War of the First Coalition: Difference between revisions
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| place = France, Central Europe, Italy, the [[Low Countries]], Spain, West Indies | | place = France, Central Europe, Italy, the [[Low Countries]], Spain, West Indies | ||
| territory = * French annexation of the [[Austrian Netherlands]], the [[Left Bank of the Rhine]], [[Savoy]], and other smaller territories | | territory = * French annexation of the [[Austrian Netherlands]], the [[Left Bank of the Rhine]], [[Savoy]], and other smaller territories | ||
* [[Santo Domingo]] to France | * [[Captaincy General of Santo Domingo|Santo Domingo]] to France | ||
* French [[sister republic]]s established | * French [[sister republic]]s established | ||
* End of millennial [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] independence | * End of millennial [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] independence | ||
| result = French victory; [[Treaty of The Hague (1795)|Treaty of The Hague]], [[Treaty of Paris (1796)|Treaty of Paris]], [[Peace of Basel|Peaces of Basel]], [[Treaty of Tolentino]], [[Treaty of Campo Formio]] | | result = French victory; [[Treaty of The Hague (1795)|Treaty of The Hague]], [[Treaty of Paris (1796)|Treaty of Paris]], [[Peace of Basel|Peaces of Basel]], [[Treaty of Tolentino]], [[Treaty of Campo Formio]] | ||
| combatant1 = '''First Coalition''' | | combatant1 = '''First Coalition'''<br/> | ||
{{flag|Holy Roman Empire}}{{Efn|Nominally the [[Holy Roman Empire]], under [[House of Habsburg|Austrian rule]], also encompassed many other Italian states, such as the [[File:Ducado de Modena (antes de 1830).svg|20px|border]] [[Duchy of Modena]], [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]], and the [[File:Flag of Massa and Carrara.png|20px|border]] [[Duchy of Massa]]. Left the war after signing the [[Treaty of Campo Formio]] with France.}} | |||
* [[File:Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg|20px|border]] [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]] (until 1797) | |||
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Prussia|1750}} (until 1795){{Efn|name="peaceofbasel"|Left the war after signing the [[Peace of Basel]] with France.}} | |||
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Sardinia|1785}} [[Kingdom of Sardinia|Piedmont-Sardinia]] (until 1796){{Efn|Left the war after signing the [[Treaty of Paris (1796)|Treaty of Paris]] with France.}} | |||
* {{flagicon|Hanover|1692}} [[Electorate of Hanover|Hanover]] | |||
* {{Flagdeco|Electorate of Saxony}} [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxony]] | |||
* {{Flagcountry|Electorate of Bavaria}} | |||
* {{flagicon|Hesse}} [[Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel|Hesse-Kassel]] | |||
{{flagcountry|Kingdom of Great Britain}}{{Efn|Including the [[Army of Condé]]. Britain was in personal union with the Electorate of Hanover which was also part of the Holy Roman Empire. Its troops operated under British command.}}<br/>{{flagicon|Dutch Republic}} [[Dutch Republic]] (until 1795){{Efn|Left the war after signing the [[Treaty of The Hague (1795)]] with France.}}<br/>{{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} [[Armée des Émigrés|French Royalists]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Wars of the Vendee |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Wars-of-the-Vendee |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119203759/https://www.britannica.com/event/Wars-of-the-Vendee |archive-date=19 January 2024}}</ref> | |||
* [[File:Drapeau Armée Catholique et Royale de Vendée3.svg|border|20px]] [[Catholic and Royal Army|Vendeans]] | |||
}} | {{flagicon|ESP|1785}} [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] ([[War of the Pyrenees|until 1795]]){{Efn|name="peaceofbasel"}}<br/>{{flagcountry|Kingdom of Portugal|1750}}<br/>{{flagcountry|Kingdom of Naples|1738}} (until 1796)<br>{{flagdeco|Papal States|old}} [[Papal States]] (until 1797) | ||
| combatant2 = {{ubl | | combatant2 = {{ubl | ||
| {{flagicon|Kingdom of the French}} [[Kingdom of France (1791–92)|Kingdom of France]] (until 1792) | | {{flagicon|Kingdom of the French}} [[Kingdom of France (1791–92)|Kingdom of France]] (until 1792) | ||
| {{flagicon|French First Republic}} [[French First Republic|French Republic]] (from 1792) | | {{flagicon|French First Republic}} [[French First Republic|French Republic]] (from 1792) | ||
}} | }} | ||
'''French satellites''' | '''French satellites'''{{Efn|Including the [[Polish Legions (Napoleonic period)|Polish Legions]] formed in French-allied Italy in 1797, following the abolition of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] after the [[Third Partition of Poland|Third Partition]] in 1795.}}{{plainlist}} | ||
* {{flag|Batavian Republic}} (from 1795) | * {{flag|Batavian Republic}} (from 1795){{Efn|The [[French Revolutionary Army]] and [[Batavian Revolution|Dutch revolutionaries]] overthrew the Dutch Republic and established the Batavian Republic as a puppet state in its place.}} | ||
* [[Sister republic]]s | * [[Sister republic]]s{{Efn|Various conquered Italian states, including the [[Cisalpine Republic]] from 1797}} | ||
'''French naval allies''' | '''French naval allies''' | ||
* {{flagicon|ESP|1785}} [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] (from 1796, naval only) | * {{flagicon|ESP|1785}} [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] (from 1796, naval only){{Efn|Re-entered the war against Britain as an ally of France after signing the [[Second Treaty of San Ildefonso]].}} | ||
{{endplainlist}} | {{endplainlist}} | ||
| commander1 = {{plainlist}} | | commander1 = {{plainlist}} | ||
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| commander2 = {{plainlist}} | | commander2 = {{plainlist}} | ||
* {{flagicon image|Flag of France (1790–1794).svg|23px}} [[Louis XVI]]{{Executed|Execution of Louis XVI}} | * {{flagicon image|Flag of France (1790–1794).svg|23px}} [[Louis XVI]]{{Executed|Execution of Louis XVI}} | ||
* {{flagicon|First French Republic}} [[Jacques Pierre Brissot]] {{Executed}} | * {{flagicon|First French Republic}} [[Jacques Pierre Brissot]]{{Executed}} | ||
* {{flagicon|First French Republic}} [[Maximilien Robespierre]] {{Executed|Fall of Maximilien Robespierre}} | * {{flagicon|First French Republic}} [[Maximilien Robespierre]]{{Executed|Fall of Maximilien Robespierre}} | ||
* {{flagicon|First French Republic}} [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] | * {{flagicon|First French Republic}} [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] | ||
* {{flagicon|First French Republic}} [[Paul Barras]]<br/>(from 1795) | * {{flagicon|First French Republic}} [[Paul Barras]]<br/>(from 1795) | ||
{{endplainlist}} | {{endplainlist}} | ||
| strength1 = | | strength1 = '''1793:'''<br/>{{flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} 800,000+<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Peter |date=2016 |title=Heart of Europe: A History of the Holy Roman Empire |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Belknap Press |page=462 |quote=This trend was compounded by the underlying shift in the Empire’s internal military balance as the combined strength of the Austrian and Prussian armies expanded from 185,000 men in 1740 to 692,700 fifty years later, compared to the combined total of all other forces that dropped by around 9,000 men to 106,000 by 1790.}}</ref><br/>[[File:Drapeau Armée Catholique et Royale de Vendée3.svg|border|20px]] 65,000{{Sfn |Clodfelter |2017 |p=104}}<br/>{{flagicon|Dutch Republic}} 60,000<ref>Bas, François de (1887). Prins Frederik Der Nederlanden en Zijn Tijd, vol. 1 (in Dutch). H. A. M. Roelants. Retrieved 31 March 2013. Page 638.</ref><br/>{{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} 25,000<br/>{{flagicon|Kingdom of Great Britain}} 20,000<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rodger |first=N. A. M. |date=2007 |title=Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815 |location=London |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-102690-9 |page=426}} Total number of British soldiers in the Low Countries in late 1793 was 20,000; other British soldiers were not on the continent at this time.</ref> | ||
