [[bowstring]]s; in [[classical antiquity]] it was used to make a type of body armour, referred to as a [[linothorax]]. Additionally, linen was commonly used to make riggings, sail-cloths, nets, ropes, and canvases because the [[tensility]] of the cloth would increase by 20% when wet.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvh1dm0t |title=Textiles and the Medieval Economy: Production, Trade, and Consumption of Textiles, 8th–16th Centuries |date=2015 |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=978-1-78925-209-5 |volume=16 |doi=10.2307/j.ctvh1dm0t|jstor=j.ctvh1dm0t }}</ref>
+In the past, linen was also used for books (the only surviving example of which is the [[Liber Linteus]]). Due to its strength, in the [[Middle Ages]] linen was used for [[shield]]s, [[gambeson]]s, and [[bowstring]]s; in [[classical antiquity]] it was used to make a type of body armour, referred to as a [[linothorax]]. Additionally, linen was commonly used to make riggings, sail-cloths, nets, ropes, and canvases because the [[tensility]] of the cloth would increase by 20% when wet.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Textiles and the Medieval Economy: Production, Trade, and Consumption of Textiles, 8th–16th Centuries |date=2015 |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=978-1-78925-209-5 |volume=16 |doi=10.2307/j.ctvh1dm0t|jstor=j.ctvh1dm0t }}</ref>
 Because of its strength when wet, [[Irish linen]] is a very popular wrap of pool/billiard cues, due to its absorption of sweat from hands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Game and Entertain |title=Complete Guide to Pool Cue Wraps: Everything You Need to Know |url=https://gameandentertain.com/complete-guide-to-pool-cue-wraps-everything-you-need-to-know/ |website=Game and Entertain |access-date=2024-02-01 }}</ref>
@@ Line 130: / Line 123: @@
 [[File:Bäuerliche Leinenweberei - 4. Die Herstellung von Leinwand.webm|thumb|Handweaving of linen (narration in German)]]
-The fibers must then be loosened from the stalk. This is achieved through [[retting]], a process which uses bacteria to decompose the pectin that binds the fibers together. Natural retting methods take place in tanks and pools, or directly in the fields. There are also chemical retting methods; these are faster, but are typically more harmful to the environment and to the fibers themselves.
+The fibers must then be loosened from the stalk. This is achieved through [[retting]], a process which uses bacteria to decompose the pectin that binds the fibers together. Natural retting methods take place in tanks and pools, or directly in the fields. There are also chemical retting methods; these are faster, but are typically more harmful to the environment and to the fibers themselves.{{citation needed|date=August 2025}}
-After retting, the stalks are ready for [[scutching]], which takes place between August and December. Scutching removes the woody portion of the stalks by crushing them between two metal rollers, so that the parts of the stalk can be separated. The fibers are removed and the other parts such as [[Linseed#Flax seeds|linseed]], [[shives]], and [[Tow (fibre)|tow]] are set aside for other uses. Next the fibers are [[Heckling (flax)|heckled]]: the short fibers are separated with [[heckling comb]]s by 'combing' them away, to leave behind only the long, soft flax fibers.
+After retting, the stalks are ready for [[scutching]], which takes place between August and December. Scutching removes the woody portion of the stalks by crushing them between two metal rollers, so that the parts of the stalk can be separated. The fibers are removed and the other parts such as [[Linseed#Flax seeds|linseed]], [[shives]], and [[Tow (fibre)|tow]] are set aside for other uses. Next the fibers are [[Heckling (flax)|heckled]]: the short fibers are separated with [[heckling comb]]s by 'combing' them away, to leave behind only the long, soft flax fibers.{{citation needed|date=August 2025}}
 After the fibers have been separated and processed, they are typically spun into yarns and woven or knit into linen textiles. These textiles can then be bleached, dyed, printed on, or finished with a number of treatments or coatings.<ref name="classifications" />
-An alternate production method is known as "cottonizing" which is quicker and requires less equipment. The flax stalks are processed using traditional cotton machinery; however, the finished fibers often lose the characteristic linen look.
+An alternate production method is known as "cottonizing" which is quicker and requires less equipment. The flax stalks are processed using traditional cotton machinery; however, the finished fibers often lose the characteristic linen look.{{citation needed|date=August 2025}}
 === Producers ===
@@ Line 161: / Line 154: @@
 ==External links==
 {{Commons category|Linen (flax)}}
-{{Collier's Poster}}
+{{EB1911 poster|Linen and Linen Manufactures}}
+{{Collier's poster}}
 * {{Wiktionary-inline|linen}}

Linen: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 06:51, 28 September 2025

Contents

Etymology

History

Early history

Middle Ages

Modern history

Uses

Flax fiber

Description

Properties

Measure

Production method

Producers

See also

References

External links

Navigation menu

Linen: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 06:51, 28 September 2025

Etymology

History

Early history

Middle Ages

Modern history

Uses

Flax fiber

Description

Properties

Measure

Production method

Producers

See also

References

External links

Navigation menu

Search