Blue cod: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Species of ray-finned fish}}
{{Short description|Species of ray-finned fish}}
{{About|the New Zealand reef fish|the North Pacific deep-sea fish (Anoplopoma fimbria) called blue cod in the United Kingdom|Sablefish}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=July 2016}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=July 2016}}
{{Speciesbox
{{Speciesbox
| image = Parapercis colias (Blue cod).jpg
| image = Parapercis colias (Blue cod).jpg
| status = LC
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name = IUCN>{{cite iucn |author=Collen, B. |author2=Richman, N. |author3=Beresford, A. |author4=Chenery, A. |author5=Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team) |year=2010 |errata=2017 |title=''Parapercis colias'' |page=e.T154870A115246940 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-4.RLTS.T154870A4655851.en}}</ref>
| status_ref = <ref name = IUCN>{{cite iucn |author=Collen, B. |author2=Richman, N. |author3=Beresford, A. |author4=Chenery, A. |author5=Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team) |year=2010 |errata=2017 |title=''Parapercis colias'' |article-number=e.T154870A115246940 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-4.RLTS.T154870A4655851.en}}</ref>
| taxon = Parapercis colias
| taxon = Parapercis colias
| authority = ([[Johann Reinhold Forster|Forster]], 1801)
| authority = ([[Johann Reinhold Forster|Forster]], 1801)
| synonyms = ''Enchelyopus colias'' <small>Forster, 1801</small>
| synonyms = *''Percis nicthemera'' <small>[[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]] in Cuvier & [[Achille Valenciennes|Valenciennes]], 1829</small>
*''Enchelyopus colias'' <small>Forster in Bloch & Schneider, 1801</small>
|  synonyms_ref = <ref name = FishBase>{{FishBase|Parapercis|colias|month=February|year=2018}}</ref>  
|  synonyms_ref = <ref name = FishBase>{{FishBase|Parapercis|colias|month=February|year=2018}}</ref>  
}}
}}
{{About|the New Zealand reef fish|the North Pacific deep-sea fish (sablefish) called blue cod in the UK|Anoplopoma fimbria}}


The '''New Zealand blue cod''' ('''''Parapercis colias''''') is a temperate [[Marine (ocean)|marine]] [[ray-finned fish]]<ref name="Carbines2004.a" /> of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Pinguipedidae]].<ref name="NZOR">{{cite web| url=http://www.nzor.org.nz/names/7c8168dd-6bff-4c73-8d42-ff7c29015a4b |title=Blue cod. |author=New Zealand Organisms Register.| date=2018| access-date=2018-04-15}}</ref> It is also known by its [[Māori language|Māori]] names, '''rāwaru''', '''pākirikiri''' and '''patutuki,''' and by its other names in English, '''Boston blue cod''', '''New Zealand cod''' or '''sand perch'''.<ref name="MPIname">{{cite web| url=http://www.mpi.govt.nz/dmsdocument/964-specification-of-scientific-names-of-fish | title=New Zealand List of Scientific Names of Fish |author=Ministry for Primary Industries | date=2018| access-date=2018-04-15}}</ref>
The '''New Zealand blue cod''' ('''''Parapercis colias''''') is a temperate [[ocean|marine]] [[actinopterygii|ray-finned fish]]<ref name="Carbines2004.a" /> of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Pinguipedidae]].<ref name="NZOR">{{cite web| url=http://www.nzor.org.nz/names/7c8168dd-6bff-4c73-8d42-ff7c29015a4b |title=Blue cod |website=New Zealand Organisms Register| date=2018| access-date=2018-04-15}}</ref> It is also known by its [[Māori language|Māori]] names, '''rāwaru''', '''pākirikiri''' and '''patutuki,''' and by its other names in English, '''Boston blue cod''', '''New Zealand cod''' or '''sand perch'''.<ref name="MPIname">{{cite web| url=http://www.mpi.govt.nz/dmsdocument/964-specification-of-scientific-names-of-fish | title=New Zealand List of Scientific Names of Fish |publisher=Ministry for Primary Industries | date=2018| access-date=2018-04-15}}</ref>


It is exclusively found in [[New Zealand]], in shallow waters around rocky coasts to a depth of 150 m, though it is far more common south of the [[Cook Strait]].<ref name="Carbine1998" /> It is bluish green to blue-black above with white toward the belly.<ref name="Paulin1989" /> Large examples are usually greenish blue in colour, while smaller ones are blotched in varying shades of brown.<ref name="Paulin1989" /> An adult may grow to 60&nbsp;cm in length and weigh from 1.0 to 3.0&nbsp;kg.<ref name="Hirt-Chabbert" /><ref name="JiangCarbine" /> It feeds mainly on small fish and crabs.<ref name="Russell">{{cite journal|last1=Russell| first1=B. C. |year=1983| title=The food and feeding habits of rocky reef fish of north-eastern New Zealand| journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research|volume=17 |issue=2|pages=121–145| doi=10.1080/00288330.1983.9515991| bibcode=1983NZJMF..17..121R }}</ref> Blue cod is territorial.<ref name="Mutch" /> Spawning takes place in southern spring.<ref name="AylingCox" /><ref name="PankhurstConroy" /> Blue cod can also change sex from female to male.<ref name="Carbines1998'" />
It is exclusively found in [[New Zealand]], in shallow waters around rocky coasts to a depth of {{cvt|150|m|-1}}, though it is far more common south of the [[Cook Strait]].<ref name="Carbine1998" /> It is bluish green to blue-black above with white toward the belly.<ref name="Paulin1989" /> Large examples are usually greenish blue in colour, while smaller ones are blotched in varying shades of brown.<ref name="Paulin1989" /> An adult may grow to {{cvt|60|cm}} in length and weigh from {{cvt|1.0|to|3.0|kg}}.<ref name="Hirt-Chabbert" /><ref name="JiangCarbine" /> It feeds mainly on small fish and crabs.<ref name="Russell">{{cite journal|last1=Russell| first1=B. C. |year=1983| title=The food and feeding habits of rocky reef fish of north-eastern New Zealand| journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research|volume=17 |issue=2|pages=121–145| doi=10.1080/00288330.1983.9515991| bibcode=1983NZJMF..17..121R }}</ref> Blue cod is territorial.<ref name="Mutch" /> Spawning takes place in southern spring.<ref name="AylingCox" /><ref name="PankhurstConroy" /> Blue cod can also change sex from female to male.<ref name="Carbines1998'" />


It is an important recreational species in the [[South Island]] and is commercially harvested.<ref name="Paul.a" /><ref name="Paul.b" /> Blue cod populations are managed under New Zealand's fisheries quota management system, although they are becoming scarce in some small areas due to fishing pressure.<ref name="MPI2018" /> Annual catch range is between 2,000 and 2,500 [[tonne]]s.<ref name="MPI2014" />
It is an important recreational species in the [[South Island]] and is commercially harvested.<ref name="Paul.a" /><ref name="Paul.b" /> Blue cod populations are managed under New Zealand's fisheries quota management system, although they are becoming scarce in some small areas due to fishing pressure.<ref name="MPI2018" /> Annual catch range is between 2,000 and 2,500 [[tonne]]s.<ref name="MPI2014" />
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''Parapercis colias'' are [[protogynous hermaphrodites]], which means they have both female and male reproductive organs at the beginning and some females change sex to males later in their life.<ref name="Carbines.b" /> ''P. colias'' is a marine [[Benthic zone|bottom dwelling]] fish that is found in coastal [[New Zealand]] waters.<ref name=MPI2018/>  Their colouring varies on age and sex.<ref name="Paul.b" /> Juveniles start off being generally pale in colour and have two long dark stripes along the sides which will turn brown and barely distinguishable when they become middle-sized fish.<ref name="MPI2018" /><ref name="Paul.a" /><ref name="EoL" />  As they mature with a body length over 25&nbsp;cm, both sexes would have a blueish-grey [[Dorsum (anatomy)|dorsal]] with a white underside.<ref name="MPI2018" />  Females have a tinge of orange and there is a trend for them to become green when they grow larger.<ref name="Paul.b" />  Brownish [[pigment]]s can be found at the base of [[pectoral fin]].<ref name="Paulin1989">{{cite book| last1=Paulin| first1=C.D. | year=1989| title= New Zealand fish, a complete guide |publisher=Te Papa Press }}</ref>  On the other hand, adult males have distinctive blue-grey colour coat with greenish sides<ref name="Paulin1998" /> and a golden brown line can be found above each eye.<ref name="Paul.b" />  Body length of ''P. colias'' is about 30–40&nbsp;cm in general, but can up to 60&nbsp;cm and their weight is 0.8–1.5&nbsp;kg in general, but can up to 3&nbsp;kg.<ref name="Hirt-Chabbert" /><ref name="JiangCarbine" /> Males tend to be larger than females. They can live up to 32 years old.<ref name=MPI2018/>
''Parapercis colias'' are [[protogynous hermaphrodites]], which means they have both female and male reproductive organs at the beginning and some females change sex to males later in their life.<ref name="Carbines.b" /> ''P. colias'' is a marine [[Benthic zone|bottom dwelling]] fish that is found in coastal [[New Zealand]] waters.<ref name=MPI2018/>  Their colouring varies on age and sex.<ref name="Paul.b" /> Juveniles start off being generally pale in colour and have two long dark stripes along the sides which will turn brown and barely distinguishable when they become middle-sized fish.<ref name="MPI2018" /><ref name="Paul.a" /><ref name="EoL" />  As they mature with a body length over 25&nbsp;cm, both sexes would have a blueish-grey [[Dorsum (anatomy)|dorsal]] with a white underside.<ref name="MPI2018" />  Females have a tinge of orange and there is a trend for them to become green when they grow larger.<ref name="Paul.b" />  Brownish [[pigment]]s can be found at the base of [[pectoral fin]].<ref name="Paulin1989">{{cite book| last1=Paulin| first1=C.D. | year=1989| title= New Zealand fish, a complete guide |publisher=Te Papa Press }}</ref>  On the other hand, adult males have distinctive blue-grey colour coat with greenish sides<ref name="Paulin1998" /> and a golden brown line can be found above each eye.<ref name="Paul.b" />  Body length of ''P. colias'' is about 30–40&nbsp;cm in general, but can up to 60&nbsp;cm and their weight is 0.8–1.5&nbsp;kg in general, but can up to 3&nbsp;kg.<ref name="Hirt-Chabbert" /><ref name="JiangCarbine" /> Males tend to be larger than females. They can live up to 32 years old.<ref name=MPI2018/>


