Libido: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 21:13, 19 November 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "other uses". Script error: No such module "redirect hatnote". Script error: No such module "redirect hatnote". Template:Psychoanalysis The libido (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell; Template:Etymology) refers to a psychological energy that, in common parlance, encompasses all forms of sexual desire, but is sometimes also regarded as the driving force behind other needs,^[1] such as a mother's love for her infant. The term was originally developed by Sigmund Freud, the pioneer of psychoanalysis.^[2] Initially it referred only to specific sexual needs, but he later expanded the concept to a universal desire, with the id being its "great reservoir".^[3]^[4] As driving energy behind all life processes, libido became the source of the social engagement (maternal love instinct, for example), sexual behaviour, pursuit for nutrition, skin pleasure, knowledge and victory in all areas of self- and species preservation.^[5]^[6]

Equated the libido with the Eros of Platonic philosophy,^[7] Freud further differentiated two inherent operators: the life drive and the death drive.^[8] Both aspects are working complementary to each other: While the death drive, also called Destrudo or Thanatos, embodies the principle of 'analytical' decomposition of complex phenomenon, the effect of life drive (Greek Bios) is to reassemble or synthesise the parts of the decomposition in a way that serves the organisms regeneration and reproduction. Freud's most abstract description of libido represents an energetic potential that begins like a bow to tense up unpleasantly (noticeable 'hunger') in order to pleasantly relax again (noticeable satisfaction); its nature is both physical and psychological.^[9] Starting from the id in the fertilised egg, libido initiates also the emergence of two further instances: the ego (function of conscious perception), and the superego, which specialises in retrievable storage of experiences (long-term memory). Together with libido as their source, these three instances represent the common core of all branches of psychoanalysis.

From a neurobiological point of view, the inner perception and regulation of the various innate needs are mediated through the nucleus accumbens by neurotransmitters and hormones; in relation to sexuality, these are mainly testosterone, oestrogen and dopamine.^[10] Each of the needs can be influenced by the others (e.g. baby feeding is inextricably connected with sociality); but above all, their fulfilment requires the libidinal satisfaction of curiosity. Without this 'research instinct' of mind, the control of bodily motoric would be impossible, the arrow from the bow called lifeTemplate:Fact wouldn't do its work (death). Just as happiness is anchored in the fulfilment of all innate needs, disturbances through social stress resulting from lifestyle, traumatisation in early childhood or during war, mental and bodily illness lead to suffering that is inwardly noticeable and conscious to the ego. Through the capacity of empathy, linguistic and facial expressions of emotion ultimately also affect the human environment.Template:Fact

Different psychological perspectives

Freud

File:Freuds structural model of psyche.png

Dynamics of libidinal energy (death- and life drive) in Freud's structural model of the soul, referring to his rider metaphor: The head symbolizes the ego (principle of reality); the animal body the id (pleasure principle). Dual in the same way, the libido branches out from the id into two main areas: the mental urge to know (up), and the bodily urge to act (down). Both combine to act through the ego in order to fulfil the needs of the id. This includes perception and assessment of inner/outer reality, and is based on unpleasant increase and pleasurable reduction of tension in libidinal energy ( “hunger” and “satiety” in general).^[11] Ultimately, satisfaction of the needs leads to experiences (by muscle control) that the superego internalises through imprinting. The superego contains our socialisation, that takes place during childhood. If it support the id's instinctual needs, the organism remains mentally healthy – the 'rider' carries out the will of his 'animal' "as if it were his own".^[12]

Sigmund Freud defined libido as "the energy, regarded as a quantitative magnitude... of those instincts which have to do with all that may be comprised under the word 'love'."^[13] It is the instinctual energy or force, contained in what Freud called the id, the strictly unconscious structure of the psyche. He also explained that it is analogous to hunger, the will to power, and so on^[14] insisting that it is a fundamental instinct that is innate in all humans.^[15]

Freud pointed out that these libidinal drives can conflict with the conventions of civilised behavior, represented in the psyche by the superego. It is this need to conform to society and control the libido that leads to tension and anxiety in the individual, prompting the use of ego defenses which channel the psychic energy of the unconscious drives into forms that are acceptable to the ego and superego. Excessive use of ego defenses results in neurosis, so a primary goal of psychoanalysis is to make the drives accessible to consciousness, allowing them to be addressed directly, thus reducing the patient's automatic resort to ego defenses.^[16]

Freud viewed libido as passing through a series of developmental stages in the individual, in which the libido fixates on different erogenous zones: first the oral stage (exemplified by an infant's pleasure in nursing), then the anal stage (exemplified by a toddler's pleasure in controlling his or her bowels), then the phallic stage, through a latency stage in which the libido is dormant, to its reemergence at puberty in the genital stage^[17] (Karl Abraham would later add subdivisions in both oral and anal stages.).^[18] Failure to adequately adapt to the demands of these different stages could result in libidinal energy becoming 'dammed up' or fixated in these stages, producing certain pathological character traits in adulthood.