| strength2 = {{flagicon|First French Republic}} '''1794:''' | | strength2 = {{flagicon|First French Republic}} '''1794:''' | ||
*1,169,000<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lynn |first=John A. |title=The Military Revolution Debate | *1,169,000<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lynn |first=John A. |title=The Military Revolution Debate |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-49626-4 |editor-last=Rogers |editor-first=Clifford J. |edition=2 |volume=18 |pages=117–148 |language=en |chapter=Recalculating French Army Growth During the Grand Siede, 1610–1715 |doi=10.4324/9780429496264-6}} Only counting frontline army troops, not naval personnel, militiamen, or reserves; the National Guard alone was supposed to provide a reserve of 1,200,000 men in 1789.</ref> | ||
| casualties1 = | | casualties1 = [[File:Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg|20px|border]] '''Austria'''<br/>94,000 soldiers killed in combat<ref name="victimario historico">{{Cite web |title=Victimario Histórico Militar Capítulo IV Guerras de la Revolución Francesa (1789 a 1815) |url=http://remilitari.com/guias/victimario5.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150430181943/http://remilitari.com/guias/victimario5.htm |archive-date=2015-04-30 |access-date=2020-04-02}}</ref><br/>~188,000 died of disease<br/>220,000 captured<br/>100,000 wounded{{Sfn |Clodfelter |2017 |p=100}} | ||
| casualties2 = {{flagicon|First French Republic}} 100,000 soldiers killed in combat<br/>~ | | casualties2 = {{flagicon|First French Republic}} '''French Republic'''<br/>100,000 soldiers killed in combat<br/>~200,000 died of disease<br/>150,000 captured{{Sfn |Clodfelter |2017 |p=100}}<ref name="victimario historico"/> | ||
| notes = | | notes = | ||
}} | }} | ||
| Line 141: | Line 141: | ||
| mark-description9 = [[Battle of Ligny]] | | mark-description9 = [[Battle of Ligny]] | ||
}} | }} | ||
The '''War of the First Coalition''' ({{langx|fr|Guerre de la première coalition}}) was a set of wars that several European powers fought between 1792 and 1797, initially against the [[Constitutional Cabinet of Louis XVI|constitutional Kingdom of France]] and then the [[French First Republic|French Republic]] that succeeded it | The '''War of the First Coalition''' ({{langx|fr|Guerre de la première coalition}}) was a set of wars that several European powers fought between 1792 and 1797, against France.{{Efn|initially against the [[Constitutional Cabinet of Louis XVI|constitutional Kingdom of France]] and then the [[French First Republic|French Republic]] that succeeded it}}{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Battle of Valmy}} They were only loosely allied and fought without much apparent coordination or agreement; each power had its eye on a different part of France it wanted to appropriate after a French defeat, which never occurred.<ref name="Shus-7">{{Cite book |last=Shusterman |first=Noah |title=De Franse Revolutie |date=2015 |publisher=Veen Media |location=Amsterdam |lang=nl}}, a translation of {{Cite book |title=The French Revolution. Faith, Desire, and Politics |publisher=Routledge |location=London/New York |date=2014 |chapter=Chapter 7: The federalist revolts, the Vendée and the beginning of the Terror (summer–fall 1793) |pages=271–312}}</ref> | ||
Relations between the French revolutionaries and neighbouring monarchies had deteriorated following the [[Declaration of Pillnitz]] in August 1791. Eight months later, [[Louis XVI and the Legislative Assembly|following a vote of the revolutionary-led Legislative Assembly]], France declared war on [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]] on 20 April 1792; [[Prussia]], having allied with Austria in February, declared war on France in June 1792. In July 1792, an army under the [[Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick|Duke of Brunswick]] and composed mostly of Prussians joined the Austrian side and invaded France. The [[Battle of Verdun (1792)|capture of Verdun]] (2 September 1792) triggered the [[September massacres]] in Paris. France counterattacked with the [[Battle of Valmy|victory at Valmy]] (20 September) and two days later the [[National Convention]], which had replaced the [[Legislative Assembly (France)|Legislative Assembly]], proclaimed the French Republic. | Relations between the French revolutionaries and neighbouring monarchies had deteriorated following the [[Declaration of Pillnitz]] in August 1791. Eight months later, [[Louis XVI and the Legislative Assembly|following a vote of the revolutionary-led Legislative Assembly]], France declared war on [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]] on 20 April 1792; [[Prussia]], having allied with Austria in February, declared war on France in June 1792. In July 1792, an army under the [[Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick|Duke of Brunswick]] and composed mostly of Prussians joined the Austrian side and invaded France. The [[Battle of Verdun (1792)|capture of Verdun]] (2 September 1792) triggered the [[September massacres]] in Paris. France counterattacked with the [[Battle of Valmy|victory at Valmy]] (20 September) and two days later the [[National Convention]], which had replaced the [[Legislative Assembly (France)|Legislative Assembly]], proclaimed the French Republic. | ||
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As early as 1791, other monarchies in Europe were watching the developments in France with alarm, and considered intervening, either in support of [[Louis XVI]] or to take advantage of the chaos in France. The key figure, [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor]], brother of the French Queen [[Marie Antoinette]], had initially looked on the [[French Revolution|Revolution]] calmly. He became increasingly concerned as the Revolution grew more radical, although he still hoped to avoid war. | As early as 1791, other monarchies in Europe were watching the developments in France with alarm, and considered intervening, either in support of [[Louis XVI]] or to take advantage of the chaos in France. The key figure, [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor]], brother of the French Queen [[Marie Antoinette]], had initially looked on the [[French Revolution|Revolution]] calmly. He became increasingly concerned as the Revolution grew more radical, although he still hoped to avoid war. | ||