Heads of ''P. colias'' are prominent and rounded with scales.<ref name="AylingCox" /><ref name="Hirt-Chabbert" /><ref name="McDowall" /><ref name="Paul1993">{{cite book | last1=Paul| first1=L.J. | last2=Moreland| first2=J.M. | last3=Heath | first3=E.W. | year=1993| title=Handbook of New Zealand marine fishes. | publisher=Reed}}</ref>  They have a plump shaped body covered with firm scales.<ref name="Paul.b" /> Above their non expanded cheeks are two large lateral eyes<ref name="McDowall" /> which can rotate independently, this allows them to see almost everywhere around them.<ref name="RH">{{cite book|last1=Whalley-Torckler  |first1=G |last2=Torckler |first2=D |year=2003 |title= Life-size guide to New Zealand fish |publisher=Random House New Zealand}}</ref> ''P. colias'' possess a terminal mouth<ref name="Paulin1989" /> with bulbous lips.<ref name="AylingCox" /><ref name="RH"/> Their [[pelvic fin]]s are generally placed forward on the throat with brown dots appear underneath it.<ref name="Paulin1998" />  There is a single horizontal stripe where ten to twelve scales above across their side of the body.<ref name="Paulin1989" /> The anterior section of their [[dorsal fin]] is small and short,<ref name="Paul.a" /><ref name="Paulin1998" /> followed by fins with five short spines.<ref name="Hirt-Chabbert" />  In contrast their second [[Dorsal fin|dorsal]] is long.<ref name="Paulin1998" /> A [[Identification key|key]] used in an article of Cantwell can distinguish ''P. colias'' from other [[Parapercis|parapercids]].<ref name="Cantwell" />  Key features are listed below:<ref name="Cantwell">{{cite journal | last=Cantwell | first=G. E. | year=1964 | title=A revision of the genus ''Parapercis'', family Mugiloididae | journal=Pacific Science | volume=18 | issue=3 | pages=239–80| url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/5533/1/vol18n3-239-280.pdf}}</ref>
Heads of ''P. colias'' are prominent and rounded with scales.<ref name="AylingCox" /><ref name="Hirt-Chabbert" /><ref name="McDowall" /><ref name="Paul1993">{{cite book | last1=Paul| first1=L.J. | last2=Moreland| first2=J.M. | last3=Heath | first3=E.W. | year=1993| title=Handbook of New Zealand marine fishes | publisher=Reed}}</ref>  They have a plump shaped body covered with firm scales.<ref name="Paul.b" /> Above their non expanded cheeks are two large lateral eyes<ref name="McDowall" /> which can rotate independently, this allows them to see almost everywhere around them.<ref name="RH">{{cite book|last1=Whalley-Torckler  |first1=G |last2=Torckler |first2=D |year=2003 |title= Life-size guide to New Zealand fish |publisher=Random House New Zealand}}</ref> ''P. colias'' possess a terminal mouth<ref name="Paulin1989" /> with bulbous lips.<ref name="AylingCox" /><ref name="RH"/> Their [[pelvic fin]]s are generally placed forward on the throat with brown dots appear underneath it.<ref name="Paulin1998" />  There is a single horizontal stripe where ten to twelve scales above across their side of the body.<ref name="Paulin1989" /> The anterior section of their [[dorsal fin]] is small and short,<ref name="Paul.a" /><ref name="Paulin1998" /> followed by fins with five short spines.<ref name="Hirt-Chabbert" />  In contrast their second [[Dorsal fin|dorsal]] is long.<ref name="Paulin1998" /> A [[Identification key|key]] used in an article of Cantwell can distinguish ''P. colias'' from other [[Parapercis|parapercids]].<ref name="Cantwell" />  Key features are listed below:<ref name="Cantwell">{{cite journal | last=Cantwell | first=G. E. | year=1964 | title=A revision of the genus ''Parapercis'', family Mugiloididae | journal=Pacific Science | volume=18 | issue=3 | pages=239–80| url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/5533/1/vol18n3-239-280.pdf}}</ref>


*The outer row of lower jaw has eight teeth
*The outer row of lower jaw has eight teeth
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*[[Caudal fin|Caudal (tail) fins]] have 15 branched [[Ray-finned|rays]] that looks rounded but bi-lobed.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gosline  |first1=W.A. |year=1968  |title=The suborders of perciform fishes |publisher=The United States National Museum| url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/17019/1/USNMP-124_3647_1968.pdf}}</ref>
*[[Caudal fin|Caudal (tail) fins]] have 15 branched [[Ray-finned|rays]] that looks rounded but bi-lobed.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gosline  |first1=W.A. |year=1968  |title=The suborders of perciform fishes |publisher=The United States National Museum| url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/17019/1/USNMP-124_3647_1968.pdf}}</ref>


Other characters of detailed [[skeleton]] structures (osteology) of ''[[Parapercis]]'' species can be found in an article written by Gosline.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gosline |first1=W. A. |year=1963  |title=Notes on the osteology and systematic position of Hypoptychus dybowskii Steindachner and other elongate perciform fishes |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/4929/1/vol17n1-90-101.pdf|journal=[[Pacific Science]]|volume=17|number=1}}</ref>
Other characters of detailed [[skeleton]] structures (osteology) of ''[[Parapercis]]'' species can be found in an article written by Gosline.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gosline |first1=W. A. |year=1963  |title=Notes on the osteology and systematic position of ''Hypoptychus dybowskii'' Steindachner and other elongate perciform fishes |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/4929/1/vol17n1-90-101.pdf|journal=[[Pacific Science]]|volume=17|number=1}}</ref>


[[Swim bladder|Swimming bladder]] is usually present in [[Osteichthyes|osteichthyids]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kotpal|first1=R. L. |year=2010|title= Modern text book of zoology: vertebrates |publisher= Rastogi Publications }}</ref> it helps the fish to stay at a certain water pressure level (depth) without spending more energy.  [[Swim bladder|Swimming bladder]] in ''P. colias'' are absent.<ref name="Blackwell" />  They will automatically sink to the sea floor if they stop swimming; therefore, they are called [[Benthic zone|bottom-dwelling]] or sedentary bottom-hugging species.<ref name="Thompson" />  Their body shape of having a flattened abdomen indicates this as well.<ref name="Thompson" />  Normally, ''P. colias'' use their [[pectoral fin]] to swim, their body muscles and tails fin are only involved in swimming when a sudden burst or speed is needed, this type of swimming character is called [[Labriform locomotion|labriform]].<ref name="Thompson" />  As a result, their [[pelvic fin]]s, used as props when they are resting on the seabed,<ref name="AylingCox" /> are reduced and thicken.<ref name="Thompson" />  Due to their nature of being [[Benthic zone|bottom-dwelling]] species, sand can clog their gills when they are resting.<ref name="Graham1997">{{cite book|last1=Graham|first1=J.B. |year=1997|title= Air-breathing fishes: evolution, diversity, and adaptation | publisher=Academic Press}}</ref> To remedy this, ''P. colias'' often hold their breath and open their mouths for a long interval like having a yawn to take good gulps of air every now and then.<ref name=Graham1997 />  Speaking of having a yawn, if you look closely you will notice that ''P. colias'' do not have [[Palatine bone|palatine teeth]]<ref name="Paulin1989" /> and only have small teeth; however, you would not want to feel their sharp and well developed [[pharyngeal teeth]] near their throat like their prey.<ref name="Thompson" />
[[Swim bladder|Swimming bladder]] is usually present in [[Osteichthyes|osteichthyids]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kotpal|first1=R. L. |year=2010|title= Modern text book of zoology: vertebrates |publisher= Rastogi Publications }}</ref> it helps the fish to stay at a certain water pressure level (depth) without spending more energy.  [[Swim bladder|Swimming bladder]] in ''P. colias'' are absent.<ref name="Blackwell" />  They will automatically sink to the sea floor if they stop swimming; therefore, they are called [[Benthic zone|bottom-dwelling]] or sedentary bottom-hugging species.<ref name="Thompson" />  Their body shape of having a flattened abdomen indicates this as well.<ref name="Thompson" />  Normally, ''P. colias'' use their [[pectoral fin]] to swim, their body muscles and tails fin are only involved in swimming when a sudden burst or speed is needed, this type of swimming character is called [[Labriform locomotion|labriform]].<ref name="Thompson" />  As a result, their [[pelvic fin]]s, used as props when they are resting on the seabed,<ref name="AylingCox" /> are reduced and thickened.<ref name="Thompson" />  Due to their nature of being [[Benthic zone|bottom-dwelling]] species, sand can clog their gills when they are resting.<ref name="Graham1997">{{cite book|last1=Graham|first1=J.B. |year=1997|title= Air-breathing fishes: evolution, diversity, and adaptation | publisher=Academic Press}}</ref> To remedy this, ''P. colias'' often hold their breath and open their mouths for a long interval like having a yawn to take good gulps of air every now and then.<ref name=Graham1997 />  Speaking of having a yawn, if you look closely you will notice that ''P. colias'' do not have [[Palatine bone|palatine teeth]]<ref name="Paulin1989" /> and only have small teeth; however, you would not want to feel their sharp and well developed [[pharyngeal teeth]] near their throat like their prey.<ref name="Thompson" />


There are some other detailed morphological characteristics inside the body of ''P. colias'' that determine their taxonomy, such as the presence of a lentiform body (an [[Eye|ocular]] [[Blood vessel|vascular]] structure) and others, are mentioned by Eastman.<ref name="Eastman">{{cite journal| last1=Eastman |first1=J.T. | year=2006 | title= Aspects of the morphology of phyletically basal bovichtid fishes of the Antarctic suborder Notothenioidei (Perciformes) |journal= Polar Biology |volume=29 | issue=9 | pages=754–763 | doi=10.1007/s00300-006-0112-y|bibcode=2006PoBio..29..754E |s2cid=7523756 | hdl=1834/17098 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>
There are some other detailed morphological characteristics inside the body of ''P. colias'' that determine their taxonomy, such as the presence of a lentiform body (an [[Eye|ocular]] [[Blood vessel|vascular]] structure) and others, are mentioned by Eastman.<ref name="Eastman">{{cite journal| last1=Eastman |first1=J.T. | year=2006 | title= Aspects of the morphology of phyletically basal bovichtid fishes of the Antarctic suborder Notothenioidei (Perciformes) |journal= Polar Biology |volume=29 | issue=9 | pages=754–763 | doi=10.1007/s00300-006-0112-y|bibcode=2006PoBio..29..754E |s2cid=7523756 | hdl=1834/17098 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>
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=== Natural global range ===
=== Natural global range ===
[[Pinguipedid]] fishes ([[Sandperch]]es) are widely found in the [[Southern Atlantic Ocean|southern Atlantic]] and [[Indo-Pacific]] regions.<ref name="Nelson">{{cite book| last1=Nelson | first1=J.S. | year=1994 | title=Fishes of the World |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.}}</ref> However, ''P. colias'' is [[endemic]] to [[New Zealand]].<ref name="Stroud">{{cite book| last1=Stroud | first1=G.J. | year=1982 | title=The taxonomy and biology of fishes of the genus ''Parapercis'' (Teleostei: Mugiloididae) in Great Barrier Reef waters |publisher=James Cook University.}}</ref><ref name="Martin&Hine">{{cite book| last1=Martin | first1=E | last2=Hine | first2=R. | year=1996 | title=A Dictionary of Biology |publisher=Oxford University Press | edition=3}}</ref>
[[Pinguipedid]] fishes ([[Sandperch]]es) are widely found in the [[Southern Atlantic Ocean|southern Atlantic]] and [[Indo-Pacific]] regions.<ref name="Nelson">{{cite book| last1=Nelson | first1=J.S. | year=1994 | title=Fishes of the World |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.}}</ref> However, ''P. colias'' is [[endemic]] to [[New Zealand]].<ref name="Stroud">{{cite thesis| last1=Stroud | first1=G.J. | year=1982 | title=The taxonomy and biology of fishes of the genus Parapercis (Teleostei: Mugiloididae) in Great Barrier Reef waters |publisher=James Cook University|degree=PhD}}</ref><ref name="Martin&Hine">{{cite book| last1=Martin | first1=E | last2=Hine | first2=R. | year=1996 | title=A Dictionary of Biology |publisher=Oxford University Press | edition=3}}</ref>


