Fascia: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Layer of connective tissue in the body}}
{{Short description|Layer of connective tissue in the body}}
{{Redirect|Silverskin|a build-up of silver in the skin|Argyria|other uses|Fascia (disambiguation)}}
{{Other uses|Fascia (disambiguation)}}
{{Anatomy-terms}}
{{Anatomy-terms}}
{{Infobox anatomy
{{Infobox anatomy
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| Precursor  = [[Mesenchyme]]
| Precursor  = [[Mesenchyme]]
}}
}}
[[File:Braus 1921 65.png|thumb|Microsopic image of a fascial structure ([[Ligamentum nuchae]]).]]
[[File:Braus 1921 65.png|thumb|Microsopic image of a fascial structure ([[nuchal ligament]])]]
A '''fascia''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|æ|ʃ|(|i|)|ə}}; {{plural form}}: '''fasciae''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|æ|ʃ|i|i}} or '''fascias''';<ref name="MW">{{cite web |title=Definition of FASCIA |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fascia |website=www.merriam-webster.com |access-date=12 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref> adjective '''fascial'''; {{ety|la|band}}) is a generic term for [[Macroscopic scale|macroscopic]] [[Membranous layer|membranous]] bodily structures.<ref name=":2245">{{Cite book |last=Standring |first=Susan |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1201341621 |title=Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-7020-7707-4 |edition=42nd |location=New York |pages= |oclc=1201341621}}</ref>{{Rp|page=42}} Fasciae are classified as [[superficial fascia|superficial]], [[visceral fascia|visceral]] or [[deep fascia|deep]], and further designated according to their anatomical location.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Gatt |first1=Adrianna |title=Anatomy, Fascia Layers |date=2023 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526038/ |work=StatPearls |access-date=2023-05-16 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=30252294 |last2=Agarwal |first2=Sanjay |last3=Zito |first3=Patrick M.}}</ref>
 
A '''fascia''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|æ|ʃ|(|i|)|ə}}; {{plural form}}: '''fasciae''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|æ|ʃ|i|i}} or '''fascias''';<ref name="MW">{{cite web |title=Definition of FASCIA |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fascia |website=www.merriam-webster.com |access-date=12 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref> adjective '''fascial'''; {{ety|la|fascia|band}}) is a generic term for [[Macroscopic scale|macroscopic]] [[Membranous layer|membranous]] bodily structures.<ref name=":2245">{{Cite book |last=Standring |first=Susan |year=2020 |title=Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice |edition=42nd |location=New York |publisher=Elsevier |pages= |isbn=978-0-7020-7707-4 |oclc=1201341621}}</ref>{{Rp|page=42}} Fasciae are classified as superficial, visceral or [[deep fascia|deep]], and further designated according to their anatomical location.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Gatt |first1=Adrianna |title=Anatomy, Fascia Layers |date=2023 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526038/ |work=StatPearls |access-date=2023-05-16 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=30252294 |last2=Agarwal |first2=Sanjay |last3=Zito |first3=Patrick M.}}</ref>