On 27 August 1791, Leopold and King [[Frederick William II of Prussia]], in consultation with ''[[émigré]]'' French nobles, issued the [[Declaration of Pillnitz]], which declared the concern of the monarchs of Europe for the well-being of Louis and his family, and threatened vague but severe consequences if anything should befall them. Although Leopold saw the Pillnitz Declaration as a way of taking action that would enable him to avoid actually doing anything about France, at least for the moment, Paris saw the Declaration as a serious threat and the revolutionary leaders denounced it.{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=The king and the nonjurors}} | On 27 August 1791, Leopold and King [[Frederick William II of Prussia]], in consultation with ''[[émigré]]'' French nobles, issued the [[Declaration of Pillnitz]], which declared the concern of the monarchs of Europe for the well-being of Louis and his family, and threatened vague but severe consequences if anything should befall them. Although Leopold saw the Pillnitz Declaration as a way of taking action that would enable him to avoid actually doing anything about France, at least for the moment, Paris saw the Declaration as a serious threat and the revolutionary leaders denounced it.{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=The king and the nonjurors}} | ||
In addition to the ideological differences between the French revolutionaries and the European | In addition to the ideological differences between the French revolutionaries and the European monarchies, disputes continued over the status of Imperial estates in [[Alsace]],{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=The king and the nonjurors}} and the French authorities became concerned about the agitation of ''émigré'' nobles abroad, especially in the [[Austrian Netherlands]] and in the minor states of Germany. In the end, France declared war on Austria first, with the Assembly voting for war on 20 April 1792, after the presentation of a long list of grievances by the newly appointed foreign minister [[Charles François Dumouriez]], who sought a war which might restore some popularity and authority to the King.{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=War declared against Austria}} | ||
==1792== | ==1792== | ||
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===Invasion of the Austrian Netherlands=== | ===Invasion of the Austrian Netherlands=== | ||
{{Further|Low Countries theatre of the War of the First Coalition#1792 campaign}} | {{Further|Low Countries theatre of the War of the First Coalition#1792 campaign}} | ||
Dumouriez prepared an invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, where he expected the local population to rise against Austrian rule. However, the revolution had thoroughly disorganized the French army, which had insufficient forces for the invasion. Its soldiers fled at the first sign of battle, deserting ''en masse'', in one case murdering General [[Théobald Dillon]].{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=War declared against Austria}} The French soldiers were insulted, hissed, even assaulted. The situation of the "Flanders Campaign" was alarming.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Howe |first=Patricia Chastain |title=Foreign Policy and the French Revolution |date=2008 | | Dumouriez prepared an invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, where he expected the local population to rise against Austrian rule. However, the revolution had thoroughly disorganized the French army, which had insufficient forces for the invasion. Its soldiers fled at the first sign of battle, deserting ''en masse'', in one case murdering General [[Théobald Dillon]].{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=War declared against Austria}} The French soldiers were insulted, hissed, even assaulted. The situation of the "Flanders Campaign" was alarming.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Howe |first=Patricia Chastain |title=Foreign Policy and the French Revolution |date=2008 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |isbn=978-1-349-37213-3 |location=New York |pages=171–186 |language=en |chapter=Endgame, March–December 1793 |doi=10.1057/9780230616882_11}}</ref> | ||
While the revolutionary government frantically raised fresh troops and reorganized its armies, an allied army under [[Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick]] assembled at [[Koblenz]] on the [[Rhine]]. The invasion commenced in July 1792. The Duke then issued a [[Brunswick Manifesto|declaration]] on 25 July 1792, which had been written by the brothers of Louis XVI, that declared his [Brunswick's] intent to restore the King of France to his full powers, and to treat any person or town who opposed him as rebels to be condemned to death by martial law.{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=War declared against Austria}} This motivated the revolutionary army and government to oppose the Prussian invaders by any means necessary,{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=War declared against Austria}} and led almost immediately to the overthrow of the King by a crowd which [[10 August (French Revolution)|stormed]] the [[Tuileries Palace]].{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Rising of the 10th of August}} | While the revolutionary government frantically raised fresh troops and reorganized its armies, an allied army under [[Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick]] assembled at [[Koblenz]] on the [[Rhine]]. The invasion commenced in July 1792. The Duke then issued a [[Brunswick Manifesto|declaration]] on 25 July 1792, which had been written by the brothers of Louis XVI, that declared his [Brunswick's] intent to restore the King of France to his full powers, and to treat any person or town who opposed him as rebels to be condemned to death by martial law.{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=War declared against Austria}} This motivated the revolutionary army and government to oppose the Prussian invaders by any means necessary,{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=War declared against Austria}} and led almost immediately to the overthrow of the King by a crowd which [[10 August (French Revolution)|stormed]] the [[Tuileries Palace]].{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Rising of the 10th of August}} | ||
===Prussian progress=== | ===Prussian progress=== | ||
[[File:Léon Cogniet - La Garde nationale de Paris.jpg|thumb|''[[The National Guard of Paris Departs for the Army]]'' by [[Léon Cogniet]]]] | [[File:Léon Cogniet - La Garde nationale de Paris.jpg|thumb|''[[The National Guard of Paris Departs for the Army]]'' by [[Léon Cogniet]]]] | ||
Brunswick's army, composed mostly of Prussian veterans, crossed into French territory on 19 August and easily took the fortresses of [[Longwy]] and [[Battle of Verdun (1792)|Verdun]].{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=The revolutionary Commune of Paris}} But at the [[Battle of Valmy]] on 20 September 1792 they came to a stalemate against Dumouriez and [[François Christophe Kellermann|Kellermann]] in which the highly professional French [[artillery]] distinguished itself. Although the battle was a tactical draw, it bought time for the revolutionaries and gave a great boost to French morale. Furthermore, the Prussians, facing a campaign longer and more costly than predicted, decided against the cost and risk of continued fighting and determined to retreat from France to preserve their army.{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Battle of Valmy}} | Brunswick's army, composed mostly of Prussian veterans, crossed into French territory on 19 August and easily took the fortresses of [[Longwy]] and [[Battle of Verdun (1792)|Verdun]].{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=The revolutionary Commune of Paris}} But at the [[Battle of Valmy]] on 20 September 1792 they came to a stalemate against Dumouriez and [[François Christophe Kellermann|Kellermann]] in which the highly professional French [[artillery]] distinguished itself. Although the battle was a tactical draw, it bought time for the revolutionaries and gave a great boost to French morale. Furthermore, the Prussians, facing a campaign longer and more costly than predicted, decided against the cost and risk of continued fighting and determined to retreat from France to preserve their army.{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Battle of Valmy}} | ||