=== New Zealand range ===
=== New Zealand range ===
''P. colias'' is found from the shore to the shelf edge around New Zealand's entire coastline, but there are no records in either the [[Kermadec Islands]] or the [[Snares Islands / Tini Heke]].<ref name="Francis">{{cite journal | last1=Francis | first1=M.P. | year=1996 | title=Geographic distribution of marine reef fishes in the New Zealand region | journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research |volume=30 |issue= 1 |pages=35–55 |doi=10.1080/00288330.1996.9516695| doi-access=free | bibcode=1996NZJMF..30...35F }}</ref> They are more abundant from south of [[Cook Strait]]<ref name="Paul.b">{{cite book| last1=Paul | first1=L.J. | year=2000 | title=New Zealand fishes: identification, natural history & fisheries |publisher=Reed.}}</ref> and they are an iconic species for the [[South Island New Zealand|South Island]].<ref name=MPI2018>{{cite web |url= https://www.mpi.govt.nz/travel-and-recreation/fishing/fish-species/blue-cod/ |title=blue cod |author= Ministry for Primary Industries |date=2018 |access-date=2018-04-15}}</ref> They are most common around [[Southland, New Zealand|Southland]] and the [[Chatham Islands]].<ref name="Carbine1998">{{cite web |url=http://fs.fish.govt.nz/Doc/22465/BC09702%20Blue%20Cod%20in%20Southland.pdf.ashx |title=Determination of movement of blue cod in Southland. |author= Carbines, G. |date=1998 |access-date=2018-04-15}}</ref>
''P. colias'' is found from the shore to the shelf edge around New Zealand's entire coastline, but there are no records in either the [[Kermadec Islands]] or the [[Snares Islands / Tini Heke]].<ref name="Francis">{{cite journal | last1=Francis | first1=M.P. | year=1996 | title=Geographic distribution of marine reef fishes in the New Zealand region | journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research |volume=30 |issue= 1 |pages=35–55 |doi=10.1080/00288330.1996.9516695| doi-access=free | bibcode=1996NZJMF..30...35F }}</ref> They are more abundant from south of [[Cook Strait]]<ref name="Paul.b">{{cite book| last1=Paul | first1=L.J. | year=2000 | title=New Zealand fishes: identification, natural history & fisheries |publisher=Reed}}</ref> and they are an iconic species for the [[South Island New Zealand|South Island]].<ref name=MPI2018>{{cite web |url= https://www.mpi.govt.nz/travel-and-recreation/fishing/fish-species/blue-cod/ |title=blue cod |author= Ministry for Primary Industries |date=2018 |access-date=2018-04-15}}</ref> They are most common around [[Southland, New Zealand|Southland]] and the [[Chatham Islands]].<ref name="Carbine1998">{{cite web |url=http://fs.fish.govt.nz/Doc/22465/BC09702%20Blue%20Cod%20in%20Southland.pdf.ashx |title=Determination of movement of blue cod in Southland |author= Carbines, G. |date=1998 |access-date=2018-04-15}}</ref>


== Habitat preferences ==
== Habitat preferences ==
[[File:Blue Cod in Milford Sound.jpg|thumb|Blue cod in [[Milford Sound]] on a bedrock outcrop]]
[[File:Blue Cod in Milford Sound.jpg|thumb|Blue cod in [[Milford Sound]] on a bedrock outcrop]]


''P. colias'' can be found at 150 m in depth<ref name="Carbine1998" /><ref name="Hirt-Chabbert">{{cite book| last1=Hirt-Chabbert| first1=J. | year=2006| title=Fish species of New Zealand: a photographic guide. |publisher=Reed books.}}</ref><ref name="Paul.b" /> occupying bedrock outcrops on gravel<ref name="AylingCox">{{cite book| last1=Ayling| first1=T. | last2=Cox |first2=G.J. | year=1982| title=Collins guide to the sea fishes of New Zealand. |publisher=Collins.}}</ref><ref name="Graham" /><ref name="Paul.a">{{cite book| last1=Paul| first1=L.J. | year=1997| title=Marine Fishes of New Zealand 1: Shoreline and Shallow Seas. |volume=1 |publisher=Reed.}}</ref><ref name="Paulin1998">{{cite book| last1=Paulin| first1=C.D. | year=1998| title=Common New Zealand marine fishes. |publisher=Reed.}}</ref> or sandy seabed.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines">{{cite journal | last1=Beentjes | first1=M. | last2=Carbines | first2=G. | year=2005| title=Population structure and relative abundance of blue cod (''Parapercis colias'') off Banks Peninsula and in Dusky Sound, New Zealand. | journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research |volume=39 | issue=1 |pages=77–79 |doi=10.1080/00288330.2005.9517293| bibcode=2005NZJMF..39...77B | s2cid=86285680 }}</ref>  These habitats with [[Macroalgae|macro algae]] or [[Sponges]] are even more preferred.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines" />  Furthermore, their abundance in each habitat varies between age.<ref name="Mutch">{{cite book| last1=Mutch | first1=P.G. | year=1983 | title=Factors influencing the density and distribution of the P. colias, ''Parapercis colias''. Pisces: Mugiloidae. }}</ref><ref name="Paul.b" /> Juvenile are found more frequently in sponge gardens (more than 16m deep) dominated by orange finger sponges (''[[Raspalia topsenti]]'' & ''[[Raspalia flaccida]]''), large black massive sponge (''[[Ancorina]] alata'') and the small bright yellow clumps of ''[[Polymastia (sponge)|Polymastia]] granulosa'' that provide more shelters and safer refuges, whereas adults are mainly found on reef margins<ref name="Thompson">{{cite book| last1=Thompson| first1=S.M. | year=1981 | title=Fish of the marine reserve. A guide to the identification and biology of common coastal fish of northeastern New Zealand |publisher=University of Auckland| url=http://www.thebookshelf.auckland.ac.nz/docs/Fish%20of%20the%20marine%20reserve/1%20frontmatterandintroduction.pdf}}</ref> and deeper areas.<ref name="Paul.b" />
''P. colias'' can be found at 150 m in depth<ref name="Carbine1998" /><ref name="Hirt-Chabbert">{{cite book| last1=Hirt-Chabbert| first1=J. | year=2006| title=Fish species of New Zealand: a photographic guide |publisher=Reed books}}</ref><ref name="Paul.b" /> occupying bedrock outcrops on gravel<ref name="AylingCox">{{cite book| last1=Ayling| first1=T. | last2=Cox |first2=G.J. | year=1982| title=Collins guide to the sea fishes of New Zealand |publisher=Collins}}</ref><ref name="Graham" /><ref name="Paul.a">{{cite book| last1=Paul| first1=L.J. | year=1997| title=Marine Fishes of New Zealand 1: Shoreline and Shallow Seas. |volume=1 |publisher=Reed}}</ref><ref name="Paulin1998">{{cite book| last1=Paulin| first1=C.D. | year=1998| title=Common New Zealand marine fishes |publisher=Reed}}</ref> or sandy seabed.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines">{{cite journal | last1=Beentjes | first1=M. | last2=Carbines | first2=G. | year=2005| title=Population structure and relative abundance of blue cod (''Parapercis colias'') off Banks Peninsula and in Dusky Sound, New Zealand | journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research |volume=39 | issue=1 |pages=77–79 |doi=10.1080/00288330.2005.9517293| bibcode=2005NZJMF..39...77B | s2cid=86285680 }}</ref>  These habitats with [[Macroalgae|macro algae]] or [[Sponges]] are even more preferred.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines" />  Furthermore, their abundance in each habitat varies between age.<ref name="Mutch">{{cite thesis| last1=Mutch | first1=P.G. | year=1983 | title=Factors influencing the density and distribution of the P. colias, Parapercis colias. Pisces: Mugiloidae|degree=MSc}}</ref><ref name="Paul.b" /> Juvenile are found more frequently in sponge gardens (more than 16m deep) dominated by orange finger sponges (''[[Raspalia topsenti]]'' & ''[[Raspalia flaccida]]''), large black massive sponge (''[[Ancorina]] alata'') and the small bright yellow clumps of ''[[Polymastia (sponge)|Polymastia]] granulosa'' that provide more shelters and safer refuges, whereas adults are mainly found on reef margins<ref name="Thompson">{{cite book| last1=Thompson| first1=S.M. | year=1981 | title=Fish of the marine reserve. A guide to the identification and biology of common coastal fish of northeastern New Zealand |publisher=University of Auckland| url=http://www.thebookshelf.auckland.ac.nz/docs/Fish%20of%20the%20marine%20reserve/1%20frontmatterandintroduction.pdf}}</ref> and deeper areas.<ref name="Paul.b" />


