Alosa: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
VisualWikitext
imported>GreenC bot
Reformat 1 archive link; Move 1 url. Wayback Medic 2.5 per WP:URLREQ#citeftp
 
imported>Horse Eye's Back
 
Line 3: Line 3:
{{Automatic taxobox
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = ''Alosa''
| name = ''Alosa''
| fossil_range = {{fossilrange|55|0}} <br />[[Eocene]] to present<ref>{{cite journal
| fossil_range = {{fossilrange|Oligocene|present|earliest=Priabonian|[[Oligocene]] to present<ref name="Sepkoski 2002">{{cite journal |last=Sepkoski |first=Jack |title=A compendium of fossil marine animal genera |journal=Bulletins of American Paleontology |volume=363 |pages=5–560 |date=2002 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/40634#page/5/mode/1up |isbn=978-0-87710-450-6 }} {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723131237/http://strata.ummp.lsa.umich.edu/jack/showgenera.php?taxon=611&rank=class }}</ref>}} Potential [[Late Eocene]] occurrence
|last=Sepkoski  
|first=Jack  
|title=A compendium of fossil marine animal genera  
|journal=[[Bulletins of American Paleontology]]
|volume=364
|page=560
|year=2002  
|url=http://strata.ummp.lsa.umich.edu/jack/showgenera.php?taxon=611&rank=class
|access-date=2007-12-31
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723131237/http://strata.ummp.lsa.umich.edu/jack/showgenera.php?taxon=611&rank=class  
|archive-date=2011-07-23
}}</ref>
| image = Alosa fallax.jpg
| image = Alosa fallax.jpg
| image_caption = [[Twaite shad]], ''Alosa fallax''
| image_caption = [[Twaite shad]], ''Alosa fallax''
| taxon = Alosa
| taxon = Alosa
| authority = [[Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link|H. F. Linck]], 1790
| authority = [[Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link|H. F. Linck]], 1790
|type_species = '' Clupea alosa''
| type_species = '' Clupea alosa''
|type_species_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]<ref name = "Cof family">{{Cof family|family=Alosidae|access-date=29 April 2025}}</ref>
| type_species_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]<ref name = "Cof family">{{Cof family|family=Alosidae|access-date=29 April 2025}}</ref>
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = See text.
| subdivision = See text.
Line 35: Line 22:
}}
}}


'''''Alosa'''''<ref>[https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=161701 ''Alosa'' Linck, 1790] [[ITIS]]</ref> is a genus of [[fish]],  the '''river herrings''', in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Alosidae]]. Along with other genera in the subfamily [[Alosinae]], they are generally known as [[shad]]s.<ref>[https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=551155 Alosinae] [[ITIS]]</ref><ref name=FAO>[ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/ac482e/ac482e27.pdf Subfamily Alosinae]{{dead link|date=May 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} FAO Fisheries Bulletin</ref> They are distinct from other herrings by having a deeper body and spawning in rivers. Several species can be found on both sides of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Also, several taxa occur in the brackish-water [[Caspian Sea]] and the [[Black Sea]] basin.<ref name=Coad/> Many are found in fresh water during spawning and some are only found in landlocked fresh water.
'''''Alosa'''''<ref>{{ITIS |id=161701 |title=''Alosa'' Linck, 1790 }}</ref> is a genus of [[fish]],  the '''river herrings''', in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Alosidae]]. Along with other genera in the subfamily [[Alosinae]], they are generally known as [[shad]]s.<ref>{{ITIS |id=551155 |title=Alosinae }}</ref><ref name="Whitehead 1985">{{cite book |chapter=Subfamily Alosinae |last=Whitehead |first=Peter J.P. |title=FAO species catalogue. Vol. 7. Clupeoid fishes of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of the herrings, sardines, pilchards, sprats, anchovies and wolfherrings. Part 1 – Chirocentridae, Clupeidae and Pristigasteridae |year=1985 |publisher=FAO |location=Rome |series=FAO Fisheries Synopsis |volume=125/7/1 |isbn=978-92-5-102340-2|page=190 |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/ac482e }}</ref> They are distinct from other herrings by having a deeper body and spawning in rivers. Several species can be found on both sides of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Also, several taxa occur in the brackish-water [[Caspian Sea]] and the [[Black Sea]] basin.<ref name=Coad/> Many are found in fresh water during spawning and some are only found in landlocked fresh water.
 