===Fronts in Italy and Germany=== | ===Fronts in Italy and Germany=== | ||
Meanwhile, the French had been successful on several other fronts, occupying the [[Duchy of Savoy]] and the [[County of Nice]] until the Massif de l'Authion, while General [[Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine|Custine]] invaded Germany, capturing [[Speyer]], [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] and [[Mainz]] along the Rhine, and reaching as far as [[Frankfurt]]. Dumouriez went on the offensive in the Austrian Netherlands once again, winning a great victory over the Austrians at [[Battle of Jemappes|Jemappes]] on 6 November 1792, and occupying the entire country by the beginning of winter.{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Battle of Valmy}} | Meanwhile, the French had been successful on several other fronts, occupying the [[Duchy of Savoy]] and the [[County of Nice]] until the Massif de l'Authion, while General [[Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine|Custine]] invaded Germany, capturing [[Speyer]], [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] and [[Mainz]] along the Rhine, and reaching as far as [[Frankfurt]]. Dumouriez went on the offensive in the Austrian Netherlands once again, winning a great victory over the Austrians at [[Battle of Jemappes|Jemappes]] on 6 November 1792, and occupying the entire country by the beginning of winter.{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Battle of Valmy}} | ||
==1793== | ==1793== | ||
{{See also|Campaigns of 1793 of the French Revolutionary Wars}} | {{See also|Campaigns of 1793 of the French Revolutionary Wars}} | ||
[[File:Les coalises evacuent Toulon en decembre 1793.jpg|thumb|The | [[File:Les coalises evacuent Toulon en decembre 1793 (cropped).jpg|thumb|The Allied evacuation of [[Toulon]] in December 1793]] | ||
On 21 January the revolutionary government [[Execution of Louis XVI|executed Louis XVI]] after a trial.{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Trial and execution of Louis XVI}} This united all European governments, including [[Spain]], [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples & Sicily]], and the [[Dutch Republic|Netherlands]] against the Revolution. France declared war against Britain and the Netherlands on 1 February 1793 and soon afterwards against Spain. In the course of the year 1793 the Holy Roman Empire ([[Reichskrieg#1793|on 23 March]]), the kings of [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]] and Naples, and the [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Grand Duke of Tuscany]] declared war against France. Thus the First Coalition was formed.{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Battle of Valmy}} | On 21 January the revolutionary government [[Execution of Louis XVI|executed Louis XVI]] after a trial.{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Trial and execution of Louis XVI}} This united all European governments, including [[Spain]], [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples & Sicily]], and the [[Dutch Republic|Netherlands]] against the Revolution. France declared war against Britain and the Netherlands on 1 February 1793 and soon afterwards against Spain. In the course of the year 1793 the Holy Roman Empire ([[Reichskrieg#1793|on 23 March]]), the kings of [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]] and Naples, and the [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Grand Duke of Tuscany]] declared war against France. Thus the First Coalition was formed.{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Battle of Valmy}} | ||
===Introduction of conscription=== | ===Introduction of conscription=== | ||
France introduced a new levy of hundreds of thousands of men, beginning a French policy of using ''[[levée en masse]]'' (mass conscription) to deploy more of its manpower than the other states could,{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Battle of Valmy}} and remaining on the offensive so that these mass armies could commandeer war material from the territory of their enemies. The [[Girondins|Girondin]] faction of the French government sent [[Edmond-Charles Genêt|Citizen Genet]] to the [[United States]] to encourage them to enter the war on France's side. The newly formed nation refused, and the [[Presidency of George Washington|Washington administration]]'s 1793 [[Proclamation of Neutrality]] threatened legal action against any citizen providing assistance to any side in the conflict. | France introduced a new levy of hundreds of thousands of men, beginning a French policy of using ''[[levée en masse]]'' (mass conscription) to deploy more of its manpower than the other states could,{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Battle of Valmy}} and remaining on the offensive so that these mass armies could commandeer war material from the territory of their enemies. The [[Girondins|Girondin]] faction of the French government sent [[Edmond-Charles Genêt|Citizen Genet]] to the [[United States]] to encourage them to enter the war on France's side. The newly formed nation refused, and the [[Presidency of George Washington|Washington administration]]'s 1793 [[Proclamation of Neutrality]] threatened legal action against any citizen providing assistance to any side in the conflict. | ||
After a victory in the [[Battle of Neerwinden (1793)|Battle of Neerwinden]] in March, the Austrians suffered twin defeats at the battles of [[Battle of Wattignies|Wattignies]] and [[Second Battle of Wissembourg (1793)|Wissembourg]].{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=The Revolutionary War. Republican successes.}} British land forces were defeated at the [[Battle of Hondschoote]] in September.{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=The Revolutionary War. Republican successes.}} | After a victory in the [[Battle of Neerwinden (1793)|Battle of Neerwinden]] in March, the Austrians suffered twin defeats at the battles of [[Battle of Wattignies|Wattignies]] and [[Second Battle of Wissembourg (1793)|Wissembourg]].{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=The Revolutionary War. Republican successes.}} British land forces were defeated at the [[Battle of Hondschoote]] in September.{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=The Revolutionary War. Republican successes.}} | ||
==1794== | ==1794== | ||
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===Battle of Fleurus=== | ===Battle of Fleurus=== | ||
{{Further|Low Countries theatre of the War of the First Coalition#Battle of Fleurus}} | {{Further|Low Countries theatre of the War of the First Coalition#Battle of Fleurus}} | ||