Jung

Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung identified the libido with psychic energy in general. According to Jung, 'energy', in its subjective and psychological sense, is 'desire', of which sexual desire is just one aspect.^[19]^[20] Libido thus denotes "a desire or impulse which is unchecked by any kind of authority, moral or otherwise. Libido is appetite in its natural state. From the genetic point of view it is bodily needs like hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex, and emotional states or affects, which constitute the essence of libido."^[21] It is "the energy that manifests itself in the life process and is perceived subjectively as striving and desire."^[22] Duality (opposition) creates the energy (or libido) of the psyche, which Jung asserts expresses itself only through symbols. These symbols may manifest as "fantasy-images" in the process of psychoanalysis, giving subjective expression to the contents of the libido, which otherwise lacks any definite form.^[23] Desire, conceived generally as a psychic longing, movement, displacement and structuring, manifests itself in definable forms which are apprehended through analysis.

Further psychological and social viewpoints

A person may have a desire for sex, but not have the opportunity to act on that desire, or may on personal, moral or religious reasons refrain from acting on the urge. Psychologically, a person's urge can be repressed or sublimated. Conversely, a person can engage in sexual activity without an actual desire for it. Multiple factors affect human sex drive, including stress, illness, pregnancy, and others. A large 2022 review, using more than 620,000 people and 211 studies, found that men had higher sex drives than women on average, and that one-third of women (30-35%) had a higher sex drive than the average man. The study found an 80% overlap in the sex drives of men and women, and that the effects of the difference were "medium" in size.^[24]

Other studies have found that women report similar sexual habits as men, such as masturbation frequency, under the impression of a lie detector. The study reported that "sex differences in self-reported sexual behavior (masturbation) were negligible in a bogus pipeline condition in which participants believed lying could be detected."^[25]

A 2012 study found that, in couples who has been together at least a year, differences in sex drive were non-significant and more similar than different.^[26]

Another 2012 study found that testosterone did not account for sexual differences between men and women.^[27]

Certain psychological or social factors can reduce the desire for sex. These factors can include lack of privacy or intimacy, stress or fatigue, distraction, safety social stigma (in women, it can account for a large part of rejecting sex), or depression. Environmental stress, such as prolonged exposure to elevated sound levels or bright light, can also affect libido. Other causes include experience of sexual abuse, assault, trauma, or neglect, body image issues, and anxiety about engaging in sexual activity. Women whose first sexual experience was pleasant report the same sex drive as men. ^[28]

Individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may find themselves with reduced sexual desire. Struggling to find pleasure, as well as having trust issues, many with PTSD experience feelings of vulnerability, rage and anger, and emotional shutdowns, which have been shown to inhibit sexual desire in those with PTSD.^[29] Reduced sex drive may also be present in trauma victims due to issues arising in sexual function. For women, it has been found that treatment can improve sexual function, thus helping restore sexual desire.^[30] Depression and libido decline often coincide, with reduced sex drive being one of the symptoms of depression.^[31] Those with depression often report the decline in libido to be far reaching and more noticeable than other symptoms.^[31] In addition, those with depression often are reluctant to report their reduced sex drive, often normalizing it with cultural/social values, or by the failure of the physician to inquire about it.

Sexual desires are often an important factor in the formation and maintenance of intimate relationships in humans. A lack or loss of sexual desire can adversely affect relationships. Changes in the sexual desires of any partner in a sexual relationship, if sustained and unresolved, may cause problems in the relationship. The infidelity of a partner may be an indication that a partner's changing sexual desires can no longer be satisfied within the current relationship. Problems can arise from disparity of sexual desires between partners, or poor communication between partners of sexual needs and preferences.^[32]

Biological perspectives

Endogenous compounds

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Libido is governed primarily by activity in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway (ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens).^[10] Consequently, dopamine and related trace amines (primarily phenethylamine)^[33] that modulate dopamine neurotransmission play a critical role in regulating libido.^[10]

Other neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, and sex hormones that affect sex drive by modulating activity in or acting upon this pathway include:

Testosterone^[10] (directly correlated) – and other androgens^[34]^[35]^[36]^[37]
Estrogen^[10] (directly correlated) – and related female sex hormones^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]
Progesterone^[41] (inversely correlated)
Oxytocin^[43] (directly correlated)
Serotonin^[44]^[45]^[46] (inversely correlated)
Norepinephrine^[44] (directly correlated)
Acetylcholine^[47]

Sex hormone levels and the menstrual cycle

A woman's desire for sex is correlated to her menstrual cycle, with many women experiencing a heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before ovulation,^[48] which is her peak fertility period, which normally occurs two days before and until two days after the ovulation.^[49] This cycle has been associated with changes in a woman's estradiol and testosterone levels during the menstrual cycle. Women whose ovaries are removed before menopause often experience a dramatic loss of libido.