The knowledge of fascial structures is essential in [[surgery]], as they create borders for infectious processes (for example [[Psoas abscess]]) and haematoma. An increase in pressure may result in a [[compartment syndrome]], where a prompt [[fasciotomy]] may be necessary. For this reason, profound descriptions of fascial structures are available in anatomical literature from the 19th century.
The knowledge of fascial structures is essential in [[surgery]], as they create borders for infectious processes (for example [[Psoas abscess]]) and haematoma. An increase in pressure may result in a [[compartment syndrome]], where a prompt [[fasciotomy]] may be necessary. For this reason, profound descriptions of fascial structures are available in anatomical literature from the 19th century.
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In the tradition of medical dissections it has been common practice to carefully clean muscles and other organs from their surrounding fasciae in order to study their detailed topography and function. However, this practice tends to ignore that many muscle fibers insert into their fascial envelopes and that the function of many organs is significantly altered  when their related fasciae are removed.<ref name="FunctionalAtlas">{{cite book| last = Stecco| first = Carla| title = Functional Atlas of the Human Fascial System| year = 2015| publisher = Churchill Livingstone| isbn = 978-0702044304
In the tradition of medical dissections it has been common practice to carefully clean muscles and other organs from their surrounding fasciae in order to study their detailed topography and function. However, this practice tends to ignore that many muscle fibers insert into their fascial envelopes and that the function of many organs is significantly altered  when their related fasciae are removed.<ref name="FunctionalAtlas">{{cite book| last = Stecco| first = Carla| title = Functional Atlas of the Human Fascial System| year = 2015| publisher = Churchill Livingstone| isbn = 978-0702044304
| url = https://www.amazon.com/-/en/dp/070204430X/}}</ref> This insight contributed to several modern biomechanical concepts of the human body, in which fascial tissues take over important stabilizing and connecting functions, by distributing tensional forces across several joints in a network-like manner similar to the architectural concept of tensegrity.<ref name="TensionalNetwork">{{cite book| last = Schleip| first = Robert| title = Fascia: The Tensional Network of the Human Body: The science and clinical applications in manual and movement therapy| year = 2022| publisher = Elsevier| isbn = 978-0702071836
}}</ref> This insight contributed to several modern biomechanical concepts of the human body, in which fascial tissues take over important stabilizing and connecting functions, by distributing tensional forces across several joints in a network-like manner similar to the architectural concept of [[tensegrity]].<ref name="TensionalNetwork">{{cite book| last = Schleip| first = Robert| title = Fascia: The Tensional Network of the Human Body: The science and clinical applications in manual and movement therapy| year = 2022| publisher = Elsevier| isbn = 978-0702071836
| url = https://www.amazon.com/-/en/dp/0702071838/}}</ref>
}}</ref>
Starting in 2018 this concept of the fascial tissue serving as a body-wide tensional support system has been successfully expressed as an educational model with the [[Fascial Net Plastination Project]].  
Starting in 2018 this concept of the fascial tissue serving as a body-wide tensional support system has been successfully expressed as an educational model with the [[Fascial Net Plastination Project]].  


Fascial tissues &ndash; particularly those with tendinous or aponeurotic properties &ndash; are also able to store and release elastic potential energy.
Fascial tissues &ndash; particularly those with tendinous or aponeurotic properties &ndash; are also able to store and release elastic potential energy.
Beyond storing and releasing elastic energy, fascial tissues contribute to proprioception and motor control through dense innervation with mechanoreceptors and nociceptors. Recent biomechanical studies also emphasize the role of fascial networks in distributing strain across multiple joints. This is an idea often framed as a body-wide tensegrity system, so that fascia participates dynamically in coordinated movement and postural stability.<ref name="Wilke2018">Wilke J, et al. Fascial tissue research in sports medicine: from molecules to tissue adaptation, injury and diagnostics. Br J Sports Med. 2018;52(23):1497–1505.</ref><ref name="Schleip2012">Schleip R, et al. Fascial plasticity – a new neurobiological explanation. J Bodyw Mov Ther. 2012;16(1):77–91.</ref>{{Failed verification|date=November 2025|reason=there is no such paper in 2012. There is a 2-part paper of this name in 2003; part 1 is referenced by this article. Part 2 is same journal, Volume 7, Issue 2, pp104-116, April 2003}}


== Anatomical compartments ==
== Anatomical compartments ==
{{Main|Fascial compartment}}
{{Main|Fascial compartment}}
A [[fascial compartment]] is a section within the body that contains [[muscles]] and [[nerves]] and is surrounded by fascia. In the [[human body]], the [[Limb (anatomy)|limbs]] can each be divided into two segments: The [[upper limb]] can be divided into the [[arm]] and the [[forearm]] and the sectional compartments of both of these – the [[fascial compartments of arm|fascial compartments of the arm]] and the [[fascial compartments of forearm|fascial compartments of the forearm]] contain an anterior and a posterior compartment. The lower limbs can be divided into two segments – the [[human leg|leg]] and the [[thigh]] – and these contain the [[fascial compartments of leg|fascial compartments of the leg]] and the [[fascial compartments of thigh|fascial compartments of the thigh]].
A [[fascial compartment]] is a section within the body that contains [[muscles]] and [[nerves]] and is surrounded by fascia. In the [[human body]], the [[Limb (anatomy)|limbs]] can each be divided into two segments. The [[upper limb]] can be divided into the [[arm]] and the [[forearm]]; their sectional compartments are the [[fascial compartments of arm|fascial compartments of the arm]] and the [[fascial compartments of forearm|fascial compartments of the forearm]], which both contain an anterior and a posterior compartment. The lower limbs can also be divided into two segments: the [[human leg|leg]] and the [[thigh]]; those contain the [[fascial compartments of leg|fascial compartments of the leg]] and the [[fascial compartments of thigh|fascial compartments of the thigh]] respectively.