==Fossil record==
These fishes lived from the [[Eocene]] to [[Quaternary]] (from 55 million years ago to now). Fossils have been found in Canada, the United States, Greece, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Hungary, Romania, and Italy.<ref>[https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=35439 Paleobiology Database]</ref>
[[File: Clupeidae - Alosa elongata.JPG|thumb|240px|right|Fossil of ''Alosa elongata'']]


==Appearance==
==Appearance==
Line 45: Line 28:


==Biology==
==Biology==
Shads are thought to be unique among the fishes in having evolved an ability to detect [[ultrasound]] (at frequencies above 20&nbsp;kHz, which is the limit of human hearing).<ref name="Mann">Mann, D. A.; Higgs, D. M.; Tavolga, W. N.; Souza, M. J.; and Popper, A. N. (2001). Ultrasound detection by clupeiform fishes. ''Journal of the Acoustical Society of America'' 109:3048–3054</ref> This was first discovered by fisheries biologists studying a type of shad known as [[blueback herring]], and was later verified in laboratory studies of hearing in American shad. This ability is thought to help them avoid [[dolphins]] that find prey using echolocation. ''Alosa'' species are generally [[pelagic]].<ref name="Greek">{{cite journal| author=D. C. Bobori, E. T. Koutrakis and P. S. Economidis| year=2001| title=Shad Species In Greek Waters – An Historical Overview And Present Status| journal=Bulletin Français de la Pêche et de la Pisciculture| volume=362-363| issue=362–363| pages=1101–1108| doi=10.1051/kmae:2001039| doi-access=free}}</ref> They are mostly [[Anadromous#Classification|anadromous]] or semianadromous with the exception of strictly freshwater landlocked species.<ref name=Greek/> ''Alosa'' species are generally migratory and schooling fish.<ref name=Greek/> Males usually mature about a year before females; they spawn in the late spring to summer.<ref name="travis">{{cite thesis |type=M.Sc.| last=Ingram| first=Travis R.| title=Age, growth and fecundity of Alabama shad (Alosa alabamae) in the Apalachicola River, Florida| year=2007| publisher=Clemson University| url=http://tigerprints.clemson.edu/all_theses/72/| access-date=31 January 2014}}</ref><ref name="Bianco">{{cite journal| author=Bianco, P. G.| year=2002| title=The Status of the Twaite Shad, Alosa agone, in Italy and the Western Balkans| journal=Marine Ecology| volume=23, Supplement 1| pages=51–64| url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230242645| doi=10.1111/j.1439-0485.2002.tb00007.x| bibcode=2002MarEc..23S..51B}}</ref> Most individuals die shortly after spawning.<ref name=travis/><ref name=Bianco/> ''Alosa'' species seemingly can change readily to adapt to their environments, as species are found in a wide range of temperatures and waters.<ref name="Bianco"/>
Shads are thought to be unique among the fishes in having evolved an ability to detect [[ultrasound]] (at frequencies above 20&nbsp;kHz, which is the limit of human hearing).<ref name="Mann">{{cite journal |last1=Mann |first1=David A. |last2=Higgs |first2=Dennis M. |last3=Tavolga |first3=William N. |last4=Souza |first4=Marcy J. |last5=Popper |first5=Arthur N. |title=Ultrasound detection by clupeiform fishes |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |date=2001 |volume=109 |issue=6 |pages=3048–3054 |doi=10.1121/1.1368406 |pmid=11425147 |bibcode=2001ASAJ..109.3048M }}</ref> This was first discovered by fisheries biologists studying a type of shad known as [[blueback herring]], and was later verified in laboratory studies of hearing in [[American shad]]. This ability is thought to help them avoid [[dolphins]] that find prey using echolocation. ''Alosa'' species are generally [[pelagic]].<ref name="Greek">{{cite journal |author1=D. C. Bobori |author2=E. T. Koutrakis |author3=P. S. Economidis| year=2001| title=Shad Species In Greek Waters – An Historical Overview And Present Status| journal=Bulletin Français de la Pêche et de la Pisciculture| volume=362–363|issue=362–363 | pages=1101–1108| doi=10.1051/kmae:2001039| doi-access=free}}</ref> They are mostly [[Anadromous#Classification|anadromous]] or semianadromous with the exception of strictly freshwater landlocked species.<ref name=Greek/> ''Alosa'' species are generally migratory and schooling fish.<ref name=Greek/> Males usually mature about a year before females; they spawn in the late spring to summer.<ref name="travis">{{cite thesis |type=M.Sc.| last=Ingram| first=Travis R.| title=Age, growth and fecundity of Alabama shad (''Alosa alabamae'') in the Apalachicola River, Florida| year=2007| publisher=Clemson University| url=http://tigerprints.clemson.edu/all_theses/72/| access-date=31 January 2014}}</ref><ref name="Bianco">{{cite journal| author=Bianco, P. G.| year=2002| title=The Status of the Twaite Shad, ''Alosa agone'', in Italy and the Western Balkans| journal=Marine Ecology| volume=23 |issue=Supplement 1| pages=51–64| url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230242645| doi=10.1111/j.1439-0485.2002.tb00007.x| bibcode=2002MarEc..23S..51B}}</ref> Most individuals die shortly after spawning.<ref name=travis/><ref name=Bianco/> ''Alosa'' species seemingly can change readily to adapt to their environments, as species are found in a wide range of temperatures and waters.<ref name="Bianco"/>