1794 brought increased success to the revolutionary armies. A major victory against combined coalition forces at the [[Battle of Fleurus (1794)|Battle of Fleurus]] gained all of the Austrian Netherlands and the [[Rhineland]] for France.{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=The Revolutionary War. Republican successes.}} Although the British navy maintained its supremacy at sea, it was unable to support effectively any land operations after the fall of the Belgian provinces.{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Progress of the war.}} The Prussians were slowly driven out of the eastern provinces{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=The Revolutionary War. Republican successes.}} and by the end of the year they had retired from any active part in the war.{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Progress of the war.}} Against Spain, the French made successful incursions into both [[Catalonia]] and [[Navarre]]{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Progress of the war.}} in the [[War of the Pyrenees]]. | 1794 brought increased success to the revolutionary armies. A major victory against combined coalition forces at the [[Battle of Fleurus (1794)|Battle of Fleurus]] gained all of the Austrian Netherlands and the [[Rhineland]] for France.{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=The Revolutionary War. Republican successes.}} Although the British navy maintained its supremacy at sea, it was unable to support effectively any land operations after the fall of the Belgian provinces.{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Progress of the war.}} The Prussians were slowly driven out of the eastern provinces{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=The Revolutionary War. Republican successes.}} and by the end of the year they had retired from any active part in the war.{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Progress of the war.}} Against Spain, the French made successful incursions into both [[Catalonia]] and [[Navarre]]{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Progress of the war.}} in the [[War of the Pyrenees]]. | ||
===Actions in the West Indies=== | ===Actions in the West Indies=== | ||
Action extended into the French colonies in the [[West Indies]]. A British fleet occupied [[Martinique]], [[St. Lucia]], and [[Guadeloupe]], although a French fleet arrived later in the year and recovered the latter by ousting the invaders.{{sfn|Hannay|1911|p=204}} | Action extended into the French colonies in the [[West Indies]]. A British fleet occupied [[Martinique]], [[St. Lucia]], and [[Guadeloupe]], although a French fleet arrived later in the year and recovered the latter by ousting the invaders.{{sfn |Hannay |1911 |p=204}} | ||
==1795== | ==1795== | ||
| Line 206: | Line 206: | ||
===Battle of Quiberon=== | ===Battle of Quiberon=== | ||
Britain attempted to reinforce the rebels in the [[Vendée]] by landing French Royalist troops at [[Invasion of France (1795)|Quiberon]], but failed,{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Progress of the war}} and [[13 Vendémiaire|attempts to overthrow the government in Paris by force]] were foiled by the military garrison led by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]], leading to the establishment of the [[French Directory|Directory]].{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Insurrection of 13 Vendémiaire}}{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Character of the Directory}} | Britain attempted to reinforce the rebels in the [[Vendée]] by landing French Royalist troops at [[Invasion of France (1795)|Quiberon]], but failed,{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Progress of the war}} and [[13 Vendémiaire|attempts to overthrow the government in Paris by force]] were foiled by the military garrison led by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]], leading to the establishment of the [[French Directory|Directory]].{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Insurrection of 13 Vendémiaire}}{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Character of the Directory}} | ||
===Battle of Mainz=== | ===Battle of Mainz=== | ||
{{main|Battle of Mainz}} | {{main|Battle of Mainz}} | ||
On the Rhine frontier, General [[Charles Pichegru|Pichegru]], negotiating with the exiled [[House of Bourbon|Royalist]]s, betrayed his army and forced the evacuation of [[Mannheim]] and the failure of the [[Battle of Mainz|siege of Mainz]] by [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan|Jourdan]].{{sfn|Hannay|1911|p=182}} | On the Rhine frontier, General [[Charles Pichegru|Pichegru]], negotiating with the exiled [[House of Bourbon|Royalist]]s, betrayed his army and forced the evacuation of [[Mannheim]] and the failure of the [[Battle of Mainz|siege of Mainz]] by [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan|Jourdan]].{{sfn |Hannay |1911 |p=182}} | ||
==1796== | ==1796== | ||
| Line 218: | Line 218: | ||
===Rhine campaign=== | ===Rhine campaign=== | ||
In the [[Rhine campaign of 1796]], Jourdan and Moreau crossed the Rhine river and advanced into Germany. Jourdan advanced as far as [[Amberg]] in late August while Moreau reached [[Electorate of Bavaria|Bavaria]] and the edge of Tyrol by September. However Jourdan was defeated by [[Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen]] and both armies were forced to retreat back across the Rhine.{{sfn|Hannay|1911|p=182}}{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Military triumphs under the Directory. Bonaparte}} | In the [[Rhine campaign of 1796]], Jourdan and Moreau crossed the Rhine river and advanced into Germany. Jourdan advanced as far as [[Amberg]] in late August while Moreau reached [[Electorate of Bavaria|Bavaria]] and the edge of Tyrol by September. However Jourdan was defeated by [[Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen]] and both armies were forced to retreat back across the Rhine.{{sfn |Hannay |1911 |p=182}}{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Military triumphs under the Directory. Bonaparte}} | ||
===Invasion of Italy=== | ===Invasion of Italy=== | ||
Napoleon, on the other hand, was successful in a daring invasion of Italy. In the [[Montenotte Campaign]], he separated the armies of [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Sardinia]] and [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]], defeating each one in turn, and then forced a [[Treaty of Paris (1796)|peace on Sardinia]]. Following this, his army captured [[Milan]] and started the [[Siege of Mantua (1796–97)|Siege of Mantua]]. Bonaparte defeated successive Austrian armies sent against him under [[Johann Peter Beaulieu]], [[Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser]] and [[József Alvinczi]] while continuing the siege.{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Military triumphs under the Directory. Bonaparte}}{{sfn|Hannay|1911|p=182}} | Napoleon, on the other hand, was successful in a daring invasion of Italy. In the [[Montenotte Campaign]], he separated the armies of [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Sardinia]] and [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]], defeating each one in turn, and then forced a [[Treaty of Paris (1796)|peace on Sardinia]]. Following this, his army captured [[Milan]] and started the [[Siege of Mantua (1796–97)|Siege of Mantua]]. Bonaparte defeated successive Austrian armies sent against him under [[Johann Peter Beaulieu]], [[Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser]] and [[József Alvinczi]] while continuing the siege.{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Military triumphs under the Directory. Bonaparte}}{{sfn |Hannay |1911 |p=182}} | ||