<gallery widths="300px" heights="auto" mode="packed" align="center">
<gallery widths="300px" heights="auto" mode="packed" align="center">
File:Plastinated Human Thigh.jpg|Photo of cross-sectional slice from a plastinated human thigh.
File:Plastinated Human Thigh.jpg|Photo of cross-sectional slice from a [[plastinated]] human thigh.
File:Schematic drawing of a transverse section of the thigh illustrating its fascial anatomy.webp|Schematic drawing of a transverse section of the thigh illustrating its fascial anatomy.
File:Schematic drawing of a transverse section of the thigh illustrating its fascial anatomy.webp|Schematic drawing of a transverse section of the thigh illustrating its fascial anatomy.
</gallery>
</gallery>


==Clinical significance==
==Clinical significance==
Fascia itself becomes clinically important when it loses stiffness, becomes too stiff, or has decreased shearing ability.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klingler |first1=W. |last2=Velders |first2=M. |last3=Hoppe |first3=K. |last4=Pedro |first4=M. |last5=Schleip |first5=R. |year=2014 |title=Clinical relevance of fascial tissue and dysfunctions. |journal=Curr Pain Headache Rep |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=439 |doi=10.1007/s11916-014-0439-y |pmid=24962403 |s2cid=4217127}}</ref> When inflammatory [[fasciitis]] or trauma causes [[fibrosis]] and adhesions, fascial tissue fails to differentiate the adjacent structures effectively. This can happen after surgery, where the fascia has been incised and healing includes a [[scar]] that traverses the surrounding structures.
Fascia itself becomes clinically important when it loses stiffness, becomes too stiff, or has decreased shearing ability.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klingler |first1=W. |last2=Velders |first2=M. |last3=Hoppe |first3=K. |last4=Pedro |first4=M. |last5=Schleip |first5=R. |year=2014 |title=Clinical relevance of fascial tissue and dysfunctions. |journal=Curr Pain Headache Rep |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=439 |doi=10.1007/s11916-014-0439-y |pmid=24962403 |s2cid=4217127}}</ref> Fascial dysfunction has been implicated in a range of musculoskeletal pain syndromes, including myofascial pain and some cases of chronic low back pain, where altered fascial gliding or adhesions may contribute to symptoms. Surgical disruption of fascial planes can produce postoperative adhesions and functional limitations. Rehabilitation approaches such as targeted physical therapy and myofascial release aim to restore fascial mobility and reduce pain, though high-quality randomized trials assessing long-term efficacy are limited.<ref name="Langevin2004">Langevin HM, et al. Connective tissue: a body-wide signaling network? Med Hypotheses. 2004;62(5):849–853.</ref><ref name="Ajimsha2015">Ajimsha MS, et al. Effectiveness of myofascial release in chronic low back pain. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2015.</ref>When inflammatory [[fasciitis]] or trauma causes [[fibrosis]] and adhesions, fascial tissue fails to differentiate the adjacent structures effectively. This can happen after surgery, where the fascia has been incised and healing includes a [[scar]] that traverses the surrounding structures.


== Fascial Net Plastination Project ==
== Research ==
{{Main|Fascial Net Plastination Project}}
{{Main|Fascial Net Plastination Project}}
The [[Fascial Net Plastination Project]] (FNPP) is an anatomical research initiative spearheaded by fascia researcher [[Robert Schleip]]. The project aims to enhance the study of fascia through the technique of [[plastination]]. Led by an international team of fascia experts and anatomists, the FNPP resulted in the creation of a full-body fascia plastinate known as '''FR:EIA''' (Fascia Revealed: Educating Interconnected Anatomy).<ref name="bodyworlds">{{Cite web |title=FR:EIA - Fascial Net Plastination Project |url=https://bodyworlds.com/freia/ |website=Body Worlds |access-date=2024-08-26}}</ref> This plastinate provides a detailed view of the human fascial network, allowing for a better understanding of its structure and function as an interconnected tissue throughout the body.
The [[Fascial Net Plastination Project]] (FNPP) is an anatomical research initiative spearheaded by fascia researcher [[Robert Schleip]]. The project aims to enhance the study of fascia through the technique of [[plastination]]. Led by an international team of fascia experts and anatomists, the FNPP resulted in the creation of a full-body fascia plastinate known as '''FR:EIA''' (Fascia Revealed: Educating Interconnected Anatomy).<ref name="bodyworlds">{{Cite web |title=FR:EIA - Fascial Net Plastination Project |url=https://bodyworlds.com/freia/ |website=Body Worlds |access-date=2024-08-26}}</ref> This plastinate provides a detailed view of the human fascial network, allowing for a better understanding of its structure and function as an interconnected tissue throughout the body.