Also, during the week following ovulation, progesterone levels increase, resulting in a woman experiencing difficulty achieving orgasm. As the last days of the menstrual cycle are marked by a higher estrogen level, women's libido may get a boost as a result of the thickening of the uterine lining which stimulates nerve endings and makes a woman feel aroused.^[50] Also, during these days, estrogen levels decline, resulting in a decrease of natural lubrication.

A large study found that testosterone did not reliably predict women's sexual desire at any time point. It provided correlational evidence indicating that circulating estradiol, but not testosterone, was associated with the midcycle peak in women's sexual desire.^[51]

Another study found that there is little support for the notion that testosterone is the critical libidinal hormone for women. It found that, in all other female mammals, only estradiol has been shown to be critical for female sexual motivation and behavior.^[52]

A report from the University of Michigan supported this claim, reporting that several studies found no difference in testosterone levels in women who have high levels of desire and those diagnosed with a libido disorder ^[53]

Although some specialists disagree with this theory, menopause is still considered by the majority a factor that can cause decreased sexual desire in women. The levels of estrogen decrease at menopause and this usually causes a lower interest in sex and vaginal dryness which makes sex painful. Estrogen helps a woman's sexual drive, contributing to vaginal lubrication.^[54]

Physical factors

Physical factors that can affect libido include endocrine issues such as hypothyroidism, the effect of certain prescription medications (for example flutamide), and the attractiveness and biological fitness of one's partner, among various other lifestyle factors.^[55]

Anemia is a cause of lack of libido in women due to the loss of iron during the period.^[56]

Smoking tobacco, alcohol use disorder, and the use of certain drugs can also lead to a decreased libido.^[57] Moreover, specialists suggest that several lifestyle changes such as exercising, quitting smoking, lowering consumption of alcohol or using prescription drugs may help increase one's sexual desire.^[58]^[59]

Medications

Some people purposefully attempt to decrease their libido through the usage of anaphrodisiacs.^[60] Aphrodisiacs, such as dopaminergic psychostimulants, are a class of drugs which can increase libido. On the other hand, a reduced libido is also often iatrogenic and can be caused by many medications, such as hormonal contraception, SSRIs and other antidepressants, antipsychotics, opioids, beta blockers and isotretinoin.

Isotretinoin, finasteride and many SSRIs and SNRIs uncommonly can cause a long-term decrease in libido and overall sexual function, sometimes lasting for months or years after users of these drugs have stopped taking them. These long-lasting effects have been classified as iatrogenic medical disorders, respectively termed post-retinoid sexual dysfunction/post-Accutane syndrome (PRSD/PAS), post-finasteride syndrome (PFS) and post-SSRI sexual dysfunction (PSSD).^[31]^[61] These three disorders share many overlapping symptoms in addition to reduced libido, and are thought to share a common etiology, but collectively remain poorly-understood and lack effective treatments.

Multiple studies have shown that with the exception of bupropion (Wellbutrin), trazodone (Desyrel) and nefazodone (Serzone), antidepressants generally will lead to lowered libido.^[31] SSRIs and SNRIs that typically lead to decreased libido are fluoxetine (Prozac), paroxetine (Paxil), fluvoxamine (Luvox), citalopram (Celexa), sertraline (Zoloft), escitalopram (Lexapro), venlafaxine (Effexor), Duloxetine (Cymbalta), and lecomilnacipran (Fetzima).^[31] Lowering the dosage of SSRI and SNRI medications has been shown to improve libido in some patients.^[62] Other users try enrolling in psychotherapy to solve depression-related issues of libido. However, the effectiveness of this therapy is mixed, with many reporting that it had no or little effect on sexual drive.^[31]

Several studies have found that estrogen-only therapies that produce periovulatory levels of circulating estradiol increase sexual desire in postmenopausal women.^[52]

Testosterone is one of the hormones controlling libido in human beings, with the correlations being higher for men and less related in women. Emerging research^[63] is showing that hormonal contraception methods like oral contraceptive pills (which rely on estrogen and progesterone together) are causing low libido in females by elevating levels of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). SHBG binds to sex hormones, including testosterone, rendering them unavailable. Research is showing that even after ending a hormonal contraceptive method, SHBG levels remain elevated and no reliable data exists to predict when this phenomenon will diminish.^[64]

Several studies have found that estrogen-only therapies that produce periovulatory levels of circulating estradiol increase sexual desire in postmenopausal women.^[52]

Oral contraceptives lower androgen levels in users, and lowered androgen levels generally lead to a decrease in sexual desire. However, usage of oral contraceptives has shown to typically not have a connection with lowered libido in women.^[65]^[66]

Effects of age

Males reach the peak of their sex drive in their teenage years, while females reach it in their thirties.^[67]^[68] The surge in testosterone hits the male at puberty resulting in a sudden and extreme sex drive which reaches its peak at age 15–16, then drops slowly over their lifetime. In contrast, a female's libido increases slowly during adolescence and peaks in their mid-thirties.Template:Why^[69] Actual testosterone and estrogen levels that affect a person's sex drive vary considerably.