===End of the War of the Vendée=== | ===End of the War of the Vendée=== | ||
The [[War in the Vendée|rebellion in the Vendée]] was also crushed in 1796 by [[Louis Lazare Hoche]].{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Military triumphs under the Directory. Bonaparte}} Hoche's subsequent attempt to land a large invasion force in [[Munster]] to aid the [[United Irishmen]] was unsuccessful.{{sfn|Hannay|1911|p=204}} | The [[War in the Vendée|rebellion in the Vendée]] was also crushed in 1796 by [[Louis Lazare Hoche]].{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Military triumphs under the Directory. Bonaparte}} Hoche's subsequent attempt to land a large invasion force in [[Munster]] to aid the [[United Irishmen]] was unsuccessful.{{sfn |Hannay |1911 |p=204}} | ||
==1797== | ==1797== | ||
| Line 231: | Line 231: | ||
===Battle of Mantua=== | ===Battle of Mantua=== | ||
[[File:Napoleon at the Battle of Rivoli.jpg|thumb|Napoleon at the [[Battle of Rivoli]], 14 January 1797. Oil painting by [[Henri Félix Emmanuel Philippoteaux]] (1844), [[Palace of Versailles]].]] | [[File:Napoleon at the Battle of Rivoli.jpg|thumb|Napoleon at the [[Battle of Rivoli]], 14 January 1797. Oil painting by [[Henri Félix Emmanuel Philippoteaux]] (1844), [[Palace of Versailles]].]] | ||
On 2 February Napoleon finally captured [[Mantua]],{{sfn|Hannay|1911|p=193}} with the Austrians surrendering 18,000 men. Archduke Charles of Austria was unable to stop Napoleon from invading the Tyrol, and the Austrian government sued for peace in April. At the same time, there was a new French invasion of Germany under Moreau and Hoche.{{sfn|Hannay|1911|p=193}} | On 2 February Napoleon finally captured [[Mantua]],{{sfn |Hannay |1911 |p=193}} with the Austrians surrendering 18,000 men. Archduke Charles of Austria was unable to stop Napoleon from invading the Tyrol, and the Austrian government sued for peace in April. At the same time, there was a new French invasion of Germany under Moreau and Hoche.{{sfn |Hannay |1911 |p=193}} | ||
===Invasion of Great Britain=== | ===Invasion of Great Britain=== | ||
| Line 237: | Line 237: | ||
===Austrian peace=== | ===Austrian peace=== | ||
Austria signed the [[Treaty of Campo Formio]] in October,{{sfn|Hannay|1911|p=193}} ceding Belgium to France and recognizing French control of the Rhineland and much of Italy.{{sfn|Holland|1911|loc=Military triumphs under the Directory. Bonaparte}} The ancient [[Republic of Venice]] was partitioned between Austria and France. This ended the War of the First Coalition, although Great Britain and France remained at war. | Austria signed the [[Treaty of Campo Formio]] in October,{{sfn |Hannay |1911 |p=193}} ceding Belgium to France and recognizing French control of the Rhineland and much of Italy.{{sfn |Holland |1911 |loc=Military triumphs under the Directory. Bonaparte}} The ancient [[Republic of Venice]] was partitioned between Austria and France. This ended the War of the First Coalition, although Great Britain and France remained at war. | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* [[List of battles of the War of the First Coalition]] | * [[List of battles of the War of the First Coalition]] | ||
* [[War of the Second Coalition]] | * [[War of the Second Coalition]] | ||
* [[Coalition forces of the Napoleonic Wars]] | |||
== Notes == | |||
{{Notelist}} | |||
== | == References == | ||
{{Reflist}} | {{Reflist}} | ||
== | === Sources === | ||
* {{Cite book |last=Clodfelter |first=Micheal |title=Warfare and armed conflicts: a statistical encyclopedia of casualty and other figures, 1492–2015 |date=2017 |publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers |isbn=978-1-4766-2585-0 |edition=4th |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |pages=100}} | |||
* {{Cite EB1911 |first=David |last=Hannay |wstitle=French Revolutionary Wars}} | * {{Cite EB1911 |first=David |last=Hannay |wstitle=French Revolutionary Wars}} | ||
* {{Cite EB1911 |first=Arthur William |last=Holland |wstitle=French Revolution, The}} | * {{Cite EB1911 |first=Arthur William |last=Holland |wstitle=French Revolution, The}} | ||
==Further reading== | ==Further reading== | ||
* {{Cite book | | * {{Cite book |last1=Clausewitz |first1=Carl von |author-link1=Carl von Clausewitz |title=Napoleon's 1796 Italian campaign |last2=Murray |first2=Nicholas |last3=Pringle |first3=Christopher |last4=Showalter |first4=Dennis E. |date=2018 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-2676-2 |location=Lawrence, Kansas}} | ||
* {{Cite book |last=Fremont-Barnes |first=Gregory |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n5mE6gUHlEQC |title=The French Revolutionary Wars |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-97741-2 |language=en}} | * {{Cite book |last=Fremont-Barnes |first=Gregory |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n5mE6gUHlEQC |title=The French Revolutionary Wars |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-97741-2 |language=en}} | ||
* {{Cite book |title=Fleet battle and blockade: the French Revolutionary War, 1793–1797 |date=1996 |publisher=Chatham |isbn=978-1-86176-018-0 |editor-last=Gardiner |editor-first=Robert |series=Chatham pictorial histories |location=London}} | * {{Cite book |title=Fleet battle and blockade: the French Revolutionary War, 1793–1797 |date=1996 |publisher=Chatham |isbn=978-1-86176-018-0 |editor-last=Gardiner |editor-first=Robert |series=Chatham pictorial histories |location=London}} | ||
* {{Cite book |last=Lefebvre |first=Georges |author-link=Georges Lefebvre |title=The French Revolution |volume=2: From 1793 to 1799 |location=New York | | * {{Cite book |last=Lefebvre |first=Georges |author-link=Georges Lefebvre |title=The French Revolution |date=1964 |publisher=Columbia University Press |volume=2: From 1793 to 1799 |location=New York |language=en |translator-last=Stewart |translator-first=John Hall |translator-last2=Friguglietti |translator-first2=James}} | ||
* {{Cite book |last=Ross |first=Steven T. |author-link=Steven T. Ross |title=Quest for Victory: French Military Strategy, 1792–1799 |date=1973 |publisher=A.S. Barnes |isbn=978-0-498-07490-5 |language=en}} | * {{Cite book |last=Ross |first=Steven T. |author-link=Steven T. Ross |title=Quest for Victory: French Military Strategy, 1792–1799 |date=1973 |publisher=A.S. Barnes |isbn=978-0-498-07490-5 |language=en}} | ||
Latest revision as of 16:04, 27 October 2025
Template:Short description Script error: No such module "Infobox military conflict". Template:Campaignbox First Coalition Template:Campaignbox French Revolutionary Wars Template:OSM Location map The War of the First Coalition (Template:Langx) was a set of wars that several European powers fought between 1792 and 1797, against France.Template:EfnTemplate:Sfn They were only loosely allied and fought without much apparent coordination or agreement; each power had its eye on a different part of France it wanted to appropriate after a French defeat, which never occurred.[1]
Relations between the French revolutionaries and neighbouring monarchies had deteriorated following the Declaration of Pillnitz in August 1791. Eight months later, following a vote of the revolutionary-led Legislative Assembly, France declared war on Austria on 20 April 1792; Prussia, having allied with Austria in February, declared war on France in June 1792. In July 1792, an army under the Duke of Brunswick and composed mostly of Prussians joined the Austrian side and invaded France. The capture of Verdun (2 September 1792) triggered the September massacres in Paris. France counterattacked with the victory at Valmy (20 September) and two days later the National Convention, which had replaced the Legislative Assembly, proclaimed the French Republic.