Since ''P. colias'' are [[Generalist and specialist species|generalists]],<ref name="JiangCarbine">{{cite journal | last1=Jiang| first1=W. | last2=Carbines | first2=G. | year=2002| title=Diet of blue cod, ''Parapercis colias'', living on undisturbed biogenic reefs and on seabed modified by oyster dredging in Foveaux Strait, New Zealand. | journal=Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=257–272 |doi=10.1002/aqc.495| bibcode=2002ACMFE..12..257J }}</ref> which means that they prey on various species instead of depending on only one species, habitats that are rich in [[Biodiversity|diversity]] of species are also favoured by them.  An example of this is the [[kelp forest]] which is often established on rock beds where it is also desirable for ''P. colias''.<ref name="coleaylingcreese">{{cite journal | last1=Cole| first1=R.G. | last2=Ayling| first2=T.M. |last3=Creese |first3=R.G. | year=1990| title=Effects of marine reserve protection at Goat Island, northern New Zealand. | journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=197–210 |doi=10.1080/00288330.1990.9516415| doi-access=free | bibcode=1990NZJMF..24..197C | hdl=2292/4936 | hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="FosterS">{{cite book| last1=Foster| first1=M.S. |last2=Schiel |first2=D.R. | year=1985 | title=Ecology of giant kelp forests in California: a community profile |publisher=Moss Landing Marine Labs.}}</ref><ref name="Graham">{{cite book| last1=Graham| first1=D.H. | year=1956 | title=A treasury of New Zealand fishes. |publisher=Reed.}}</ref>  However, they can be also found in less species diverse habitats such as barren rock flats (4-12m deep) that are dominated by [[sea urchin]]s grazing on [[algae]].<ref name="Thompson" />
Since ''P. colias'' are [[Generalist and specialist species|generalists]],<ref name="JiangCarbine">{{cite journal | last1=Jiang| first1=W. | last2=Carbines | first2=G. | year=2002| title=Diet of blue cod, ''Parapercis colias'', living on undisturbed biogenic reefs and on seabed modified by oyster dredging in Foveaux Strait, New Zealand. | journal=Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=257–272 |doi=10.1002/aqc.495| bibcode=2002ACMFE..12..257J }}</ref> which means that they prey on various species instead of depending on only one species, habitats that are rich in [[Biodiversity|diversity]] of species are also favoured by them.  An example of this is the [[kelp forest]] which is often established on rock beds where it is also desirable for ''P. colias''.<ref name="coleaylingcreese">{{cite journal | last1=Cole| first1=R.G. | last2=Ayling| first2=T.M. |last3=Creese |first3=R.G. | year=1990| title=Effects of marine reserve protection at Goat Island, northern New Zealand. | journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=197–210 |doi=10.1080/00288330.1990.9516415| doi-access=free | bibcode=1990NZJMF..24..197C | hdl=2292/4936 | hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="FosterS">{{cite book| last1=Foster| first1=M.S. |last2=Schiel |first2=D.R. | year=1985 | title=Ecology of giant kelp forests in California: a community profile |publisher=Moss Landing Marine Labs.}}</ref><ref name="Graham">{{cite book| last1=Graham| first1=D.H. | year=1956 | title=A treasury of New Zealand fishes. |publisher=Reed.}}</ref>  However, they can be also found in less species diverse habitats such as barren rock flats (4-12m deep) that are dominated by [[sea urchin]]s grazing on [[algae]].<ref name="Thompson" />
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===Age, Growth, Sex and Maturity===
===Age, Growth, Sex and Maturity===
Growth of ''P. colias'' is measured by the relationship between age and their body length.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines2012">{{cite journal | last1=Beentjes | first1=M.P. | last2=Carbines | first2=G.D. | year=2012| title=Relative abundance, size and age structure, and stock status of blue cod from the 2010 survey in Marlborough Sounds, and review of historical surveys. | journal=New Zealand Fisheries Assessment Report |volume=43 |issue=137}}</ref> ''P. colias'' are [[protogynous hermaphrodites]],<ref name="Carbines1998'" >{{cite book| last1=Carbines |first1=G.D. |year=1998 |title=Blue cod age validation, tagging feasibility and sex-inversion. Final Research |publisher=Unpublished report, Ministry for Primary Industries}}</ref> when the length of ''P. colias'' reaches 410mm, 50% of the females are transitional.<ref name="Carbines.b">{{cite thesis |last1=Carbines |first1=G.D. |year=2004 |title=Age, growth, movement and reproductive biology of blue cod (''Parapercis colias'' – Pinguipedidae): Implications for fisheries management in the South Island of New Zealand |type=Unpublished Ph.D. thesis |publisher=University of Otago |pages=225 |hdl=10523/8082 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10523/8082}}</ref> Sex inversion occurs with the colour change from whitish with a brown band at both sides or an orange tinge to bluish colour with a blue green band.<ref name="AylingCox" /> Though sex inversion found to occur across a wide range of age and size, the cause of activating the sex inversion has not been well understood.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines" /> Studies have shown that the proportion of sex change decreases afterwards<ref name="Carbines.b" /> as the presence of males in the [[population]] would discourage sex change.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines" /> Hence, it is regarded as a response to the [[demography|demographic]] structure in the [[population]] instead of a response to their size.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines" /> Another study indicated that blue cod is most [[fecundity|fecund]] at the size which closes to the average size of the first maturity of males. It has been regarded as a sign of potential sex change by reducing egg production for saving the resource.<ref name="BrandtDunnBrouwer" /> Sex change is also not well described that the transitional [[gonads]] has different definitions.<ref name="BrandtDunnBrouwer" />
Growth of ''P. colias'' is measured by the relationship between age and their body length.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines2012">{{cite journal | last1=Beentjes | first1=M.P. | last2=Carbines | first2=G.D. | year=2012| title=Relative abundance, size and age structure, and stock status of blue cod from the 2010 survey in Marlborough Sounds, and review of historical surveys. | journal=New Zealand Fisheries Assessment Report |volume=43 |issue=137}}</ref> ''P. colias'' are [[protogynous hermaphrodites]],<ref name="Carbines1998'" >{{cite book| last1=Carbines |first1=G.D. |year=1998 |title=Blue cod age validation, tagging feasibility and sex-inversion. Final Research |publisher=Unpublished report, Ministry for Primary Industries}}</ref> when the length of ''P. colias'' reaches 410mm, 50% of the females are transitional.<ref name="Carbines.b">{{cite thesis |last1=Carbines |first1=G.D. |year=2004 |title=Age, growth, movement and reproductive biology of blue cod (''Parapercis colias'' – Pinguipedidae): Implications for fisheries management in the South Island of New Zealand |degree=Ph.D. |publisher=University of Otago |page=225 |hdl=10523/8082 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10523/8082}}</ref> Sex inversion occurs with the colour change from whitish with a brown band at both sides or an orange tinge to bluish colour with a blue green band.<ref name="AylingCox" /> Though sex inversion found to occur across a wide range of age and size, the cause of activating the sex inversion has not been well understood.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines" /> Studies have shown that the proportion of sex change decreases afterwards<ref name="Carbines.b" /> as the presence of males in the [[population]] would discourage sex change.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines" /> Hence, it is regarded as a response to the [[demography|demographic]] structure in the [[population]] instead of a response to their size.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines" /> Another study indicated that blue cod is most [[fecundity|fecund]] at the size which closes to the average size of the first maturity of males. It has been regarded as a sign of potential sex change by reducing egg production for saving the resource.<ref name="BrandtDunnBrouwer" /> Sex change is also not well described that the transitional [[gonads]] has different definitions.<ref name="BrandtDunnBrouwer" />


Their growth rate can differ due to food supply, water temperature and habitat as other fish do.<ref name="Paul.b" /> Sex can also influence the growth rate. Male grow faster and larger than female.<ref name="Carbines2004.a" >{{cite journal | last1=Carbines |first1=G.D. | year=2004 | title=Age determination, validation, and growth of blue cod ''Parapercis colias'', in Foveaux Strait, New Zealand | journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research | volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=201–214|doi=10.1080/00288330.2004.9517231|s2cid=84616975 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2004NZJMF..38..201C }}</ref><ref name="Paul.b" /> ''P. colias'' have the potential to grow up to 50&nbsp;cm in length and weight 4&nbsp;kg.<ref name="Ayling1987" >{{cite book| last1=Ayling |first1=T. |last2=Cox |first2=G.J. |year=1987 |title=Collins guide to the sea fishes of New Zealand (Revised edition).| publisher=William Collins Publishers Ltd.|pages=343}}</ref>  Growth ring interpretation shows that they can live about 10 to 15 years,<ref name="Paul.b" /> but a study showed that the known maximum age of blue cod is 23 years old.<ref name="RodgersWing">{{cite journal | last1=Rodgers | first1=K.L. | last2=Wing | first2=S.R. | year=2008| title=Spatial structure movement of blue cod ''Parapercis Colias'' in Doubtful Sound, New Zealand, inferred from δ<sup>13</sup>C and δ<sup>15</sup>N | journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=359 |pages=239–248 |doi=10.3354/meps07349| bibcode=2008MEPS..359..239R | doi-access=free }}</ref>
Their growth rate can differ due to food supply, water temperature and habitat as other fish do.<ref name="Paul.b" /> Sex can also influence the growth rate. Male grow faster and larger than female.<ref name="Carbines2004.a" >{{cite journal | last1=Carbines |first1=G.D. | year=2004 | title=Age determination, validation, and growth of blue cod ''Parapercis colias'', in Foveaux Strait, New Zealand | journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research | volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=201–214|doi=10.1080/00288330.2004.9517231|s2cid=84616975 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2004NZJMF..38..201C }}</ref><ref name="Paul.b" /> ''P. colias'' have the potential to grow up to 50&nbsp;cm in length and weight 4&nbsp;kg.<ref name="Ayling1987" >{{cite book| last1=Ayling |first1=T. |last2=Cox |first2=G.J. |year=1987 |title=Collins guide to the sea fishes of New Zealand (Revised edition).| publisher=William Collins Publishers Ltd.|page=343}}</ref>  Growth ring interpretation shows that they can live about 10 to 15 years,<ref name="Paul.b" /> but a study showed that the known maximum age of blue cod is 23 years old.<ref name="RodgersWing">{{cite journal | last1=Rodgers | first1=K.L. | last2=Wing | first2=S.R. | year=2008| title=Spatial structure movement of blue cod ''Parapercis colias'' in Doubtful Sound, New Zealand, inferred from δ<sup>13</sup>C and δ<sup>15</sup>N | journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=359 |pages=239–248 |doi=10.3354/meps07349| bibcode=2008MEPS..359..239R | doi-access=free }}</ref>