Some boys and girls will start expressing romantic or sexual interest by age 10–12. The romantic feelings are not necessarily sexual, but are more associated with attraction and desire for another. For boys and girls in their preteen years (ages 11–12), at least 25% report "thinking a lot about sex".^[70] By the early teenage years (ages 13–14), however, boys are much more likely to have sexual fantasies than girls. In addition, boys are much more likely to report an interest in sexual intercourse at this age than girls.^[70] Masturbation among youth is common, with prevalence among the population generally increasing until the late 20s and early 30s. Boys generally start masturbating earlier, with less than 10% boys masturbating around age 10, around half participating by age 11–12, and over a substantial majority by age 13–14.^[70] This is in sharp contrast to girls where virtually none are engaging in masturbation before age 13, and only around 20% by age 13–14.^[70]

People in their 60s and early 70s generally retain a healthy sex drive, but this may start to decline in the early to mid-70s.^[71] Older adults generally develop a reduced libido due to declining health and environmental or social factors.^[71] In contrast to common belief, postmenopausal women often report an increase in sexual desire and an increased willingness to satisfy their partner.^[72] Women often report family responsibilities, health, relationship problems, and well-being as inhibitors to their sexual desires. Aging adults often have more positive attitudes towards sex in older age due to being more relaxed about it, freedom from other responsibilities, and increased self-confidence. Those exhibiting negative attitudes generally cite health as one of the main reasons. Stereotypes about aging adults and sexuality often regard seniors as asexual beings, doing them no favors when they try to talk about sexual interest with caregivers and medical professionals.^[72] Non-western cultures often follow a narrative of older women having a much lower libido, thus not encouraging any sort of sexual behavior for women. Residence in retirement homes has effects on residents' libidos. In these homes, sex occurs, but it is not encouraged by the staff or other residents. Lack of privacy and resident gender imbalance are the main factors lowering desire.^[72] Generally, for older adults, being excited about sex, good health, sexual self-esteem and having a sexually talented partner can be factors.^[73]

Sexual desire disorders

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Sexual desire disorders are more common in women than in men,^[74] and women tend to exhibit less frequent and less intense sexual desires than men.^[75] Erectile dysfunction may happen to the penis because of lack of sexual desire, but these two should not be confused since the two can commonly occur simultaneously.^[76] For example, moderate to large recreational doses of cocaine, amphetamine or methamphetamine can simultaneously cause erectile dysfunction (evidently due to vasoconstriction) while still significantly increasing libido due to heightened levels of dopamine.^[77] Although conversely, excessive or very regular/repeated high-dose amphetamine use may damage leydig cells in the male testes, potentially leading to markedly lowered sexual desire subsequently due to hypogonadism. However, in contrast to this, other stimulants such as cocaine and even caffeine appear to lack negative impacts on testosterone levels, and may even increase their concentrations in the body. Studies on cannabis however seem to be exceptionally mixed, with some claiming decreased levels on testosterone, others reporting increased levels, and with some showing no measurable changes at all. This varying data seems to coincide with the almost equally conflicting data on cannabis' effects on sex drive as well, which may be dosage or frequency-dependent, due to different amounts of distinct cannabinoids in the plant, or based on individual enzyme properties responsible for metabolism of the drug. Evidence on alcohol's effects on testosterone however invariably show a clear decrease, however (like amphetamine, albeit to a lesser degree); temporary increases in libido and related sexual behavior have long been observed during alcohol intoxication in both sexes, but likely most noticeable with moderation, particularly in males. Additionally, men often also naturally experience a decrease in their libido as they age due to decreased productions in testosterone.

The American Medical Association has estimated that several million US women have a female sexual arousal disorder, though arousal is not at all synonymous with desire, so this finding is of limited relevance to the discussion of libido.^[56] Some specialists claim that women may experience low libido due to some hormonal abnormalities such as lack of luteinising hormone or androgenic hormones, although these theories are still controversial.