==Lifecycle and reproduction==
==Lifecycle and reproduction==
As ''Alosa'' species are generally anadromous, they face various obstacles to survival.<ref name="Lochet">Lochet, A., S. Boutry, and E. Rochard. ''Estuarine Phase during Seaward Migration for Allis Shad Alosa Alosa and Twaite Shad Alosa Fallax Future Spawners.'' Ecology of Freshwater Fish 18 (2009): 323-35.</ref> They may have to pass through numerous barriers and waters to get to either their spawning grounds or normal habitats (the sea in most cases).<ref name=Lochet/> Estuaries are a major factor in numerous ''Alosa'' species' migrations.<ref name=Lochet/> Estuaries can be highly variable and complex environments contributing to fluctuating biological interactions,<ref name=Lochet/> with shifts in osmolarity, food sources, predators, etc.<ref name=Lochet/> Since many adult ''Alosa'' species die after spawning, only the young generally migrate to the sea from the spawning grounds.<ref name=Lochet/> Duration of migration varies among fish, but can greatly affect survival.<ref name=Lochet/>
As ''Alosa'' species are generally anadromous, they face various obstacles to survival.<ref name="Lochet">{{cite journal |last1=Lochet |first1=A. |last2=Boutry |first2=S. |last3=Rochard |first3=E. |title=Estuarine phase during seaward migration for allis shad ''Alosa alosa'' and twaite shad ''Alosa fallax'' future spawners |journal=Ecology of Freshwater Fish |date=2009 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=323–335 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0633.2008.00350.x |bibcode=2009EcoFF..18..323L }}</ref> They may have to pass through numerous barriers and waters to get to either their spawning grounds or normal habitats (the sea in most cases).<ref name=Lochet/> [[Estuaries]] are a major factor in numerous ''Alosa'' species' migrations.<ref name=Lochet/> Estuaries can be highly variable and complex environments contributing to fluctuating biological interactions,<ref name=Lochet/> with shifts in [[osmolarity]], food sources, predators, etc.<ref name=Lochet/> Since many adult ''Alosa'' species die after spawning, only the young generally migrate to the sea from the spawning grounds.<ref name=Lochet/> Duration of migration varies among fish, but can greatly affect survival.<ref name=Lochet/>