Subsequently, these powers made several invasions of France by land and sea, in association with Prussia and Austria attacking from the Austrian Netherlands and the Rhine, and Great Britain supporting revolts in provincial France and laying siege to Toulon in October 1793. France suffered reverses (Battle of Neerwinden, 18 March 1793) and internal strife (War in the Vendée) and responded with draconian measures. The Committee of Public Safety was formed (6 April 1793) and the levée en masse drafted all potential soldiers aged 18 to 25 (August 1793). The new French armies counterattacked, repelled the invaders, and advanced beyond France.
The French established the Batavian Republic as a sister republic (May 1795) and gained Prussian recognition of French control of the Left Bank of the Rhine by the first Peace of Basel. With the Treaty of Campo Formio, Austria ceded the Austrian Netherlands to France and Northern Italy was turned into several French sister republics. Spain made a separate peace accord with France (Second Treaty of Basel) and the French Directory annexed more of the Holy Roman Empire.
North of the Alps, Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen defeated the invading armies during the Rhine campaign, but Napoleon Bonaparte succeeded against Sardinia and Austria in northern Italy (1796–1797) near the Po Valley, culminating in the Peace of Leoben and the Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1797). The First Coalition collapsed, leaving only Britain in the field fighting against France.
Background
Revolution in France
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
As early as 1791, other monarchies in Europe were watching the developments in France with alarm, and considered intervening, either in support of Louis XVI or to take advantage of the chaos in France. The key figure, Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, brother of the French Queen Marie Antoinette, had initially looked on the Revolution calmly. He became increasingly concerned as the Revolution grew more radical, although he still hoped to avoid war.
On 27 August 1791, Leopold and King Frederick William II of Prussia, in consultation with émigré French nobles, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which declared the concern of the monarchs of Europe for the well-being of Louis and his family, and threatened vague but severe consequences if anything should befall them. Although Leopold saw the Pillnitz Declaration as a way of taking action that would enable him to avoid actually doing anything about France, at least for the moment, Paris saw the Declaration as a serious threat and the revolutionary leaders denounced it.Template:Sfn
In addition to the ideological differences between the French revolutionaries and the European monarchies, disputes continued over the status of Imperial estates in Alsace,Template:Sfn and the French authorities became concerned about the agitation of émigré nobles abroad, especially in the Austrian Netherlands and in the minor states of Germany. In the end, France declared war on Austria first, with the Assembly voting for war on 20 April 1792, after the presentation of a long list of grievances by the newly appointed foreign minister Charles François Dumouriez, who sought a war which might restore some popularity and authority to the King.Template:Sfn
1792
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
Invasion of the Austrian Netherlands
Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote". Dumouriez prepared an invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, where he expected the local population to rise against Austrian rule. However, the revolution had thoroughly disorganized the French army, which had insufficient forces for the invasion. Its soldiers fled at the first sign of battle, deserting en masse, in one case murdering General Théobald Dillon.Template:Sfn The French soldiers were insulted, hissed, even assaulted. The situation of the "Flanders Campaign" was alarming.[2]
While the revolutionary government frantically raised fresh troops and reorganized its armies, an allied army under Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick assembled at Koblenz on the Rhine. The invasion commenced in July 1792. The Duke then issued a declaration on 25 July 1792, which had been written by the brothers of Louis XVI, that declared his [Brunswick's] intent to restore the King of France to his full powers, and to treat any person or town who opposed him as rebels to be condemned to death by martial law.Template:Sfn This motivated the revolutionary army and government to oppose the Prussian invaders by any means necessary,Template:Sfn and led almost immediately to the overthrow of the King by a crowd which stormed the Tuileries Palace.Template:Sfn
Prussian progress
Brunswick's army, composed mostly of Prussian veterans, crossed into French territory on 19 August and easily took the fortresses of Longwy and Verdun.Template:Sfn But at the Battle of Valmy on 20 September 1792 they came to a stalemate against Dumouriez and Kellermann in which the highly professional French artillery distinguished itself. Although the battle was a tactical draw, it bought time for the revolutionaries and gave a great boost to French morale. Furthermore, the Prussians, facing a campaign longer and more costly than predicted, decided against the cost and risk of continued fighting and determined to retreat from France to preserve their army.Template:Sfn
Fronts in Italy and Germany
Meanwhile, the French had been successful on several other fronts, occupying the Duchy of Savoy and the County of Nice until the Massif de l'Authion, while General Custine invaded Germany, capturing Speyer, Worms and Mainz along the Rhine, and reaching as far as Frankfurt. Dumouriez went on the offensive in the Austrian Netherlands once again, winning a great victory over the Austrians at Jemappes on 6 November 1792, and occupying the entire country by the beginning of winter.Template:Sfn
1793
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
.jpg){kind=link}
On 21 January the revolutionary government executed Louis XVI after a trial.Template:Sfn This united all European governments, including Spain, Naples & Sicily, and the Netherlands against the Revolution. France declared war against Britain and the Netherlands on 1 February 1793 and soon afterwards against Spain. In the course of the year 1793 the Holy Roman Empire (on 23 March), the kings of Portugal and Naples, and the Grand Duke of Tuscany declared war against France. Thus the First Coalition was formed.Template:Sfn
Introduction of conscription
France introduced a new levy of hundreds of thousands of men, beginning a French policy of using levée en masse (mass conscription) to deploy more of its manpower than the other states could,Template:Sfn and remaining on the offensive so that these mass armies could commandeer war material from the territory of their enemies. The Girondin faction of the French government sent Citizen Genet to the United States to encourage them to enter the war on France's side. The newly formed nation refused, and the Washington administration's 1793 Proclamation of Neutrality threatened legal action against any citizen providing assistance to any side in the conflict.