References

Template:Reflist

@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 {{other uses}}
 {{redirect|Sex drive|other uses|Sex Drive (disambiguation)}}
+{{redirect|Carnal|the rock album|Carnal (album)}}
+{{Psychoanalysis |Concepts}}
+The '''libido''' ({{IPAc-en|l|ɪ|ˈ|b|iː|d|oʊ}} {{respell|lih|BEE|doh}}; {{etymology|la|{{wikt-lang|la|libīdō}}|}}) refers to a psychological energy that, in common parlance, encompasses all forms of [[human sexuality|sexual]] desire, but is sometimes also regarded as the driving force behind other needs,<ref>{{Cite OED|libido|107907}}</ref> such as a mother's love for her infant. The term was originally developed by [[Sigmund Freud]], the pioneer of [[psychoanalysis]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Sex and Society |date=2010 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-7905-5 |pages=462 }}{{rs|date=November 2025}}</ref> Initially it referred only to specific sexual needs, but he later expanded the concept to a universal [[desire]], with the [[Id,_ego_and_superego#Id|id]] being its "great reservoir".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Freud |first1=Sigmund |title=Massenpsychologie und Ich-Analyse |pages=99}}</ref><ref>Sigmund Freud, ''The Ego and the Id'', ''On Metapsychology'' (Penguin Freud Library 11) p. 369.</ref> As driving energy behind all life processes, libido became the source of the social engagement (maternal love instinct, for example), sexual behaviour, pursuit for nutrition, skin pleasure, knowledge and victory in all areas of [[self-preservation|self-]] and [[species preservation]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Libido |url= https://dictionary.apa.org/libido |work= APA Dictionary of Psychology |publisher=American Psychological Association |access-date=19 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Akhtar |first1=Salman |title=A Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychoanalysis |date=2009 |publisher=Karnac |location=London |page=159}}</ref>
-[[File:Freuds structural model of psyche.png|thumb|right|300px|Dynamics of libido energy in Freud's three instances model, referenced to his horse-rider metaphor: The human head symbolizes the ''ego'', the animal body the ''id''. Dualistic in an analogue way, the libidinal energy branches out from the id into two main areas: the mental urge to know (up), and the bodily urge to act (down). Both combine to act through the ego in order to fulfil the needs of the id. This Includes perception and judgement of inner and outer reality, leading to experiences (by muscle control), that shape the superego. The superego contains our socialisation taking place during childhood. If it support the id's instinctual needs, the organism remains mentally healthy – the 'rider' carries out the will of his 'animal' "as if it were his own".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Freud |first=Sigmund |title=The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Volume XIX (1923–26) ''The Ego and the Id and Other Works'' |publisher=Hogarth Press |others=Strachey, James, Freud, Anna, Rothgeb, Carrie Lee, Richards, Angela, Scientific Literature Corporation |year=1978 |isbn=0701200677 |location=London |pages=19 |oclc=965512}}</ref>]]
+Equated the libido with the ''Eros'' of Platonic philosophy,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Platon |title=Symposion}}</ref> Freud further differentiated two inherent operators: the [[Psychoanalysis#Life and death drive|life drive and the death drive]].<ref>Sigmund Freud: ''Jenseits des Lustprinzips''. In: Sigmund Freud: ''Psychologie des Unbewußten'' (= ''Studienausgabe'' Band 3), Frankfurt am Main 1975, S. 213–272, hier: 266. Vgl. [[Gerasimos Santas]]: ''Plato and Freud. Two Theories of Love'', Oxford 1988, S. 160–162.</ref> Both aspects are working complementary to each other: While the ''death drive'', also called ''Destrudo'' or ''Thanatos'', embodies the principle of 'analytical' decomposition of complex phenomenon, the effect of ''life drive'' (Greek ''Bios'') is to reassemble or synthesise the parts of the decomposition in a way that serves the organisms regeneration and reproduction. Freud's most abstract description of libido represents an energetic potential that begins like a [[Bow and arrow|bow]] to tense up unpleasantly (noticeable 'hunger') in order to pleasantly relax again (noticeable satisfaction); its nature is both physical and psychological.<ref>{{citation|author=Sigmund Freud |chapter=1 Das Lustprinzip und seine Einschränkung durch das Realitätsprinzip |title=Jenseits des Lustprinzips}}<!-- auto-translated from German by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Starting from the id in the fertilised egg, libido initiates also the emergence of two further instances: the ego (function of conscious perception), and the superego, which specialises in retrievable storage of experiences (long-term memory). Together with libido as their source, these three instances represent the common core of all branches of [[psychoanalysis]].