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=== Previous terminology ===
=== Previous terminology ===
Two former, rather commonly used systems are:
Two former, rather commonly used systems are:
* The one specified in the 1983 edition of [[Nomina Anatomica]] (NA 1983)
 
* The one specified in the 1997 edition of [[Terminologia Anatomica]] (TA 1997)
* The one specified in the 1983 edition of ''[[Nomina Anatomica]]'' (NA 1983)
* The one specified in the 1997 edition of ''[[Terminologia Anatomica]]'' (TA 1997)


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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==== Superficial ====
==== Superficial ====
Superficial fascia is the lowermost layer of the [[human skin|skin]] in nearly all of the regions of the [[human body|body]], that blends with the [[reticular dermis]] layer.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Skandalakis |first = John E. |author2=Skandalakis, P.N. |author3=Skandalakis, L.J. |author4=Skandalakis, J. |  title = Surgical Anatomy and Technique, 2nd Ed. | publisher = Springer | year = 2002 | location = Atlanta, GA | pages = 1–2 | isbn = 0-387-98752-5 }}</ref> It is present on the [[face]], over the upper portion of the [[sternocleidomastoid]], at the [[nape]] of the [[neck]] and overlying the [[Human sternum|breastbone]].<ref>{{Cite book| last = Paoletti | first = Serge | title = The Fasciae: Anatomy, Dysfunction & Treatment | publisher = Eastland Press | year = 2006 | pages = 23–24 | location = Seattle, WA | isbn = 0-939616-53-X}}</ref> It consists mainly of loose [[areolar connective tissue|areolar]] and fatty [[adipose]] [[connective tissue]] and is the layer that primarily determines the shape of a body.{{medical citation needed|date=April 2019}} In addition to its [[Subcutaneous tissue|subcutaneous]] presence, superficial fascia surrounds [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], [[glands]] and [[neurovascular bundle]]s, and fills otherwise empty space at many other locations. It serves as a storage medium of [[fat]] and [[water]]; as a passageway for [[lymph]], [[nerve]] and [[blood vessels]]; and as a protective padding to cushion and insulate.<ref>{{Cite AV media | people = Hedley, Gil |date = 2005 | title = The Integral Anatomy Series Vol. 1: Skin and Superficial fascia | url = https://www.youtube.com/user/somanaut}}</ref>
'''Superficial fascia''' is the lowermost layer of the [[human skin|skin]] in nearly all of the regions of the [[human body|body]], that blends with the [[reticular dermis]] layer.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Skandalakis |first = John E. |author2=Skandalakis, P.N. |author3=Skandalakis, L.J. |author4=Skandalakis, J. |  title = Surgical Anatomy and Technique, 2nd Ed. | publisher = Springer | year = 2002 | location = Atlanta, GA | pages = 1–2 | isbn = 0-387-98752-5 }}</ref> It is present on the [[face]], over the upper portion of the [[sternocleidomastoid]], at the [[nape]] of the [[neck]] and overlying the [[Human sternum|breastbone]].<ref>{{Cite book| last = Paoletti | first = Serge | title = The Fasciae: Anatomy, Dysfunction & Treatment | publisher = Eastland Press | year = 2006 | pages = 23–24 | location = Seattle, WA | isbn = 0-939616-53-X}}</ref> It consists mainly of loose [[areolar connective tissue|areolar]] and fatty [[adipose]] [[connective tissue]] and is the layer that primarily determines the shape of a body.{{medical citation needed|date=April 2019}} In addition to its [[Subcutaneous tissue|subcutaneous]] presence, superficial fascia surrounds [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], [[glands]] and [[neurovascular bundle]]s, and fills otherwise empty space at many other locations. It serves as a storage medium of [[fat]] and [[water]]; as a passageway for [[lymph]], [[nerve]] and [[blood vessels]]; and as a protective padding to cushion and insulate.<ref>{{Cite AV media | last=Hedley|first=Gil |date = 2005 |series=The Integral Anatomy Series|volume=1|title =Skin and Superficial fascia|via=YouTube| medium =Video and DVD | publisher = Integral Anatomy Productions}} [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLQRL-lRQdb5iiox5vBd8kfcXumHMYN2XU Links to all volumes of ''The Integral Anatomy Series'']</ref>