[[Sexual maturity|Maturity]] values are derived from the length of the fish.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines2012" />  Their growth rate varies between locations.<ref name="Mutch" /><ref name="Smith" /> For example, male can reach maturity when their length reached 10–19&nbsp;cm (which is about 2–3 years old) in Northland, but in Southland the male needs to reach 26–28&nbsp;cm (which is about 4–6 years old).<ref name="Smith">{{cite book | last1=Smith | first1=H.M. | year=2012 | title=Characterisation of the mitochondrial genome and the phylogeographic structure of blue cod (Parapercis colias).| url=http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10063/2139/thesis.pdf?sequence=2}}</ref> Besides, males generally have a faster growth rate compared to females.<ref name="Carbines2004.a" /><ref name="Mutch" /><ref name="Paul.b" />  Both female and male ''P. colias'' are assumed to reach sexual maturity with the measuring of 28&nbsp;cm.<ref name="Carbines.b" />  The maximum [[life expectancy|lifespan]] of ''P. colias'' is 32 years.<ref name="MPI2014" />
[[Sexual maturity|Maturity]] values are derived from the length of the fish.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines2012" />  Their growth rate varies between locations.<ref name="Mutch" /><ref name="Smith" /> For example, male can reach maturity when their length reached 10–19&nbsp;cm (which is about 2–3 years old) in Northland, but in Southland the male needs to reach 26–28&nbsp;cm (which is about 4–6 years old).<ref name="Smith">{{cite book | last1=Smith | first1=H.M. | year=2012 | title=Characterisation of the mitochondrial genome and the phylogeographic structure of blue cod (''Parapercis colias'').| url=http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10063/2139/thesis.pdf?sequence=2}}</ref> Besides, males generally have a faster growth rate compared to females.<ref name="Carbines2004.a" /><ref name="Mutch" /><ref name="Paul.b" />  Both female and male ''P. colias'' are assumed to reach sexual maturity with the measuring of 28&nbsp;cm.<ref name="Carbines.b" />  The maximum [[life expectancy|lifespan]] of ''P. colias'' is 32 years.<ref name="MPI2014" />


===Behaviours===
===Behaviours===
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== Diet and foraging ==
== Diet and foraging ==
Many fish species are [[generalist and specialist species|generalists]]; thus, they are not limited by the [[Lotka–Volterra equations|predator-prey cycle]].<ref name="Murdoch">{{cite journal| last1=Murdoch| first1=P.J.| last2=Oaten| first2=A.| year=1975| title=Predation and population stability.| journal=Advances in Ecological Research| volume=9| pages=[https://archive.org/details/advancesinecolog0000unse/page/1 1–131]| doi=10.1016/S0065-2504(08)60288-3| bibcode=1975AdER....9....1M| isbn=9780120139095| url-access=registration| url=https://archive.org/details/advancesinecolog0000unse/page/1}}</ref>  ''P. colias'' is one of them.<ref name="JiangCarbine" /><ref name="Paulin1998" /><ref name="Paul.b" />  They have been recorded to have 52 [[taxa]] in their diet,<ref name="JiangCarbine" /> where adults are found to be more selective than juveniles.<ref name="Jones">{{cite journal | last1=Jones| first1=G.P. | year=1988| title=Ecology of rocky reef fish of north-eastern New Zealand: a review. | journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=445–642 |doi=10.1080/00288330.1988.9516315| doi-access=free | hdl=2292/4942 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>  It makes sense that when ''P. colias'' grows bigger, the variety of species in their diet also increases, this includes [[polychaetes]], [[crustaceans]], [[molluscs]],<ref name="AylingCox" /><ref name="Graham" /><ref name="JiangCarbine" /><ref name="Jones" /><ref name="Stroud" /> [[Fish#Taxonomy|Pisces]],<ref name="Graham" /><ref name="Young">{{cite journal | last1=Young| first1=M.W. | year=1929| title=Marine fauna of the Chatham Islands. | journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute |volume=60 |pages=136–166}}</ref> [[algae]] and even its own spawn!<ref name="Young" />  This means that ''P. colias'' are [[omnivores]] which "feeds on more one [[trophic level]]".<ref name="PimmLawton">{{cite journal | last1=Pimm| first1=S.L. | last2=Lawton| first2=J.H. | year=1978| title=On feeding on more than one trophic level. | journal=Nature |volume=275 |issue=5680 |pages=542| doi=10.1038/275542a0| bibcode=1978Natur.275..542P | s2cid=4161183 }}</ref><ref name="Stroud" />  In short, you can say that they consume anything that is abundant and available locally.<ref name="Paul.b" /><ref name="Paul1993"/> Other than the development of the fish itself, what they consume differs from region to region<ref name="JiangCarbine" /><ref name="Sylvester">{{cite book | last1=Sylvester | first1=T. | year=1986| title=Food limitation: a preliminary study on two groups of benthic feeding carnivorous fish in a temperate reef system.|pages=87}}</ref> and whether the area is fished or not plays an important role as well.<ref name="PimmLawton" /><ref name="JiangCarbine" /> One study<ref name="JiangCarbine" /> showed that oyster dredged habitat can reduce their prey diversity and have a negative effect on fish size. They usually stalk, seize and swallow their prey.<ref name="Paul.b" /> After being caught, they tend to regurgitate the stomach contents.<ref name="Graham" />
Many fish species are [[generalist and specialist species|generalists]]; thus, they are not limited by the [[Lotka–Volterra equations|predator-prey cycle]].<ref name="Murdoch">{{cite journal| last1=Murdoch| first1=P.J.| last2=Oaten| first2=A.| year=1975| title=Predation and population stability.| journal=Advances in Ecological Research| volume=9| pages=[https://archive.org/details/advancesinecolog0000unse/page/1 1–131]| doi=10.1016/S0065-2504(08)60288-3| bibcode=1975AdER....9....1M| isbn=978-0-12-013909-5| url-access=registration| url=https://archive.org/details/advancesinecolog0000unse/page/1}}</ref>  ''P. colias'' is one of them.<ref name="JiangCarbine" /><ref name="Paulin1998" /><ref name="Paul.b" />  They have been recorded to have 52 [[taxa]] in their diet,<ref name="JiangCarbine" /> where adults are found to be more selective than juveniles.<ref name="Jones">{{cite journal | last1=Jones| first1=G.P. | year=1988| title=Ecology of rocky reef fish of north-eastern New Zealand: a review. | journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=445–642 |doi=10.1080/00288330.1988.9516315| doi-access=free | hdl=2292/4942 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>  It makes sense that when ''P. colias'' grows bigger, the variety of species in their diet also increases, this includes [[polychaetes]], [[crustaceans]], [[molluscs]],<ref name="AylingCox" /><ref name="Graham" /><ref name="JiangCarbine" /><ref name="Jones" /><ref name="Stroud" /> [[Fish#Taxonomy|Pisces]],<ref name="Graham" /><ref name="Young">{{cite journal | last1=Young| first1=M.W. | year=1929| title=Marine fauna of the Chatham Islands. | journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute |volume=60 |pages=136–166}}</ref> [[algae]] and even its own spawn!<ref name="Young" />  This means that ''P. colias'' are [[omnivores]] which "feeds on more one [[trophic level]]".<ref name="PimmLawton">{{cite journal | last1=Pimm| first1=S.L. | last2=Lawton| first2=J.H. | year=1978| title=On feeding on more than one trophic level. | journal=Nature |volume=275 |issue=5680 |page=542| doi=10.1038/275542a0| bibcode=1978Natur.275..542P | s2cid=4161183 }}</ref><ref name="Stroud" />  In short, you can say that they consume anything that is abundant and available locally.<ref name="Paul.b" /><ref name="Paul1993"/> Other than the development of the fish itself, what they consume differs from region to region<ref name="JiangCarbine" /><ref name="Sylvester">{{cite book | last1=Sylvester | first1=T. | year=1986| title=Food limitation: a preliminary study on two groups of benthic feeding carnivorous fish in a temperate reef system.|page=87}}</ref> and whether the area is fished or not plays an important role as well.<ref name="PimmLawton" /><ref name="JiangCarbine" /> One study<ref name="JiangCarbine" /> showed that oyster dredged habitat can reduce their prey diversity and have a negative effect on fish size. They usually stalk, seize and swallow their prey.<ref name="Paul.b" /> After being caught, they tend to regurgitate the stomach contents.<ref name="Graham" />


"Our Big Blue Backyard" is a documentary of [[New Zealand]] marine and shoreline species.<ref name="NHNZ">{{cite web |url=https://www.tvnz.co.nz/shows/our-big-blue-backyard/episodes/s2-e3 |title=Our Big Blue Backyard – Season 2, Episode 3 |author=Natural History New Zealand |date=2016 |publisher=Natural History New Zealand, Ltd |access-date=2018-04-15}}</ref>  In the [[Chatham Islands]] episode, blue cod (''P. colias'') waits to feed on [[pāua]], an [[Endemism|endemic]] [[Sea snail|sea-snail]] that attaches itself on hard surfaces such as rocks, at its most vulnerable phases – when they move or are grasped up by a [[starfish]] using hundreds of [[tube feet]].<ref name="NHNZ" />  They are also said to be voracious.<ref name="NHNZ" /><ref name="Stroud" />
"Our Big Blue Backyard" is a documentary of [[New Zealand]] marine and shoreline species.<ref name="NHNZ">{{cite web |url=https://www.tvnz.co.nz/shows/our-big-blue-backyard/episodes/s2-e3 |title=Our Big Blue Backyard – Season 2, Episode 3 |author=Natural History New Zealand |date=2016 |publisher=Natural History New Zealand, Ltd |access-date=2018-04-15}}</ref>  In the [[Chatham Islands]] episode, blue cod (''P. colias'') waits to feed on [[pāua]], an [[Endemism|endemic]] [[Sea snail|sea-snail]] that attaches itself on hard surfaces such as rocks, at its most vulnerable phases – when they move or are grasped up by a [[starfish]] using hundreds of [[tube feet]].<ref name="NHNZ" />  They are also said to be voracious.<ref name="NHNZ" /><ref name="Stroud" />
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**[[Yellow-eyed penguin]]s<ref name="Chilvers2014">{{cite journal | last1=Chilvers| first1=B.L. | last2=Dobbins| first2=M.L. | last3=Edmonds| first3=H.K.| year=2014| title= Diving behaviour of yellow-eyed penguins, Port Pegasus/Pikihatiti, Stewart Island/Rakiura, New Zealand. | journal=New Zealand Journal of Zoology |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=161–170| doi=10.1080/03014223.2014.908931 | s2cid=87018205 }}</ref><ref name="Moore">{{cite journal | last1=Moore| first1=P.J. | last2=Wakelin| first2=M.D. | year=1997| title=Diet of the yellow-eyed penguin ''Megadyptes antipodes'', South Island, New Zealand, 1991-1993. | journal=Marine Ornithology |volume=25 |pages=17–29| doi=10.5038/2074-1235.25.1.377 }}</ref><ref name="Van">{{cite journal|last1=Van Heezik|first1=Y.|author-link=Yolanda van Heezik|year=1990|title=Diets of yellow-eyed, Fiordland crested, and little blue penguins breeding sympatrically on Codfish Island, New Zealand.|journal=New Zealand Journal of Zoology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=543–548|doi=10.1080/03014223.1990.10422952|doi-access=free}}</ref>
**[[Yellow-eyed penguin]]s<ref name="Chilvers2014">{{cite journal | last1=Chilvers| first1=B.L. | last2=Dobbins| first2=M.L. | last3=Edmonds| first3=H.K.| year=2014| title= Diving behaviour of yellow-eyed penguins, Port Pegasus/Pikihatiti, Stewart Island/Rakiura, New Zealand. | journal=New Zealand Journal of Zoology |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=161–170| doi=10.1080/03014223.2014.908931 | s2cid=87018205 }}</ref><ref name="Moore">{{cite journal | last1=Moore| first1=P.J. | last2=Wakelin| first2=M.D. | year=1997| title=Diet of the yellow-eyed penguin ''Megadyptes antipodes'', South Island, New Zealand, 1991-1993. | journal=Marine Ornithology |volume=25 |pages=17–29| doi=10.5038/2074-1235.25.1.377 }}</ref><ref name="Van">{{cite journal|last1=Van Heezik|first1=Y.|author-link=Yolanda van Heezik|year=1990|title=Diets of yellow-eyed, Fiordland crested, and little blue penguins breeding sympatrically on Codfish Island, New Zealand.|journal=New Zealand Journal of Zoology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=543–548|doi=10.1080/03014223.1990.10422952|doi-access=free}}</ref>
**[[Dolphins]]<ref name="Federal">{{cite journal | last1=Federal Register| year=2015| title=Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Notice of 12-Month Finding on a Petition To List Bottlenose Dolphins in Fiordland, New Zealand as Threatened or Endangered Under the Endangered Species Act. | journal=Federal Government of United States |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2015/06/19/2015-15087/endangered-and-threatened-wildlife-and-plants-notice-of-12-month-finding-on-a-petition-to-list}}</ref>  
**[[Dolphins]]<ref name="Federal">{{cite journal | last1=Federal Register| year=2015| title=Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Notice of 12-Month Finding on a Petition To List Bottlenose Dolphins in Fiordland, New Zealand as Threatened or Endangered Under the Endangered Species Act. | journal=Federal Government of United States |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2015/06/19/2015-15087/endangered-and-threatened-wildlife-and-plants-notice-of-12-month-finding-on-a-petition-to-list}}</ref>  
*[[Sea birds]], such as [[mollymawk]]s<ref name="Govier">{{cite thesis |last1=Govier |first1=D. |year=2001 |title=Growth and movement of Blue Cod (''Parapercis colias'') in Paterson Inlet, Stewart Island, New Zealand |type=M.Sc. thesis |publisher=University of Otago |hdl=10523/2967 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10523/2967}}</ref>
*[[Sea birds]], such as [[mollymawk]]s<ref name="Govier">{{cite thesis |last1=Govier |first1=D. |year=2001 |title=Growth and movement of Blue Cod (Parapercis colias) in Paterson Inlet, Stewart Island, New Zealand |degree=M.Sc |publisher=University of Otago |hdl=10523/2967 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10523/2967}}</ref>