Reproduction varies by species.<ref name="Coad">{{cite journal| author=Coad, Brian| title=Shad in Iranian Waters| year=1997| journal=[[Shad Journal]]| volume=2| number=4| pages=4–7| url=http://www.cbr.washington.edu/shadfoundation/shad/JOURNAL2/vol2n4.pdf| issn=1094-4990| access-date=31 January 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910020735/http://www.cbr.washington.edu/shadfoundation/shad/JOURNAL2/vol2n4.pdf| archive-date=2013-09-10| url-status=dead}}</ref> Studies done on ''Alosa'' in Iranian waters have shown that spawning varies in time, place, and temperature of the waters they inhabit.<ref name=Coad/> Fecundity may also vary.<ref name=Coad/> Species are known to spawn as early as April or as late as August.<ref name=Coad/> Temperatures range from about 11 to 27&nbsp;°C.<ref name=Coad/>  Fecundity can range from 20,000 to 312,000 eggs.<ref name=Coad/> Eggs are pelagic.<ref name=Coad/> Geography and temperature are important environmental factors in egg and young-of-year development.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Alexander|first1=Samantha B.|last2=Schlick|first2=CJ Carroll|last3=de Mutsert|first3=Kim|date=October 2020|title=Growth models and growing degree-days: assessment of young-of-year Alewife and Blueback Herring in Potomac River tributaries|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10641-020-01012-4|journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes|language=en|volume=103|issue=10|pages=1179–1195|doi=10.1007/s10641-020-01012-4|bibcode=2020EnvBF.103.1179A |s2cid=220948739|issn=0378-1909|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
Reproduction varies by species.<ref name="Coad">{{cite journal| author=Coad, Brian| title=Shad in Iranian Waters| year=1997| journal=[[Shad Journal]]| volume=2| number=4| pages=4–7| url=http://www.cbr.washington.edu/shadfoundation/shad/JOURNAL2/vol2n4.pdf| issn=1094-4990| access-date=31 January 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910020735/http://www.cbr.washington.edu/shadfoundation/shad/JOURNAL2/vol2n4.pdf| archive-date=2013-09-10| url-status=dead}}</ref> Studies done on ''Alosa'' in [[Iran]]ian waters have shown that spawning varies in time, place, and temperature of the waters they inhabit.<ref name=Coad/> Species are known to spawn as early as April or as late as August.<ref name=Coad/> Temperatures range from about 11 to 27&nbsp;°C.<ref name=Coad/>  [[Fecundity]] can range from 20,000 to 312,000 eggs.<ref name=Coad/> Eggs are pelagic.<ref name=Coad/> Geography and temperature are important environmental factors in egg and young-of-year development.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Alexander|first1=Samantha B.|last2=Schlick|first2=CJ Carroll|last3=de Mutsert|first3=Kim|date=October 2020|title=Growth models and growing degree-days: assessment of young-of-year Alewife and Blueback Herring in Potomac River tributaries|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10641-020-01012-4|journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes|language=en|volume=103|issue=10|pages=1179–1195|doi=10.1007/s10641-020-01012-4|bibcode=2020EnvBF.103.1179A |s2cid=220948739|issn=0378-1909|url-access=subscription}}</ref>


The lifespan of ''Alosa'' species can be up to 10 years, but this is generally uncommon, as many die after spawning.<ref name=Coad/>
The lifespan of ''Alosa'' species can be up to 10 years, but this is generally uncommon, as many die after spawning.<ref name=Coad/>
Line 57: Line 40:
{{common fish}}
{{common fish}}