Superficial fascia is present, but does not contain fat, in the [[eyelid]], [[ear]], [[scrotum]], [[Human penis|penis]] and [[clitoris]].<ref>Norman Eizenberg, ''General Anatomy:Principles and Applications'' (2008), p 70.</ref>
Superficial fascia is present, but does not contain fat, in the [[eyelid]], [[ear]], [[scrotum]], [[Human penis|penis]] and [[clitoris]].<ref>Norman Eizenberg, ''General Anatomy:Principles and Applications'' (2008), p 70.</ref>
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==== Visceral ====
==== Visceral ====
Visceral fascia (also called '''subserous fascia''') suspends the organs within their cavities and wraps them in layers of connective tissue [[cell membrane|membranes]].  Each of the organs is covered in a double layer of fascia; these layers are separated by a thin [[serous membrane]].
'''Visceral fascia''' (also called '''subserous fascia''') suspends the organs within their cavities and wraps them in layers of connective tissue [[cell membrane|membranes]].  Each of the organs is covered in a double layer of fascia; these layers are separated by a thin [[serous membrane]].
 
* The outermost wall of the organ is known as the [[:wikt:parietal|parietal]] layer
* The outermost wall of the organ is known as the [[:wikt:parietal|parietal]] layer
* The skin of the organ is known as the [[viscera]]l layer. The organs have specialized names for their visceral fasciae. In the brain, they are known as [[meninges]]; in the heart they are known as [[pericardium|pericardia]]; in the lungs, they are known as [[pleurae]]; and in the abdomen, they are known as [[peritoneum|peritonea]].<ref>{{cite video | people = Hedley, Gil |date = 2005 | title = The Integral Anatomy Series Vol. 3: Cranial and Visceral Fasciae | url = http://integralanatomy.com/ | medium = DVD | publisher = Integral Anatomy Productions | access-date = 2006-07-17 }}</ref>
* The skin of the organ is known as the [[viscera]]l layer. The organs have specialized names for their visceral fasciae. In the brain, they are known as [[meninges]]; in the heart they are known as [[pericardium|pericardia]]; in the lungs, they are known as [[pleurae]]; and in the abdomen, they are known as [[peritoneum|peritonea]].<ref>{{cite AV media| people = Hedley, Gil |date = 2005 |series=The Integral Anatomy Series|volume=3|title = Cranial and Visceral Fasciae |via=YouTube| medium = Video and DVD | publisher = Integral Anatomy Productions}} [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLQRL-lRQdb5iiox5vBd8kfcXumHMYN2XU Links to all volumes of ''The Integral Anatomy Series'']</ref>


Visceral fascia is less extensible than superficial fascia.  Due to its suspensory role for the organs, it needs to maintain its tone rather consistently. If it is too lax, it contributes to organ [[prolapse]], yet if it is [[Tonicity#Hypertonic solution|hypertonic]], it restricts proper organ [[motility]].<ref>{{Cite book| last = Paoletti | first = Serge | title = The Fasciae: Anatomy, Dysfunction & Treatment | publisher = Eastland Press | date = 2006 | pages = 146–147 | location = Seattle, WA | isbn = 0-939616-53-X}}</ref>
Visceral fascia is less extensible than superficial fascia.  Due to its suspensory role for the organs, it needs to maintain its tone rather consistently. If it is too lax, it contributes to organ [[prolapse]], yet if it is [[Tonicity#Hypertonic solution|hypertonic]], it restricts proper organ [[motility]].<ref>{{Cite book| last = Paoletti | first = Serge | title = The Fasciae: Anatomy, Dysfunction & Treatment | publisher = Eastland Press | date = 2006 | pages = 146–147 | location = Seattle, WA | isbn = 0-939616-53-X}}</ref>
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{{Main|Deep fascia}}
{{Main|Deep fascia}}