As many marine predators are [[generalist and specialist species|generalists]]<ref name="Murdoch" /> there are many other potential predators not listed. ''P. colias'' are known to predate upon juveniles of their own species.<ref name="Young" />
As many marine predators are [[generalist and specialist species|generalists]]<ref name="Murdoch" /> there are many other potential predators not listed. ''P. colias'' are known to predate upon juveniles of their own species.<ref name="Young" />
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No specific [[disease]] is found on ''P. colias'', but some [[Injury|injuries]] have been recorded.  Hooking injuries could cause tissue damage and possibly lead to [[Death|mortality]].<ref name="Carbines1999" >{{cite journal | last1=Carbines |first1=G. | year=1999 | title=Large hooks reduce catch-and-release mortality of blue cod ''Parapercis colias'' in the Marlborough Sounds of New Zealand | journal=North American Journal of Fisheries Management | volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=992–998|doi=10.1577/1548-8675(1999)019<0992:LHRCAR>2.0.CO;2|bibcode=1999NAJFM..19..992C }}</ref> Despite having greater risk for [[Parasitism|parasitic]], [[bacteria]]l, or [[Fungus|fungal]] infections, mortality after having a hook injury is often caused by blood loss rather than disease.<ref name="Meka" >{{cite journal |last1=Meka |first1=J.M. |year=2004| title=The Influence of Hook Type, Angler Experience, and Fish Size on Injury Rates and the Duration of Capture in an Alaskan Catch-and-Release Rainbow Trout Fishery |journal=North American Journal of Fisheries Management | volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=1309–1321 |doi=10.1577/M03-108.1|bibcode=2004NAJFM..24.1309M }}</ref>  An article suggests that small hooks cause more blood loss problems than big hooks to ''P. colias''.<ref name="Carbines1999" />
No specific [[disease]] is found on ''P. colias'', but some [[Injury|injuries]] have been recorded.  Hooking injuries could cause tissue damage and possibly lead to [[Death|mortality]].<ref name="Carbines1999" >{{cite journal | last1=Carbines |first1=G. | year=1999 | title=Large hooks reduce catch-and-release mortality of blue cod ''Parapercis colias'' in the Marlborough Sounds of New Zealand | journal=North American Journal of Fisheries Management | volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=992–998|doi=10.1577/1548-8675(1999)019<0992:LHRCAR>2.0.CO;2|bibcode=1999NAJFM..19..992C }}</ref> Despite having greater risk for [[Parasitism|parasitic]], [[bacteria]]l, or [[Fungus|fungal]] infections, mortality after having a hook injury is often caused by blood loss rather than disease.<ref name="Meka" >{{cite journal |last1=Meka |first1=J.M. |year=2004| title=The Influence of Hook Type, Angler Experience, and Fish Size on Injury Rates and the Duration of Capture in an Alaskan Catch-and-Release Rainbow Trout Fishery |journal=North American Journal of Fisheries Management | volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=1309–1321 |doi=10.1577/M03-108.1|bibcode=2004NAJFM..24.1309M }}</ref>  An article suggests that small hooks cause more blood loss problems than big hooks to ''P. colias''.<ref name="Carbines1999" />


Compared to other [[Osteichthyes|bony fish]], [[swim bladder|swimming bladder]] in ''P. colias'' is absent,<ref name="Blackwell" >{{cite web |last1=Blackwell |first1=R.G. |year=2014 |title=Abundance, size and age composition, and yield-per-recruit of blue cod in the Marlborough Sounds, September 1996.| publisher=NIWA |url=http://fs.fish.govt.nz/Doc/22460/BCO2003-01%20Blue%20Cod%20Marlborough%20Sounds%20Tasman%20Bay%20abundance%20size%20Objective%201%202%203%20final.pdf.ashx}}</ref> this means that they do not suffer from [[barotrauma]] – an injury due expansion or eruption of the [[swim bladder|swimming bladder]] in fish, it is often caused by rapid water pressure change when rising from deep water to water surface.<ref name="Thorncraft">{{cite journal| last1=Thorncraft |first1=G. |last2=Baumgartner |first2=L.J. |last3=Boys |first3=C.A. |last4=Brown |first4=R.S. |year=2013 | title=Merging hydraulics with biology |journal=International Water Power & Dam Construction | volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=42–43}}</ref>
Compared to other [[Osteichthyes|bony fish]], [[swim bladder|swimming bladder]] in ''P. colias'' is absent,<ref name="Blackwell" >{{cite web |last1=Blackwell |first1=R.G. |year=2014 |title=Abundance, size and age composition, and yield-per-recruit of blue cod in the Marlborough Sounds, September 1996| publisher=NIWA |url=http://fs.fish.govt.nz/Doc/22460/BCO2003-01%20Blue%20Cod%20Marlborough%20Sounds%20Tasman%20Bay%20abundance%20size%20Objective%201%202%203%20final.pdf.ashx}}</ref> this means that they do not suffer from [[barotrauma]] – an injury due expansion or eruption of the [[swim bladder|swimming bladder]] in fish, it is often caused by rapid water pressure change when rising from deep water to water surface.<ref name="Thorncraft">{{cite journal| last1=Thorncraft |first1=G. |last2=Baumgartner |first2=L.J. |last3=Boys |first3=C.A. |last4=Brown |first4=R.S. |year=2013 | title=Merging hydraulics with biology |journal=International Water Power & Dam Construction | volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=42–43}}</ref>


==In a human context==
==In a human context==
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To achieve [[Sustainable fishery|sustainable fishing]], it is crucial to persist healthy [[population]] structure with continuous monitoring and quotas set to date.<ref name="MPIs" >{{cite book| author=Ministry for Primary Industries |year=2016| title=New Zealand's Sustainable Fisheries| url=http://www.mpi.govt.nz/dmsdocument/11096-new-zealands-sustainable-fisheries}}</ref>  However, as the largest fish in the [[population]] would be the male, males are often being caught and is thought to affect the females changing their sex earlier.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines" />  This is an emerging issue to all hermaphrodites.<ref name="Robinson" >{{cite journal| last1=Robinson |first1=O. J.|last2=Jensen|first2=O. P |last3=Provost | first3=M. M.|last4=Huang | first4=S.| last5=Fefferman| first5=N. H.| last6=Kebir| first6=A.| last7=Kebir| first7=A.| last8=Lockwood| first8=Julie | year=2016| title=Evaluating the impacts of fishing on sex-changing fish: a game-theoretic approach| journal=ICES Journal of Marine Science| volume=74| issue=3| pages=652–659| doi=10.1093/icesjms/fsw222| doi-access=free}}</ref>  Surprisingly, the sex ratio male to females of ''P. colias'' is about 5:1<ref name="Carbines.b" /> which is biologically implausible. This suggests that sex changes might not purely depend on fish length, but we cannot ignore the fact that fishery has changed the natural population composition of "P. colias".  To understand the direct impact on P. colias despite population decline<ref name="BeentjesCarbines" /> further research is required.
To achieve [[Sustainable fishery|sustainable fishing]], it is crucial to persist healthy [[population]] structure with continuous monitoring and quotas set to date.<ref name="MPIs" >{{cite book| author=Ministry for Primary Industries |year=2016| title=New Zealand's Sustainable Fisheries| url=http://www.mpi.govt.nz/dmsdocument/11096-new-zealands-sustainable-fisheries}}</ref>  However, as the largest fish in the [[population]] would be the male, males are often being caught and is thought to affect the females changing their sex earlier.<ref name="BeentjesCarbines" />  This is an emerging issue to all hermaphrodites.<ref name="Robinson" >{{cite journal| last1=Robinson |first1=O. J.|last2=Jensen|first2=O. P |last3=Provost | first3=M. M.|last4=Huang | first4=S.| last5=Fefferman| first5=N. H.| last6=Kebir| first6=A.| last7=Kebir| first7=A.| last8=Lockwood| first8=Julie | year=2016| title=Evaluating the impacts of fishing on sex-changing fish: a game-theoretic approach| journal=ICES Journal of Marine Science| volume=74| issue=3| pages=652–659| doi=10.1093/icesjms/fsw222| doi-access=free}}</ref>  Surprisingly, the sex ratio male to females of ''P. colias'' is about 5:1<ref name="Carbines.b" /> which is biologically implausible. This suggests that sex changes might not purely depend on fish length, but we cannot ignore the fact that fishery has changed the natural population composition of "P. colias".  To understand the direct impact on P. colias despite population decline<ref name="BeentjesCarbines" /> further research is required.