-In [[psychology]], '''libido''' ({{IPAc-en|l|ɪ|ˈ|b|iː|d|oʊ}}; {{etymology|la|{{wikt-lang|la|libīdō}}|}}) is a [[desiring]] energy, usually conceived of as [[human sexuality|sexual]] in nature, but sometimes also encompasses other forms of needs.<ref>{{Cite book| url= https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/107907|title=Oxford English Dictionary (OED Online)|publisher=Oxford University Press| year=1989| edition= 2nd| location= Oxford |url-access= subscription| access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref> The term was originally developed by [[Sigmund Freud]], the pioneer of [[psychoanalysis]]. Initially referred only to specific sexual needs, he expanded the concept later to an universal desire thats great reservoir is the Id.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Freud |first1=Sigmund |title=Massenpsychologie und Ich-Analyse |pages=99}}</ref><ref>Sigmund Freud, ''The Ego and the Id'', ''On Metapsychology'' (Penguin Freud Library 11) p. 369.</ref> As driving energy behind all life processes, libido became the source of the social engagement (maternal love instinct, f. e.), sexual behaviour, pursuit for nutrition, skin pleasure, knowledge and victory in all areas of [[self-preservation|self-]] and [[species preservation]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Libido |url= https://dictionary.apa.org/libido |work= APA Dictionary of Psychology |publisher=American Psychological Association |access-date=19 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Akhtar |first1=Salman |title=A Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychoanalysis |date=2009 |publisher=Karnac |location=London |page=159}}</ref>
+From a [[Neuroscience|neurobiological]] point of view, the inner perception and regulation of the various innate needs are mediated through the [[nucleus accumbens]] by [[Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]] and [[Hormone|hormones]]; in relation to sexuality, these are mainly [[testosterone]], [[Estrogen|oestrogen]] and [[dopamine]].<ref name="MEDRS review" /> Each of the needs can be influenced by the others (e.g. baby feeding is inextricably connected with sociality); but above all, their fulfilment requires the libidinal satisfaction of [[curiosity]]. Without this 'research [[instinct]]' of mind, the control of bodily motoric would be impossible, the arrow from the bow called ''life''{{fact|date=November 2025}} wouldn't do its work (''death''). Just as happiness is anchored in the fulfilment of all innate needs, disturbances through social stress resulting from lifestyle, traumatisation in early childhood or during war, mental and bodily illness lead to suffering that is inwardly noticeable and conscious to the ego. Through the capacity of [[empathy]], linguistic and facial expressions of emotion ultimately also affect the human environment.{{fact|date=November 2025}}
-Equated the libido with the ''Eros'' of Platonic philosophy,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Platon |title=Symposion}}</ref> Freud further differentiated two inherent operators: the [[Psychoanalysis#Life and death drive|life drive and the death drive]].<ref>Sigmund Freud: ''Jenseits des Lustprinzips''. In: Sigmund Freud: ''Psychologie des Unbewußten'' (= ''Studienausgabe'' Band 3), Frankfurt am Main 1975, S. 213–272, hier: 266. Vgl. [[Gerasimos Santas]]: ''Plato and Freud. Two Theories of Love'', Oxford 1988, S. 160–162.</ref> Both aspects are working complementary to each other: While the ''death drive'', also called ''Destrudo'' or ''Thanatos'', embodies the principle of 'analytical' decomposition of complex phenomenon, the effect of ''life drive'' (Greek ''Bios'') is to reassemble or synthesise the parts of the decomposition in a way that serves the organisms regeneration and reproduction. Freud's most abstract description of libido represents an energetic potential that begins like a [[Bow and arrow|bow]] to tense up unpleasantly (noticeable 'hunger') in order to pleasantly relax again (noticeable satisfaction); its nature is both physical and psychological.<ref>{{citation|author=Sigmund Freud |chapter=1  Das Lustprinzip und seine Einschränkung durch das Realitätsprinzip |title=Jenseits des Lustprinzips}}<!-- auto-translated from German by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Starting from the id in the fertilised egg, libido initiates also the emergence of two further instances: the ego (function of conscious perception), and the superego, which specialises in retrievable storage of experiences (long-term memory). Together with the libido as their surce, this three instance represent the common core of all branches of [[psychoanalysis]].
+== Different psychological perspectives ==
-From a [[Neuroscience|neurobiological]] point of view, the inner perception and regulation of the various innate needs are mediated through the [[nucleus accumbens]] by [[Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]] and [[Hormone|hormones]]; in relation to sexuality, these are mainly [[testosterone]], [[Estrogen|oestrogen]] and [[dopamine]].<ref name="MEDRS review" /> Each of the needs can be influenced by the others (e.g. baby feeding is inextricably connected with sociality); but above all, their fulfilment requires the libidinal satisfaction of [[curiosity]]. Without this 'research [[instinct]]' of mind, the control of bodily motoric would be impossible, the arrow from the bow called ''life'' <ref>{{Cite web |title=Google Search |url=https://www.google.com/search?q=Translat+of+bios+by+Heraklit&num=10&client=firefox-b-d&sca_esv=f44c1c969151bea8&ei=_DJcaJX5Bva3i-gPuc3IuQM&ved=0ahUKEwiV593HjY2OAxX22wIHHbkmMjcQ4dUDCBA&uact=5&oq=Translat+of+bios+by+Heraklit&gs_lp=Egxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAiHFRyYW5zbGF0IG9mIGJpb3MgYnkgSGVyYWtsaXQyBRAAGO8FMgUQABjvBTIFEAAY7wUyCBAAGKIEGIkFSJqPAVC9Nli0gAFwAngBkAEAmAGoA6AB1Q2qAQc4LjUuNC0xuAEDyAEA-AEBmAIPoAK5DcICChAAGLADGNYEGEfCAggQIRigARjDBMICChAhGKABGMMEGAqYAwCIBgGQBgiSBwc4LjYuNC0xoAe0LLIHBzYuNi40LTG4B60NwgcFMC43LjjIByY&sclient=gws-wiz-serp |access-date=2025-06-25 |website=www.google.com}}</ref> wouldn't do its work (''death''). Just as happiness is anchored in the fulfilment of all innate needs, disturbances through social stress resulting from lifestyle, traumatisation in early childhood or during war, mental and bodily illness lead to suffering that is inwardly noticeable and conscious to the ego. Through the capacity of [[empathy]], linguistic and facial expressions of emotion ultimately also affect the human environment.