The systematics and distribution of ''Alosa'' shads are complex. The genus inhabits a wide range of [[habitat]]s, and many [[taxa]] are [[Fish migration|migratory]]. A few forms are landlocked, including one from [[Killarney]] in [[Ireland]], two from lakes in northern Italy, and two in [[Greece]].  Several species are native to the Black and Caspian Seas. ''Alosa'' species of the Caspian are systemically characterized by the number of [[gill raker|rakers on the first gill arch]].<ref name="Malkin">Malkin, E. M., and S. B. Andrianova. ''Biology and Traits of the Formation of Stock of Big-eyed Shad Alosa Saposchnikowii.'' Journal of Ichthyology 48.6 (2008): 443-51.</ref> They are classified as being "multirakered", "medium-rakered", or "oligorakered".<ref name=Malkin/> The multirakered are primarily plankton feeders, the oligorakered have large rakers and are predators, and the medium-rakered generally consume a mixed diet.<ref name=Malkin/> Most current species of the genus ''Alosa'' in North America can be found in Florida, whereas the distribution of most of them is broader.<ref name=McBride>Richard S. McBride (2000). ''Florida's Shad and River Herrings (Alosaspecies): A Review of Population and Fishery Characteristics''. Florida MAR8INE Research Institute Technical Reports: Technical Report TR-5, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. St. Petersburg, Florida.</ref>
The systematics and distribution of ''Alosa'' shads are complex. The genus inhabits a wide range of [[habitat]]s, and many [[taxa]] are [[Fish migration|migratory]]. A few forms are landlocked, including one from [[Killarney]] in [[Ireland]], two from lakes in northern Italy, and two in [[Greece]].  Several species are native to the Black and [[Caspian Sea]]s. ''Alosa'' species of the Caspian are systemically characterized by the number of [[gill raker|rakers on the first gill arch]].<ref name="Malkin">{{cite journal |last1=Malkin |first1=E. M. |last2=Andrianova |first2=S. B. |title=Biology and traits of the formation of stock of big-eyed shad ''Alosa saposchnikowii'' |journal=Journal of Ichthyology |date=2008 |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=443–451 |doi=10.1134/S0032945208060040 |bibcode=2008JIch...48..443M }}</ref> They are classified as being "multirakered", "medium-rakered", or "oligorakered".<ref name=Malkin/> The multirakered are primarily plankton feeders, the oligorakered have large rakers and are predators, and the medium-rakered generally consume a mixed diet.<ref name=Malkin/> Most current species of the genus ''Alosa'' in North America can be found in Florida, whereas the distribution of most of them is broader.<ref name=McBride>Richard S. McBride (2000). ''Florida's Shad and River Herrings (Alosaspecies): A Review of Population and Fishery Characteristics''. Florida MAR8INE Research Institute Technical Reports: Technical Report TR-5, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. St. Petersburg, Florida.</ref>


[[Morphology (biology)|Morphology]] is notoriously liable to [[adaptation (biology)|adapt]] to changing food availability in these fish. Several taxa seem to have [[evolution|evolve]]d quite recently, making molecular analyses difficult. In addition, [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] may be a factor in shad [[phylogeny]].<ref name="Faria">Faria, R.; Weiss, S.; and Alexandrino, P. (2006). ''A molecular phylogenetic perspective on the evolutionary history of ''Alosa'' spp. (Clupeidae).'' ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution'' '''40'''(1): 298–304. {{doi|10.1016/j.ympev.2006.02.008}} (HTML abstract).</ref> Nonetheless, some trends are emerging. The North American species except the [[American shad]] ''A. sapidissima'' can probably be separated in a [[subgenus]] ''Pomolobus''. Conversely, the proposed genus (or subgenus) ''Caspialosa'' for the [[Caspian Sea]] forms is rejected due to [[paraphyly]].<ref name=Faria/>
[[Morphology (biology)|Morphology]] is notoriously liable to [[adaptation (biology)|adapt]] to changing food availability in these fish. Several taxa seem to have [[evolution|evolve]]d quite recently, making molecular analyses difficult. In addition, [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] may be a factor in shad [[phylogeny]].<ref name="Faria">{{cite journal |last1=Faria |first1=R. |last2=Weiss |first2=S. |last3=Alexandrino |first3=P. |title=A molecular phylogenetic perspective on the evolutionary history of ''Alosa'' spp. (Clupeidae) |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=2006 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=298–304 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.02.008 |bibcode=2006MolPE..40..298F }}</ref> Nonetheless, some trends are emerging. The North American species except the [[American shad]] ''A. sapidissima'' can probably be separated in a [[subgenus]] ''Pomolobus''. Conversely, the proposed genus (or subgenus) ''Caspialosa'' for the [[Caspian Sea]] forms is rejected due to [[paraphyly]].<ref name=Faria/>