In addition, the fundamental unit of concern of its management of [[population]] is the [[Genetics|genetic]] structure that can lead to the reduction of the evolutionary potential for responding to [[environmental change]], the increase of [[inbreeding]] risk and the force of selective [[Genetics|genetic]] change.<ref name="Smith" /> Since a number of evidence indicated that blue cod are relatively sedentary,<ref name="ColeVilloutaDavidson" /><ref name="MaceJohnston" /><ref name="RodgersWing" /><ref name="Smith" /> the [[Overfishing|fishing pressure]] may lead to potential local [[Natural resource|depletion]].<ref name="CarbinesMcKenzie" /> Recent studies showed that the [[Genetics|genetic]] differences were significant between mainland [[List of islands of New Zealand]] [[population]] and [[Chatham Island]] [[population]].<ref name="Gebbie" /><ref name="Smith" /> On the other hand, the differences within mainland[[List of islands of New Zealand]] [[population]]s were limited while the pattern of the isolation by distance was detected.<ref name="Smith" /> Further research using [[microsatellite]] [[Genetic marker|DNA markers]] suggested that some significant [[Genetics|genetic]] differences between [[List of islands of New Zealand|mainland]] [[population]] exist which indicate the potential long-distance [[Biological dispersal|dispersal]], but the [[Biological dispersal|dispersal]] rate is too low to have [[Demography|demographic]] effect in the [[population]].<ref name="Gebbie">{{cite book| last1=Gebbie| first1=C. L.| year=2014| title=Population genetic structure of New Zealand blue cod (''Parapercis colias'') based on mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA markers (Master thesis)| publisher=Victoria University of Wellington| url=http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/handle/10063/4245}}</ref>
In addition, the fundamental unit of concern of its management of [[population]] is the [[Genetics|genetic]] structure that can lead to the reduction of the evolutionary potential for responding to [[environmental change]], the increase of [[inbreeding]] risk and the force of selective [[Genetics|genetic]] change.<ref name="Smith" /> Since a number of evidence indicated that blue cod are relatively sedentary,<ref name="ColeVilloutaDavidson" /><ref name="MaceJohnston" /><ref name="RodgersWing" /><ref name="Smith" /> the [[Overfishing|fishing pressure]] may lead to potential local [[Natural resource|depletion]].<ref name="CarbinesMcKenzie" /> Recent studies showed that the [[Genetics|genetic]] differences were significant between mainland [[List of islands of New Zealand]] [[population]] and [[Chatham Island]] [[population]].<ref name="Gebbie" /><ref name="Smith" /> On the other hand, the differences within mainland[[List of islands of New Zealand]] [[population]]s were limited while the pattern of the isolation by distance was detected.<ref name="Smith" /> Further research using [[microsatellite]] [[Genetic marker|DNA markers]] suggested that some significant [[Genetics|genetic]] differences between [[List of islands of New Zealand|mainland]] [[population]] exist which indicate the potential long-distance [[Biological dispersal|dispersal]], but the [[Biological dispersal|dispersal]] rate is too low to have [[Demography|demographic]] effect in the [[population]].<ref name="Gebbie">{{cite thesis| last1=Gebbie| first1=C. L.| year=2014| title=Population genetic structure of New Zealand blue cod (''Parapercis colias'') based on mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA markers |degree=MSc |publisher=Victoria University of Wellington| url=http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/handle/10063/4245}}</ref>


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}
* {{ITIS |id=170968 |taxon=Parapercis colias |access-date=30 January 2006}}
* {{ITIS |id=170968 |taxon=Parapercis colias |access-date=30 January 2006}}
* {{FishBase|genus=Parapercis|species=colias|year=2005|month=10}}
* {{FishBase |Parapercis|colias |year=2005|month=October}}


==External links==
==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070212043039/http://www.fish.govt.nz/en-nz/Recreational/Most%2BPopular%2BSpecies/Blue%2BCod/Default.htm Blue Cod Fishing and a link to the Blue Cod Fishing Regulations]. Ministry of Fisheries.
* {{cite web|url=http://www.fish.govt.nz/en-nz/Recreational/Most%2BPopular%2BSpecies/Blue%2BCod/Default.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070212043039/http://www.fish.govt.nz/en-nz/Recreational/Most%2BPopular%2BSpecies/Blue%2BCod/Default.htm|archive-date=12 February 2007|title=Blue Cod Fishing and a link to the Blue Cod Fishing Regulations|publisher= Ministry of Fisheries}}
{{Fish of New Zealand}}
{{Fish of New Zealand}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q2492416}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q2492416}}

Latest revision as of 11:00, 29 December 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "about". Template:Use New Zealand English

Template:Speciesbox

The New Zealand blue cod (Parapercis colias) is a temperate marine ray-finned fish[1] of the family Pinguipedidae.[2] It is also known by its Māori names, rāwaru, pākirikiri and patutuki, and by its other names in English, Boston blue cod, New Zealand cod or sand perch.[3]

It is exclusively found in New Zealand, in shallow waters around rocky coasts to a depth of Template:Cvt, though it is far more common south of the Cook Strait.[4] It is bluish green to blue-black above with white toward the belly.[5] Large examples are usually greenish blue in colour, while smaller ones are blotched in varying shades of brown.[5] An adult may grow to Template:Cvt in length and weigh from Template:Cvt.[6][7] It feeds mainly on small fish and crabs.[8] Blue cod is territorial.[9] Spawning takes place in southern spring.[10][11] Blue cod can also change sex from female to male.[12]

It is an important recreational species in the South Island and is commercially harvested.[13][14] Blue cod populations are managed under New Zealand's fisheries quota management system, although they are becoming scarce in some small areas due to fishing pressure.[15] Annual catch range is between 2,000 and 2,500 tonnes.[16]

Identification

File:Cuvier-15-Vive-Percis.jpg
1828 diagrams by Georges Cuvier
Blue Cod Closeup
Parapercis colias female showing brown colour phase, details of the eye and lips.

Parapercis colias are protogynous hermaphrodites, which means they have both female and male reproductive organs at the beginning and some females change sex to males later in their life.[17] P. colias is a marine bottom dwelling fish that is found in coastal New Zealand waters.[15] Their colouring varies on age and sex.[14] Juveniles start off being generally pale in colour and have two long dark stripes along the sides which will turn brown and barely distinguishable when they become middle-sized fish.[15][13][18] As they mature with a body length over 25 cm, both sexes would have a blueish-grey dorsal with a white underside.[15] Females have a tinge of orange and there is a trend for them to become green when they grow larger.[14] Brownish pigments can be found at the base of pectoral fin.[5] On the other hand, adult males have distinctive blue-grey colour coat with greenish sides[19] and a golden brown line can be found above each eye.[14] Body length of P. colias is about 30–40 cm in general, but can up to 60 cm and their weight is 0.8–1.5 kg in general, but can up to 3 kg.[6][7] Males tend to be larger than females. They can live up to 32 years old.[15]

Heads of P. colias are prominent and rounded with scales.[10][6][20][21] They have a plump shaped body covered with firm scales.[14] Above their non expanded cheeks are two large lateral eyes[20] which can rotate independently, this allows them to see almost everywhere around them.[22] P. colias possess a terminal mouth[5] with bulbous lips.[10][22] Their pelvic fins are generally placed forward on the throat with brown dots appear underneath it.[19] There is a single horizontal stripe where ten to twelve scales above across their side of the body.[5] The anterior section of their dorsal fin is small and short,[13][19] followed by fins with five short spines.[6] In contrast their second dorsal is long.[19] A key used in an article of Cantwell can distinguish P. colias from other parapercids.[23] Key features are listed below:[23]

Other characters of detailed skeleton structures (osteology) of Parapercis species can be found in an article written by Gosline.[25]

Swimming bladder is usually present in osteichthyids,[26] it helps the fish to stay at a certain water pressure level (depth) without spending more energy. Swimming bladder in P. colias are absent.[27] They will automatically sink to the sea floor if they stop swimming; therefore, they are called bottom-dwelling or sedentary bottom-hugging species.[28] Their body shape of having a flattened abdomen indicates this as well.[28] Normally, P. colias use their pectoral fin to swim, their body muscles and tails fin are only involved in swimming when a sudden burst or speed is needed, this type of swimming character is called labriform.[28] As a result, their pelvic fins, used as props when they are resting on the seabed,[10] are reduced and thickened.[28] Due to their nature of being bottom-dwelling species, sand can clog their gills when they are resting.[29] To remedy this, P. colias often hold their breath and open their mouths for a long interval like having a yawn to take good gulps of air every now and then.[29] Speaking of having a yawn, if you look closely you will notice that P. colias do not have palatine teeth[5] and only have small teeth; however, you would not want to feel their sharp and well developed pharyngeal teeth near their throat like their prey.[28]

There are some other detailed morphological characteristics inside the body of P. colias that determine their taxonomy, such as the presence of a lentiform body (an ocular vascular structure) and others, are mentioned by Eastman.[30]

Distribution

Natural global range

Pinguipedid fishes (Sandperches) are widely found in the southern Atlantic and Indo-Pacific regions.[31] However, P. colias is endemic to New Zealand.[32][33]

New Zealand range

P. colias is found from the shore to the shelf edge around New Zealand's entire coastline, but there are no records in either the Kermadec Islands or the Snares Islands / Tini Heke.[34] They are more abundant from south of Cook Strait[14] and they are an iconic species for the South Island.[15] They are most common around Southland and the Chatham Islands.[4]

Habitat preferences

File:Blue Cod in Milford Sound.jpg
Blue cod in Milford Sound on a bedrock outcrop

P. colias can be found at 150 m in depth[4][6][14] occupying bedrock outcrops on gravel[10][35][13][19] or sandy seabed.[36] These habitats with macro algae or Sponges are even more preferred.[36] Furthermore, their abundance in each habitat varies between age.[9][14] Juvenile are found more frequently in sponge gardens (more than 16m deep) dominated by orange finger sponges (Raspalia topsenti & Raspalia flaccida), large black massive sponge (Ancorina alata) and the small bright yellow clumps of Polymastia granulosa that provide more shelters and safer refuges, whereas adults are mainly found on reef margins[28] and deeper areas.[14]