-== Psychological perspectives ==
 ===Freud===
-{{Psychoanalysis |Concepts}}
+[[File:Freuds structural model of psyche.png|thumb|right|300px|Dynamics of libidinal energy ([[Psychoanalysis#Life and death drives|death- and life drive]]) in Freud's structural model of the soul, referring to his rider metaphor: The head symbolizes the ''ego'' (principle of reality); the animal body the ''id'' (pleasure principle). Dual in the same way, the libido branches out from the id into two main areas: the mental urge to know (up), and the bodily urge to act (down). Both combine to act through the ego in order to fulfil the needs of the id. This includes perception and assessment of inner/outer reality, and is based on unpleasant increase and pleasurable reduction of tension in libidinal energy ( “hunger” and “satiety” in general).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Freud |first=Sigmund |title=Jenseits des Lustprinzips |chapter=1}}</ref> Ultimately, satisfaction of the needs leads to experiences (by muscle control) that the superego internalises through [[Imprinting (psychology)|imprinting]]. The superego contains our socialisation, that takes place during childhood. If it support the id's instinctual needs, the organism remains mentally healthy – the 'rider' carries out the will of his 'animal' "as if it were his own".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Freud |first=Sigmund |title=The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Volume XIX (1923–26) ''The Ego and the Id and Other Works'' |publisher=Hogarth Press |others=Strachey, James, Freud, Anna, Rothgeb, Carrie Lee, Richards, Angela, Scientific Literature Corporation |year=1978 |isbn=0701200677 |location=London |pages=19 |oclc=965512}}</ref>]]
-[[File:Sigmund Freud, by Max Halberstadt (cropped).jpg|thumb|160px|[[Sigmund Freud]]]]
-[[Sigmund Freud]], who is considered the originator of the modern use of the term,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sex and Society|last1=Crowe|first1=Felicity|last2=Hill|first2=Emily|last3=Hollingum|first3=Ben|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year=2010|isbn=9780761479055|location=New York|pages=462}}</ref> defined libido as "the energy, regarded as a quantitative magnitude... of those instincts which have to do with all that may be comprised under the word 'love'."<ref>S. Freud, [[Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego]], 1959</ref> It is the instinctual energy or force, contained in what Freud called the [[Id, Ego and Superego|id]], the strictly unconscious structure of the [[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]]. He also explained that it is analogous to hunger, the will to power, and so on<ref>{{Cite book|title=The New Wounded: From Neurosis to Brain Damage|last=Malabou|first=Catherine|date=2012|publisher=Fordham University Press|isbn=9780823239672|location=New York|pages=103}}</ref> insisting that it is a fundamental instinct that is innate in all humans.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Literary Theory: The Complete Guide|last=Klages|first=Mary|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|year=2017|isbn=9781472592767|location=London|pages=245}}</ref>
+[[Sigmund Freud]] defined libido as "the energy, regarded as a quantitative magnitude... of those instincts which have to do with all that may be comprised under the word 'love'."<ref>S. Freud, [[Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego]], 1959</ref> It is the instinctual energy or force, contained in what Freud called the [[Id, Ego and Superego|id]], the strictly unconscious structure of the [[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]]. He also explained that it is analogous to hunger, the will to power, and so on<ref>{{Cite book|title=The New Wounded: From Neurosis to Brain Damage|last=Malabou|first=Catherine|date=2012|publisher=Fordham University Press|isbn=978-0-8232-3967-2|location=New York|pages=103}}</ref> insisting that it is a fundamental instinct that is innate in all humans.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Literary Theory: The Complete Guide|last=Klages|first=Mary|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|year=2017|isbn=978-1-4725-9276-7|location=London|pages=245}}</ref>
 Freud pointed out that these libidinal drives can conflict with the conventions of civilised behavior, represented in the psyche by the [[superego]]. It is this need to conform to society and control the libido that leads to tension and anxiety in the individual, prompting the use of [[ego defenses]] which channel the psychic energy of the unconscious drives into forms that are acceptable to the ego and superego. Excessive use of ego defenses results in [[neurosis]], so a primary goal of [[psychoanalysis]] is to make the drives accessible to [[consciousness]], allowing them to be addressed directly, thus reducing the patient's automatic resort to ego defenses.<ref>{{cite book
@@ Line 35: / Line 34: @@