===Species by geographical origin===
===Species by geographical origin===
Line 94: Line 77:
* ''[[Alosa vistonica]]'' <small>[[Panos Stavros Economidis|Economidis]] and [[Apostolos I. Sinis|Sinis]], 1986</small> (Thracian shad)
* ''[[Alosa vistonica]]'' <small>[[Panos Stavros Economidis|Economidis]] and [[Apostolos I. Sinis|Sinis]], 1986</small> (Thracian shad)
* ''[[Alosa volgensis]]'' <small>([[Lev Berg|L. S. Berg]], 1913)</small> (Volga shad)
* ''[[Alosa volgensis]]'' <small>([[Lev Berg|L. S. Berg]], 1913)</small> (Volga shad)
=== Fossil species ===
[[File:Clupeidae - Alosa elongata.JPG|thumb|240px|right|Fossil of ''[[Alosa elongata]]'']]The following fossil ''Alosa'' species are known. An especially high diversity of fossil ''Alosa'' species is known from a mid-late [[Miocene]]-aged deposit in [[Pınarhisar District]], Turkey:<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Bagils |first=R. Zaragüeta |date=2001 |title=LES ALOSA FOSSILES ET LA NOTION DE GENRE EN SYSTÉMATIQUE PHYLOGÉNÉTIQUE. |url=https://www.kmae-journal.org/articles/kmae/abs/2001/03/kmae2001362-36322/kmae2001362-36322.html |journal=Bulletin Français de la Pêche et de la Pisciculture |language=fr |issue=362–363 |pages=1059–1066 |doi=10.1051/kmae:2001036 |issn=0767-2861}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Rückert-Ülkümen |first=Neriman |date=1994 |title=Zur systematischen Stellung einiger Clupeidae aus Thrakien, Türkei |url=https://biostor.org/reference/206487 |journal=Mitteilungen der Bayerischen Staatssammlung für Paläontologie und historische Geologie |volume=34 |pages=169–186}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=PBDB Taxon |url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=35439 |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=paleobiodb.org}}</ref>
* †''[[Alosa aralensis]]'' <small>Chisara, 1977</small> - [[Oligocene]] of Russia
* †''[[Alosa avcilarensis]]'' <small>Rückert-Ülkümen, 1994</small> - Miocene of Turkey
* †''[[Alosa baykali]]'' <small>Rückert-Ulkümen, 1965</small> - Miocene of Turkey
* †''[[Alosa elongata|Alosa]]'' ''[[Alosa elongata|elongata]]'' <small>[[Louis Agassiz|Agassiz]], 1843</small>  - [[Late Miocene]] of Italy, Greece and [[Algeria]] (=''A. crassa'' <small>[[Henri Émile Sauvage|Sauvage]], 1873</small>, ''A. numidica'' <small>Sauvage, 1873</small>, ''A. renoui'' <small>Sauvage, 1873</small>)
* †''[[Alosa fortipinnata]]'' <small>Rückert-Ulkümen, 1965</small> - Miocene of Turkey
* †?''[[Alosa ganolytoides]]'' <small>David, 1946</small> - mid-late [[Eocene]] of California [scale] (taxonomy uncertain)
* †''[[Alosa genuina]]'' <small>Dani</small><small>ltshenko, 1960</small> - Miocene of [[North Caucasus]], Russia
* †''[[Alosa latissima]]'' <small>[[Johann Jakob Heckel|Heckel]], 1853</small> - Oligocene of Italy, potentially Miocene of Turkey
* †''[[Alosa paulicrenata]]'' <small>Bratishko ''et al''. 2015</small> - [[Middle Miocene]] of Kazakhstan [<nowiki/>[[otolith]]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bratishko |first1=Andriy |last2=Schwarzhans |first2=Werner |last3=Reichenbacher |first3=Bettina |last4=Vernyhorova |first4=Yuliia |last5=Ćorić |first5=Stjepan |date=2015-12-01 |title=Fish otoliths from the Konkian (Miocene, early Serravallian) of Mangyshlak (Kazakhstan): testimony to an early endemic evolution in the Eastern Paratethys |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12542-015-0274-4 |journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift |language=en |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=839–889 |doi=10.1007/s12542-015-0274-4 |bibcode=2015PalZ...89..839B |issn=1867-6812}}</ref>
* †''[[Alosa pinarhisarensis]]'' <small>Rückert-Ulkümen, 1965</small> - Miocene of Turkey
* †''[[Alosa sagorensis]]'' <small>([[Franz Steindachner|Steindachner]], 1863)</small> - Oligocene of Hungary & potentially Poland,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Clupeid scales from the Menilite Beds (Palaeogene) of the Carpathians - Acta Palaeontologica Polonica |url=https://www.app.pan.pl/article/item/app23-387.html |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=www.app.pan.pl}}</ref> Miocene of Turkey
* †''[[Alosa sculptata]]'' <small>(Weiler, 1920)</small> - Miocene of Germany
* †''[[Alosa spinosa]]'' <small>(Rückert-Ulkümen, 1965)</small> - Miocene of Turkey
* †''[[Alosa weileri]]'' <small>Rückert-Ulkümen, 1960</small> - Miocene of Turkey
The former fossil species ''A. ovalis'' <small>Rückert-Ulkümen, 1965</small> is now placed in ''[[Clupeonella]]'' as ''[[Clupeonella ovalis]]''.<ref name=":1" />