Deep fascia is a layer of [[dense regular connective tissue|dense fibrous connective tissue]] which surrounds individual [[muscle]]s and divides groups of muscles into [[fascial compartment]]s.
[[Deep fascia]] is a layer of [[dense regular connective tissue|dense fibrous connective tissue]] which surrounds individual [[muscle]]s and divides groups of muscles into [[fascial compartment]]s. This fascia has a high density of [[elastin]] fibre that determines its [[extensibility]] or resilience.<ref>{{Cite AV media | last=Hedley|first=Gil |date = 2005 |series=The Integral Anatomy Series|volume=2|title = Deep Fascia and Muscle | medium =Video and DVD|via=YouTube | publisher = Integral Anatomy Productions}} [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLQRL-lRQdb5iiox5vBd8kfcXumHMYN2XU Links to all volumes of ''The Integral Anatomy Series'']</ref> Deep fascia was originally considered to be essentially avascular but later investigations have confirmed a rich presence of thin blood vessels.<ref>{{cite book | last = Stecco | first = Carla | title = Functional Atlas of the Human Fascial System | publisher = Churchill Livingstone Elsevier | year = 2015 | location = Edinburgh, UK | page = 59 | isbn = 978-0-7020-4430-4 }}</ref> Deep fascia is also richly supplied with [[sensory receptor]]s.<ref name=Schleip2003>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S1360-8592(02)00067-0 |title=Fascial plasticity – a new neurobiological explanation: Part 1 |journal=Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=11–9 |year=2003 |last1=Schleip |first1=Robert }}</ref> Histologically, fascia is composed predominantly of type I collagen fibers with variable amounts of elastin, which together determine tensile strength and extensibility. Fibroblasts are the principal resident cells, and fascial tissue contains vascular elements (particularly in deep fascia), immune cells such as macrophages and mast cells, and a dense array of sensory nerve endings; these features enable fascia to participate in repair, inflammation, and nociception.<ref name="Stecco2011">Stecco C, Macchi V, Porzionato A, et al. The fascia: the forgotten structure. Ital J Anat Embryol. 2011.</ref><ref name="Yahia1992">Yahia LH, et al. Sensory innervation of human thoracolumbar fascia. Acta Orthop Scand. 1992;63(2):195–197.</ref> Examples of deep fascia are [[fascia lata]], [[fascia cruris]], [[brachial fascia]], [[plantar fascia]], [[thoracolumbar fascia]] and [[Buck's fascia]].
This fascia has a high density of [[elastin]] fibre that determines its [[extensibility]] or resilience.<ref>{{Cite AV media | people = Hedley, Gil |date = 2005 | title = The Integral Anatomy Series Vol. 2: Deep Fascia and Muscle | url = http://integralanatomy.com/ | medium = DVD | publisher = Integral Anatomy Productions | access-date = 2006-07-17 }}</ref> Deep fascia was originally considered to be essentially avascular but later investigations have confirmed a rich presence of thin blood vessels.<ref>{{cite book | last = Stecco | first = Carla | title = Functional Atlas of the Human Fascial System | publisher = Churchill Livingstone Elsevier | year = 2015 | location = Edinburgh, UK | page = 59 | isbn = 978-0-7020-4430-4 }}</ref> Deep fascia is also richly supplied with [[sensory receptor]]s.<ref name=Schleip2003>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S1360-8592(02)00067-0 |title=Fascial plasticity – a new neurobiological explanation: Part 1 |journal=Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=11–9 |year=2003 |last1=Schleip |first1=Robert }}</ref> Examples of deep fascia are [[fascia lata]], [[fascia cruris]], [[brachial fascia]], [[plantar fascia]], [[thoracolumbar fascia]] and [[Buck's fascia]].


==See also==
==See also==
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* [[Endothoracic fascia]]
* [[Endothoracic fascia]]
* [[Extracellular matrix]]
* [[Extracellular matrix]]
* [[Fascia (architecture)]]
* [[Interstitial cell]]
* [[Interstitial cell]]
* [[Pectoral fascia]]
* [[Pectoral fascia]]
* [[Thoracolumbar fascia]]
* [[Thoracolumbar fascia]]
* [[Fascia (architecture)]]


==References==
==References==
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* {{NormanAnatomy|lesson1layersofbody}}
* {{NormanAnatomy|lesson1layersofbody}}


{{male reproductive system}}
{{Male reproductive system}}
{{female reproductive system}}
{{Female reproductive system}}
{{Muscular system}}
{{Muscular system}}
{{Muscles of lower limb}}
{{Muscles of lower limb}}
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[[Category:Fascia| ]]
[[Category:Fascia| ]]
[[Category:Connective tissue]]
[[Category:Connective tissue]]
[[Category:Medical terminology]]

Latest revision as of 10:37, 29 December 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "other uses". Template:Anatomy-terms Script error: No such module "Infobox".Template:Template otherScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

File:Braus 1921 65.png
Microsopic image of a fascial structure (nuchal ligament)

A fascia (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Plural form: fasciae Template:IPAc-en or fascias;[1] adjective fascial; Template:Ety) is a generic term for macroscopic membranous bodily structures.[2]Template:Rp Fasciae are classified as superficial, visceral or deep, and further designated according to their anatomical location.[3]

The knowledge of fascial structures is essential in surgery, as they create borders for infectious processes (for example Psoas abscess) and haematoma. An increase in pressure may result in a compartment syndrome, where a prompt fasciotomy may be necessary. For this reason, profound descriptions of fascial structures are available in anatomical literature from the 19th century.