Since P. colias are generalists,[7] which means that they prey on various species instead of depending on only one species, habitats that are rich in diversity of species are also favoured by them. An example of this is the kelp forest which is often established on rock beds where it is also desirable for P. colias.[37][38][35] However, they can be also found in less species diverse habitats such as barren rock flats (4-12m deep) that are dominated by sea urchins grazing on algae.[28]

As mentioned before, P. colias can be found at 150 m in depth and was reported to be caught at 350m below the surface,[4] other important aspects such as temperature, salinity and oxygen content in the ocean are often influenced by water depth.[20] 766 samples were taken to determine the water temperature and chemistry ranges of P. colias[18] as listed below:

Temperature: 7.786 - 18.158 (°C)
Nitrate: 0.205 - 18.689 (μmol/L)
Salinity: 34.283 - 35.544 (PPS)Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
Oxygen: 5.121 - 6.587 (mL/L)
Phosphate: 0.258 - 1.333 (μmol/L)
Silicate: 1.911 - 7.690 (μmol/L)

Life cycle/phenology

Spawning and Hatching

Multiple spawning events of a female P. colias occur throughout late winter and spring[10][11] in the centre to the outer continental shelf.[14] Instead of a distinct spawning episode, their spawning is a continuous event that the eggs are released over time.[39] One male can be spawning with different groups of female.[6] Eggs could possibly drift 74 km away from the spawning site and hatch potentially after 116 hours.[40] Young fish are found below 20 metres[19] then move to shallow water in summer.[14]

Age, Growth, Sex and Maturity

Growth of P. colias is measured by the relationship between age and their body length.[41] P. colias are protogynous hermaphrodites,[12] when the length of P. colias reaches 410mm, 50% of the females are transitional.[17] Sex inversion occurs with the colour change from whitish with a brown band at both sides or an orange tinge to bluish colour with a blue green band.[10] Though sex inversion found to occur across a wide range of age and size, the cause of activating the sex inversion has not been well understood.[36] Studies have shown that the proportion of sex change decreases afterwards[17] as the presence of males in the population would discourage sex change.[36] Hence, it is regarded as a response to the demographic structure in the population instead of a response to their size.[36] Another study indicated that blue cod is most fecund at the size which closes to the average size of the first maturity of males. It has been regarded as a sign of potential sex change by reducing egg production for saving the resource.[39] Sex change is also not well described that the transitional gonads has different definitions.[39]

Their growth rate can differ due to food supply, water temperature and habitat as other fish do.[14] Sex can also influence the growth rate. Male grow faster and larger than female.[1][14] P. colias have the potential to grow up to 50 cm in length and weight 4 kg.[42] Growth ring interpretation shows that they can live about 10 to 15 years,[14] but a study showed that the known maximum age of blue cod is 23 years old.[43]

Maturity values are derived from the length of the fish.[41] Their growth rate varies between locations.[9][44] For example, male can reach maturity when their length reached 10–19 cm (which is about 2–3 years old) in Northland, but in Southland the male needs to reach 26–28 cm (which is about 4–6 years old).[44] Besides, males generally have a faster growth rate compared to females.[1][9][14] Both female and male P. colias are assumed to reach sexual maturity with the measuring of 28 cm.[17] The maximum lifespan of P. colias is 32 years.[16]

Behaviours

Similar to other Parapercis species, male P. colias hold territories and their home range increases as the individual grows.[9] Mutch found that they tend to hold large territories rather than but loose territories with small social groups that contain three to five females.[45] Though they hold stable territories, P. colias moves from time to time. In a study,[4] P. colias can move with on average of 2.09±2.12 km, this could potentially be home range shifts.[43] It is reported[32] that P. colias emigrate from coastal to offshore waters in May of each year, this is thought to be a preparation for mating and spawning in early winter.

Thunder is known to agitate the fish. Reports since the 1950s have documented thunder activating blue cod's flight mechanisms, causing the fish to leap out of aquariums.[46]

Migration

P. colias seem to be migratory at certain times in a year,[14] but little is known about their migration. Other studies indicated that they are relatively sedentary,[47][48][43] however, long-term dispersal has been suggested due to a record that one individual travelled 156 km over 20 months.[49]

Diet and foraging

Many fish species are generalists; thus, they are not limited by the predator-prey cycle.[50] P. colias is one of them.[7][19][14] They have been recorded to have 52 taxa in their diet,[7] where adults are found to be more selective than juveniles.[51] It makes sense that when P. colias grows bigger, the variety of species in their diet also increases, this includes polychaetes, crustaceans, molluscs,[10][35][7][51][32] Pisces,[35][52] algae and even its own spawn![52] This means that P. colias are omnivores which "feeds on more one trophic level".[53][32] In short, you can say that they consume anything that is abundant and available locally.[14][21] Other than the development of the fish itself, what they consume differs from region to region[7][54] and whether the area is fished or not plays an important role as well.[53][7] One study[7] showed that oyster dredged habitat can reduce their prey diversity and have a negative effect on fish size. They usually stalk, seize and swallow their prey.[14] After being caught, they tend to regurgitate the stomach contents.[35]

"Our Big Blue Backyard" is a documentary of New Zealand marine and shoreline species.[55] In the Chatham Islands episode, blue cod (P. colias) waits to feed on pāua, an endemic sea-snail that attaches itself on hard surfaces such as rocks, at its most vulnerable phases – when they move or are grasped up by a starfish using hundreds of tube feet.[55] They are also said to be voracious.[55][32]

Predators, parasites, and diseases

Predators

Homo sapiens (humans) fish 2000 to 2500 tons of P. colias annually.[16] Natural predators include:

As many marine predators are generalists[50] there are many other potential predators not listed. P. colias are known to predate upon juveniles of their own species.[52]

Parasites

Hewitt and Hine[60] summarised the parasites found on blue cod including species in five main groups:

Group Species Location on host
Protozoa
Digenea
Monogenea
Nematoda
  • Anisakis sp. larva
  • Contracaecum (Thynnascaris) sp. larva
Copepoda

Blood sucking sea lice are also known to parasitise P. colias.[55]

Disease and Injuries

No specific disease is found on P. colias, but some injuries have been recorded. Hooking injuries could cause tissue damage and possibly lead to mortality.[61] Despite having greater risk for parasitic, bacterial, or fungal infections, mortality after having a hook injury is often caused by blood loss rather than disease.[62] An article suggests that small hooks cause more blood loss problems than big hooks to P. colias.[61]

Compared to other bony fish, swimming bladder in P. colias is absent,[27] this means that they do not suffer from barotrauma – an injury due expansion or eruption of the swimming bladder in fish, it is often caused by rapid water pressure change when rising from deep water to water surface.[63]

In a human context

File:An exhibit of cod by one of the colony's big customers (1907) (cropped).jpg
A display of smoked blue cod in Melbourne, Victoria (1907)

Rāwaru was a valued traditional food for Māori who lived in the South Island, where the fish is more abundant.[46] Heads of rāwaru (P. colias, blue cod) were often given back to the sea as offerings to the god Maru before Māori return from fishing.[64]

The fish was an important species to early European settlers in New Zealand as a food source, and by the 1910s became even more popular in Australia, leading to the growth of the blue cod fishing industry in Southland.[46]

History of the name

Blue cod (P. colias) is not a cod. The use of blue cod can date back to the time of Captain Cook.[14][21] Some early writers listed them as coal-fish which derived from unrelated European fish. However, this name is so widely used in New Zealand that it is unlikely to be changed.[14]

Economic and population management issue

File:New Zealand blue cod dish, Corner House, Singapore Botanic Gardens - 20170126.jpg
A dish of blue cod and Hokkaido scallops in a restaurant in Singapore

Blue cod is well known by the public due to its commercial and recreational importance.[13][14] As mentioned before, we fish 2000 to 2500 tones of P. colias per year.[16] The value of P. colias as being the third popular recreational fishing species cannot be ignored,[15] this includes using their flesh as rock lobster bait.[40] It is estimated that the marginal willingness to pay for an additional P. colias is $1.61 per fish and the average willingness to pay is $24.46 per fish.[65] It is estimated that in 1999, 1.2 million P. colias was harvested, of which 70% were from the South Island.[65] Thus, Ministry for Primary Industries (New Zealand) has set minimum capture length and maximum capture limit of P. colias, which varies between areas mainly depending on abundance, to avoid depletion. For example, in the South-East area (of South Island from Clarence Point to Southland and extended to the Chatham Islands, New Zealand), no fish shorter than 30 cm can be taken and each fisher has a limit up to 30 fish per day.[15]

To achieve sustainable fishing, it is crucial to persist healthy population structure with continuous monitoring and quotas set to date.[66] However, as the largest fish in the population would be the male, males are often being caught and is thought to affect the females changing their sex earlier.[36] This is an emerging issue to all hermaphrodites.[67] Surprisingly, the sex ratio male to females of P. colias is about 5:1[17] which is biologically implausible. This suggests that sex changes might not purely depend on fish length, but we cannot ignore the fact that fishery has changed the natural population composition of "P. colias". To understand the direct impact on P. colias despite population decline[36] further research is required.

In addition, the fundamental unit of concern of its management of population is the genetic structure that can lead to the reduction of the evolutionary potential for responding to environmental change, the increase of inbreeding risk and the force of selective genetic change.[44] Since a number of evidence indicated that blue cod are relatively sedentary,[47][48][43][44] the fishing pressure may lead to potential local depletion.[49] Recent studies showed that the genetic differences were significant between mainland List of islands of New Zealand population and Chatham Island population.[68][44] On the other hand, the differences within mainlandList of islands of New Zealand populations were limited while the pattern of the isolation by distance was detected.[44] Further research using microsatellite DNA markers suggested that some significant genetic differences between mainland population exist which indicate the potential long-distance dispersal, but the dispersal rate is too low to have demographic effect in the population.[68]

References

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  5. ↑ a b c d e f Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ a b c d e f Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ a b c d e Template:Cite thesis
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  11. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ a b c d e Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ a b c d e f g h Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ a b c d Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ a b c d e Template:Cite thesis
  18. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ a b c d e f g Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ a b c d e f g Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  32. ↑ a b c d e Template:Cite thesis
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  34. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  35. ↑ a b c d e Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  36. ↑ a b c d e f g Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  37. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  38. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  39. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  40. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  41. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  42. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  43. ↑ a b c d Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  44. ↑ a b c d e f Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  45. ↑ a b Template:Cite thesis
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  47. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  48. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  49. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  50. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  51. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  52. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  53. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  54. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  55. ↑ a b c d e Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  56. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  57. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  58. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  59. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  60. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  61. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  62. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  63. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  64. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  65. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  66. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  67. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  68. ↑ a b Template:Cite thesis

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External links

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Template:Fish of New Zealand Template:Taxonbar

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