==Recreational fishing==
==Recreational fishing==
{{Main|Shad fishing}}
{{Excerpt|Shad fishing}}


==Commercial fishing==
==Commercial fishing==
Line 109: Line 112:
! 2003
! 2003
! 2004
! 2004
! 2005
! 2005
! 2008
! 2008
! 2010
! 2010
Line 158: Line 161:
== External links ==
== External links ==
{{Wikispecies|Alosa}}
{{Wikispecies|Alosa}}
* [http://yorkstaters.blogspot.com/2006/05/taste-of-region-8-shad.html Tastes of the Region: Shad] An article celebrating shad's cultural importance to the Hudson Valley
* [https://yorkstaters.blogspot.com/2006/05/taste-of-region-8-shad.html Tastes of the Region: Shad] An article celebrating shad's cultural importance to the Hudson Valley
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071128133734/http://www.newhopepennsylvania.com/facesandplaces/shadfest2007-04-07.htm Lambertville NJ Shad Festival]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071128133734/http://www.newhopepennsylvania.com/facesandplaces/shadfest2007-04-07.htm Lambertville NJ Shad Festival]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120423033750/http://www.sciencecheerleader.com/2008/04/shad_philadelphias_fish_a_case_study/ Science Cheerleader - Shad: Our Pollution vs. Their Resolution.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120423033750/http://www.sciencecheerleader.com/2008/04/shad_philadelphias_fish_a_case_study/ Science Cheerleader - Shad: Our Pollution vs. Their Resolution.]

Latest revision as of 01:25, 18 November 2025

Template:Short description Template:Italic title Template:Automatic taxobox

Alosa[1] is a genus of fish, the river herrings, in the family Alosidae. Along with other genera in the subfamily Alosinae, they are generally known as shads.[2][3] They are distinct from other herrings by having a deeper body and spawning in rivers. Several species can be found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Also, several taxa occur in the brackish-water Caspian Sea and the Black Sea basin.[4] Many are found in fresh water during spawning and some are only found in landlocked fresh water.

Appearance

Alosa species are generally dark on the back and top of the head, with blue, violet, or greenish tints.[4] Some can be identified as having a grey or green back.[4] Spots are commonly found behind the head, and the fins may vary from species to species or individually.[4] Most species of Alosa weigh Script error: No such module "convert". or less, with A. pontica and A. fallax weighing up to 2 kg, and A. alosa can exceed 3–4 kg.[4]

Biology

Shads are thought to be unique among the fishes in having evolved an ability to detect ultrasound (at frequencies above 20 kHz, which is the limit of human hearing).[5] This was first discovered by fisheries biologists studying a type of shad known as blueback herring, and was later verified in laboratory studies of hearing in American shad. This ability is thought to help them avoid dolphins that find prey using echolocation. Alosa species are generally pelagic.[6] They are mostly anadromous or semianadromous with the exception of strictly freshwater landlocked species.[6] Alosa species are generally migratory and schooling fish.[6] Males usually mature about a year before females; they spawn in the late spring to summer.[7][8] Most individuals die shortly after spawning.[7][8] Alosa species seemingly can change readily to adapt to their environments, as species are found in a wide range of temperatures and waters.[8]

Lifecycle and reproduction

As Alosa species are generally anadromous, they face various obstacles to survival.[9] They may have to pass through numerous barriers and waters to get to either their spawning grounds or normal habitats (the sea in most cases).[9] Estuaries are a major factor in numerous Alosa species' migrations.[9] Estuaries can be highly variable and complex environments contributing to fluctuating biological interactions,[9] with shifts in osmolarity, food sources, predators, etc.[9] Since many adult Alosa species die after spawning, only the young generally migrate to the sea from the spawning grounds.[9] Duration of migration varies among fish, but can greatly affect survival.[9]