After a victory in the Battle of Neerwinden in March, the Austrians suffered twin defeats at the battles of Wattignies and Wissembourg.Template:Sfn British land forces were defeated at the Battle of Hondschoote in September.Template:Sfn
1794
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
Battle of Fleurus
Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote". 1794 brought increased success to the revolutionary armies. A major victory against combined coalition forces at the Battle of Fleurus gained all of the Austrian Netherlands and the Rhineland for France.Template:Sfn Although the British navy maintained its supremacy at sea, it was unable to support effectively any land operations after the fall of the Belgian provinces.Template:Sfn The Prussians were slowly driven out of the eastern provincesTemplate:Sfn and by the end of the year they had retired from any active part in the war.Template:Sfn Against Spain, the French made successful incursions into both Catalonia and NavarreTemplate:Sfn in the War of the Pyrenees.
Actions in the West Indies
Action extended into the French colonies in the West Indies. A British fleet occupied Martinique, St. Lucia, and Guadeloupe, although a French fleet arrived later in the year and recovered the latter by ousting the invaders.Template:Sfn
1795
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
French capture of the Low Countries
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". After seizing the Low Countries in a surprise winter attack, France established the Batavian Republic as a puppet state. Even before the close of 1794 Prussia retired from any active part in the war, and on 5 April 1795 King Frederick William II concluded with France the Peace of Basel, which recognized France's occupation of the left bank of the Rhine. The new French-dominated Dutch government bought peace by surrendering Dutch territory to the south of that river. A treaty of peace between France and Spain followed in July. The grand duke of Tuscany had been admitted to terms in February. The coalition thus fell into ruin and France proper would be free from invasion for many years.[3]
Battle of Quiberon
Britain attempted to reinforce the rebels in the Vendée by landing French Royalist troops at Quiberon, but failed,Template:Sfn and attempts to overthrow the government in Paris by force were foiled by the military garrison led by Napoleon Bonaparte, leading to the establishment of the Directory.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Battle of Mainz
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". On the Rhine frontier, General Pichegru, negotiating with the exiled Royalists, betrayed his army and forced the evacuation of Mannheim and the failure of the siege of Mainz by Jourdan.Template:Sfn
1796
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
The French prepared a great advance on three fronts, with Jourdan and Jean Victor Marie Moreau on the Rhine and the newly promoted Napoleon Bonaparte in Italy. The three armies were to link up in Tyrol and march on Vienna.
Rhine campaign
In the Rhine campaign of 1796, Jourdan and Moreau crossed the Rhine river and advanced into Germany. Jourdan advanced as far as Amberg in late August while Moreau reached Bavaria and the edge of Tyrol by September. However Jourdan was defeated by Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen and both armies were forced to retreat back across the Rhine.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Invasion of Italy
Napoleon, on the other hand, was successful in a daring invasion of Italy. In the Montenotte Campaign, he separated the armies of Sardinia and Austria, defeating each one in turn, and then forced a peace on Sardinia. Following this, his army captured Milan and started the Siege of Mantua. Bonaparte defeated successive Austrian armies sent against him under Johann Peter Beaulieu, Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser and József Alvinczi while continuing the siege.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
End of the War of the Vendée
The rebellion in the Vendée was also crushed in 1796 by Louis Lazare Hoche.Template:Sfn Hoche's subsequent attempt to land a large invasion force in Munster to aid the United Irishmen was unsuccessful.Template:Sfn
1797
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
Battle of Mantua
On 2 February Napoleon finally captured Mantua,Template:Sfn with the Austrians surrendering 18,000 men. Archduke Charles of Austria was unable to stop Napoleon from invading the Tyrol, and the Austrian government sued for peace in April. At the same time, there was a new French invasion of Germany under Moreau and Hoche.Template:Sfn
Invasion of Great Britain
On 22 February, a French invasion force consisting of 1,400 troops from the La Legion Noire (The Black Legion) under the command of Irish American Colonel William Tate landed near Fishguard in Wales. They were met by a quickly assembled group of around 500 British reservists, militia and sailors under the command of John Campbell, 1st Baron Cawdor. After brief clashes with the local civilian population and Lord Cawdor's forces on 23 February, Tate was forced into an unconditional surrender by 24 February. This would be the only battle fought on British soil during the Revolutionary Wars.
Austrian peace
Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio in October,Template:Sfn ceding Belgium to France and recognizing French control of the Rhineland and much of Italy.Template:Sfn The ancient Republic of Venice was partitioned between Austria and France. This ended the War of the First Coalition, although Great Britain and France remained at war.
See also
- List of battles of the War of the First Coalition
- War of the Second Coalition
- Coalition forces of the Napoleonic Wars
Notes
References
Sources
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- Template:Cite EB1911
- Template:Cite EB1911
Further reading
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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External links
| Preceded by Siege of Namur (1792) |
French Revolution: Revolutionary campaigns War of the First Coalition |
Succeeded by War in the Vendée |
Template:French Revolution Template:Authority control
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., a translation of Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ One of more of the preceding sentences text from a publication now in the public domain: Script error: No such module "Footnotes".