Function

Fasciae were traditionally thought of as passive structures that transmit mechanical tension generated by muscular activities or external forces throughout the body. An important function of muscle fasciae is to reduce friction of muscular force. In doing so, fasciae provide a supportive and movable wrapping for nerves and blood vessels as they pass through and between muscles.[4]

In the tradition of medical dissections it has been common practice to carefully clean muscles and other organs from their surrounding fasciae in order to study their detailed topography and function. However, this practice tends to ignore that many muscle fibers insert into their fascial envelopes and that the function of many organs is significantly altered when their related fasciae are removed.[5] This insight contributed to several modern biomechanical concepts of the human body, in which fascial tissues take over important stabilizing and connecting functions, by distributing tensional forces across several joints in a network-like manner similar to the architectural concept of tensegrity.[6] Starting in 2018 this concept of the fascial tissue serving as a body-wide tensional support system has been successfully expressed as an educational model with the Fascial Net Plastination Project.

Fascial tissues – particularly those with tendinous or aponeurotic properties – are also able to store and release elastic potential energy.

Beyond storing and releasing elastic energy, fascial tissues contribute to proprioception and motor control through dense innervation with mechanoreceptors and nociceptors. Recent biomechanical studies also emphasize the role of fascial networks in distributing strain across multiple joints. This is an idea often framed as a body-wide tensegrity system, so that fascia participates dynamically in coordinated movement and postural stability.[7][8]Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Anatomical compartments

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". A fascial compartment is a section within the body that contains muscles and nerves and is surrounded by fascia. In the human body, the limbs can each be divided into two segments. The upper limb can be divided into the arm and the forearm; their sectional compartments are the fascial compartments of the arm and the fascial compartments of the forearm, which both contain an anterior and a posterior compartment. The lower limbs can also be divided into two segments: the leg and the thigh; those contain the fascial compartments of the leg and the fascial compartments of the thigh respectively.

Clinical significance

Fascia itself becomes clinically important when it loses stiffness, becomes too stiff, or has decreased shearing ability.[9] Fascial dysfunction has been implicated in a range of musculoskeletal pain syndromes, including myofascial pain and some cases of chronic low back pain, where altered fascial gliding or adhesions may contribute to symptoms. Surgical disruption of fascial planes can produce postoperative adhesions and functional limitations. Rehabilitation approaches such as targeted physical therapy and myofascial release aim to restore fascial mobility and reduce pain, though high-quality randomized trials assessing long-term efficacy are limited.[10][11]When inflammatory fasciitis or trauma causes fibrosis and adhesions, fascial tissue fails to differentiate the adjacent structures effectively. This can happen after surgery, where the fascia has been incised and healing includes a scar that traverses the surrounding structures.

Research

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The Fascial Net Plastination Project (FNPP) is an anatomical research initiative spearheaded by fascia researcher Robert Schleip. The project aims to enhance the study of fascia through the technique of plastination. Led by an international team of fascia experts and anatomists, the FNPP resulted in the creation of a full-body fascia plastinate known as FR:EIA (Fascia Revealed: Educating Interconnected Anatomy).[12] This plastinate provides a detailed view of the human fascial network, allowing for a better understanding of its structure and function as an interconnected tissue throughout the body.

FR:EIA was unveiled at the 2021 Fascia Research Congress and is currently exhibited at the Body Worlds exhibition in Berlin. This project represents a significant contribution to the visualization of fascia and has the potential to influence future research in fields such as medicine, physical therapy, and movement science.[12][13]

Terminology

There exists some controversy about what structures are considered "fascia" and how they should be classified.[14][15]

The current version of the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists divides into:[14]

  • Fascia craniocervicalis
  • Fascia trunci
    • Fascia parietalis
    • Fascia extraserosalis
    • Fascia visceralis
  • Fasciae membrorum
  • Fasciae musculorum
    • Fascia investiens
    • Fascia propria musculi

Previous terminology

Two former, rather commonly used systems are:

NA 1983 TA 1997 Description Example
Superficial fascia (not considered fascia in this system) This is found in the subcutis in most regions of the body, blending with the reticular layer of the dermis.[16] Fascia of Scarpa
Deep fascia Fascia of muscles This is the dense fibrous connective tissue that interpenetrates and surrounds the muscles, bones, nerves and blood vessels of the body. Transverse fascia
Visceral fascia Visceral fascia, parietal fascia This suspends the organs within their cavities and wraps them in layers of connective tissue membranes. Pericardium

Superficial

Superficial fascia is the lowermost layer of the skin in nearly all of the regions of the body, that blends with the reticular dermis layer.[17] It is present on the face, over the upper portion of the sternocleidomastoid, at the nape of the neck and overlying the breastbone.[18] It consists mainly of loose areolar and fatty adipose connective tissue and is the layer that primarily determines the shape of a body.Template:Medical citation needed In addition to its subcutaneous presence, superficial fascia surrounds organs, glands and neurovascular bundles, and fills otherwise empty space at many other locations. It serves as a storage medium of fat and water; as a passageway for lymph, nerve and blood vessels; and as a protective padding to cushion and insulate.[19]

Superficial fascia is present, but does not contain fat, in the eyelid, ear, scrotum, penis and clitoris.[20]

Due to its viscoelastic properties, superficial fascia can stretch to accommodate the deposition of adipose that accompanies both ordinary and prenatal weight gain. After pregnancy and weight loss, the superficial fascia slowly reverts to its original level of tension.

Visceral

Visceral fascia (also called subserous fascia) suspends the organs within their cavities and wraps them in layers of connective tissue membranes. Each of the organs is covered in a double layer of fascia; these layers are separated by a thin serous membrane.

  • The outermost wall of the organ is known as the parietal layer
  • The skin of the organ is known as the visceral layer. The organs have specialized names for their visceral fasciae. In the brain, they are known as meninges; in the heart they are known as pericardia; in the lungs, they are known as pleurae; and in the abdomen, they are known as peritonea.[21]

Visceral fascia is less extensible than superficial fascia. Due to its suspensory role for the organs, it needs to maintain its tone rather consistently. If it is too lax, it contributes to organ prolapse, yet if it is hypertonic, it restricts proper organ motility.[22]

Deep

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Deep fascia is a layer of dense fibrous connective tissue which surrounds individual muscles and divides groups of muscles into fascial compartments. This fascia has a high density of elastin fibre that determines its extensibility or resilience.[23] Deep fascia was originally considered to be essentially avascular but later investigations have confirmed a rich presence of thin blood vessels.[24] Deep fascia is also richly supplied with sensory receptors.[25] Histologically, fascia is composed predominantly of type I collagen fibers with variable amounts of elastin, which together determine tensile strength and extensibility. Fibroblasts are the principal resident cells, and fascial tissue contains vascular elements (particularly in deep fascia), immune cells such as macrophages and mast cells, and a dense array of sensory nerve endings; these features enable fascia to participate in repair, inflammation, and nociception.[26][27] Examples of deep fascia are fascia lata, fascia cruris, brachial fascia, plantar fascia, thoracolumbar fascia and Buck's fascia.

See also

References

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  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ Wilke J, et al. Fascial tissue research in sports medicine: from molecules to tissue adaptation, injury and diagnostics. Br J Sports Med. 2018;52(23):1497–1505.
  8. ↑ Schleip R, et al. Fascial plasticity – a new neurobiological explanation. J Bodyw Mov Ther. 2012;16(1):77–91.
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Langevin HM, et al. Connective tissue: a body-wide signaling network? Med Hypotheses. 2004;62(5):849–853.
  11. ↑ Ajimsha MS, et al. Effectiveness of myofascial release in chronic low back pain. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2015.
  12. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".It is acknowledged that the various definitions of fascia offered by recognised authorities do not enjoy universal agreement and all have varying deficiencies. These definitions currently fall short of an agreed, descriptive, fully embracing definition that would suit all interested medical agencies/researchers and allied disciplines (16).
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1". Links to all volumes of The Integral Anatomy Series
  20. ↑ Norman Eizenberg, General Anatomy:Principles and Applications (2008), p 70.
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1". Links to all volumes of The Integral Anatomy Series
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1". Links to all volumes of The Integral Anatomy Series
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ Stecco C, Macchi V, Porzionato A, et al. The fascia: the forgotten structure. Ital J Anat Embryol. 2011.
  27. ↑ Yahia LH, et al. Sensory innervation of human thoracolumbar fascia. Acta Orthop Scand. 1992;63(2):195–197.

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External links

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