Reproduction varies by species.[4] Studies done on Alosa in Iranian waters have shown that spawning varies in time, place, and temperature of the waters they inhabit.[4] Species are known to spawn as early as April or as late as August.[4] Temperatures range from about 11 to 27 °C.[4] Fecundity can range from 20,000 to 312,000 eggs.[4] Eggs are pelagic.[4] Geography and temperature are important environmental factors in egg and young-of-year development.[10]

The lifespan of Alosa species can be up to 10 years, but this is generally uncommon, as many die after spawning.[4]

Systematics

Template:Common fish

The systematics and distribution of Alosa shads are complex. The genus inhabits a wide range of habitats, and many taxa are migratory. A few forms are landlocked, including one from Killarney in Ireland, two from lakes in northern Italy, and two in Greece. Several species are native to the Black and Caspian Seas. Alosa species of the Caspian are systemically characterized by the number of rakers on the first gill arch.[11] They are classified as being "multirakered", "medium-rakered", or "oligorakered".[11] The multirakered are primarily plankton feeders, the oligorakered have large rakers and are predators, and the medium-rakered generally consume a mixed diet.[11] Most current species of the genus Alosa in North America can be found in Florida, whereas the distribution of most of them is broader.[12]

Morphology is notoriously liable to adapt to changing food availability in these fish. Several taxa seem to have evolved quite recently, making molecular analyses difficult. In addition, hybridization may be a factor in shad phylogeny.[13] Nonetheless, some trends are emerging. The North American species except the American shad A. sapidissima can probably be separated in a subgenus Pomolobus. Conversely, the proposed genus (or subgenus) Caspialosa for the Caspian Sea forms is rejected due to paraphyly.[13]

Species by geographical origin

North America

Western Europe and the Mediterranean

Caspian Sea, Black Sea, the Balkans

Fossil species

File:Clupeidae - Alosa elongata.JPG
Fossil of Alosa elongata

The following fossil Alosa species are known. An especially high diversity of fossil Alosa species is known from a mid-late Miocene-aged deposit in Pınarhisar District, Turkey:[14][15][16]

The former fossil species A. ovalis Rückert-Ulkümen, 1965 is now placed in Clupeonella as Clupeonella ovalis.[15]

Recreational fishing

Template:Excerpt

Commercial fishing

Commercial capture production of wild shad in tonnes.[19][20]
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2008 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
788,770 860,346 665,284 589,692 524,800 569,160 605,548 588,978 645,977 611,371 604,842 628,622 636,678

Management

Shad populations have been in decline for years due to spawning areas blocked by dams, habitat destruction, pollution, and overfishing. Management of shad has called for more conservative regulations, and policies to help the species have lower fishing mortality.[21]

Political significance

Shad serve a peculiar symbolic role in Virginia state politics. On the year of every gubernatorial election, would-be candidates, lobbyists, campaign workers, and reporters gather in the town of Wakefield, Virginia, for shad planking. American shad served as the focal point of John McPhee's book The Founding Fish.[22]

Culinary use

File:Shad roe.jpg
Shad roe

The roe, or more properly the entire engorged uterus of the American shad—filled with ripening eggs, sautéed in clarified butter and garnished with parsley and a slice of lemon—is considered a great delicacy, and commands high prices when available.[23]

See also

References

<templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />

  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "template wrapper".
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "template wrapper".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ a b Template:Cite thesis
  8. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ a b c d e f g Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Richard S. McBride (2000). Florida's Shad and River Herrings (Alosaspecies): A Review of Population and Fishery Characteristics. Florida MAR8INE Research Institute Technical Reports: Technical Report TR-5, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. St. Petersburg, Florida.
  13. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ FAO (2006) Yearbooks of Fishery Statistics Summary Tables
  20. ↑ FAO (2014) Yearbook - Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics, no. 24.
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ "American Shad - Fish Reference Library - RedOrbit." RedOrbit - Science, Space, Technology, Health News and Information. 3 Apr. 2007. Web. 27 Nov. 2011. <http://www.redorbit.com/education/reference_library/science_1/fish/2579052/american_shad/index.html>.
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

  • Script error: No such module "Cite taxon".

External links

Template:Sister project

Template:Forage fish Script error: No such module "Navbox". Template:Taxonbar Template:Authority control

Retrieved from "http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=Alosa&oldid=5585859"