 Swiss psychiatrist [[Carl Jung|Carl Gustav Jung]] identified the libido with psychic energy in general. According to Jung, 'energy', in its subjective and psychological sense, is 'desire', of which sexual desire is just one aspect.<ref>P. Gay, ''Freud'' (1989) p. 397</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://frithluton.com/articles/libido/ |title=Libido |last=Sharp |first=Daryl |website=frithluton.com|date=15 October 2011 }}</ref> Libido thus denotes "a desire or impulse which is unchecked by any kind of authority, moral or otherwise. Libido is appetite in its natural state. From the genetic point of view it is bodily needs like hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex, and emotional states or affects, which constitute the essence of libido."<ref>“The Concept of Libido” Collected Works Vol. 5, par. 194.</ref> It is "the energy that manifests itself in the life process and is perceived subjectively as striving and desire."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ellenberger |first1=Henri |title=The Discovery of the Unconscious |date=1970 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |page=697}}</ref> Duality (opposition) creates the energy (or libido) of the psyche, which Jung asserts expresses itself only through symbols. These symbols may manifest as "fantasy-images" in the process of psychoanalysis, giving subjective expression to the contents of the libido, which otherwise lacks any definite form.<ref>“The Technique of Differentiation,” Collected Works Vol. 7, par. 345.</ref> Desire, conceived generally as a psychic longing, movement, displacement and structuring, manifests itself in definable forms which are apprehended through analysis.
-=== Other psychological and social perspectives ===
+=== Further psychological and social viewpoints ===
-A person may have a desire for sex, but not have the opportunity to act on that desire, or may on personal, moral or religious reasons [[Sexual abstinence|refrain from acting on the urge]]. Psychologically, a person's urge can be [[Psychological repression|repressed]] or [[Sublimation (psychology)|sublimated]]. Conversely, a person can engage in sexual activity without an actual desire for it. Multiple factors affect human sex drive, including stress, illness, pregnancy, and others. A 2001 review found that, on average, men have a higher desire for sex than women.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Roy F. Baumeister, Kathleen R. Catanese, and Kathleen D. Vohs|title=Is There a Gender Difference in Strength of Sex Drive? Theoretical Views, Conceptual Distinctions, and a Review of Relevant Evidence|url=http://assets.csom.umn.edu/assets/71520.pdf|work=Department of Psychology Case Western Reserve University|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.|quote=All the evidence we have reviewed points toward the conclusion that men desire sex more than women. Although some of the findings were more methodologically rigorous than others, the unanimous convergence across all measures and findings increases confidence. We did not find a single study, on any of nearly a dozen different measures, that found women had a stronger sex drive than men. We think that the combined quantity, quality, diversity, and convergence of the evidence render the conclusion indisputable}}</ref>
+A person may have a desire for sex, but not have the opportunity to act on that desire, or may on personal, moral or religious reasons [[Sexual abstinence|refrain from acting on the urge]]. Psychologically, a person's urge can be [[Psychological repression|repressed]] or [[Sublimation (psychology)|sublimated]]. Conversely, a person can engage in sexual activity without an actual desire for it. Multiple factors affect human sex drive, including stress, illness, pregnancy, and others. A large 2022 review, using more than 620,000 people and 211 studies, found that men had higher sex drives than women on average, and that one-third of women (30-35%) had a higher sex drive than the average man. The study found an 80% overlap in the sex drives of men and women, and that the effects of the difference were "medium" in size.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frankenbach |first1=Julius |last2=Weber |first2=Marcel |last3=Loschelder |first3=David D. |last4=Kilger |first4=Helena |last5=Friese |first5=Malte |title=Sex drive: Theoretical conceptualization and meta-analytic review of gender differences |journal=Psychological Bulletin |date=September 2022 |volume=148 |issue=9–10 |pages=621–661 |doi=10.1037/bul0000366 }}</ref>
+Other studies have found that women report similar sexual habits as men, such as masturbation frequency, under the impression of a lie detector. The study reported that "sex differences in self-reported sexual behavior (masturbation) were negligible in a bogus pipeline condition in which participants believed lying could be detected."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alexander |first1=Michele G. |last2=Fisher |first2=Terri D. |title=Truth and consequences: Using the bogus pipeline to examine sex differences in self-reported sexuality |journal=Journal of Sex Research |date=February 2003 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=27–35 |doi=10.1080/00224490309552164 |pmid=12806529 }}</ref>
-Certain psychological or social factors can reduce the desire for sex. These factors can include lack of privacy or [[intimacy]], [[stress (medicine)|stress]] or [[fatigue (medical)|fatigue]], distraction, or depression. Environmental stress, such as prolonged exposure to [[noise health effects|elevated sound levels]] or [[over-illumination|bright light]], can also affect libido. Other causes include experience of sexual abuse, assault, trauma, or neglect, body image issues, and anxiety about engaging in sexual activity.<ref>[[Irvin D. Yalom|Yalom, I.D.]], ''Love's Executioner and Other Tales of Psychotherapy''. New York: Basic Books, 1989. {{ISBN|0-06-097334-X}}.</ref>
+A 2012 study found that, in couples who has been together at least a year, differences in sex drive were non-significant and more similar than different.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mark |first1=Kristen P. |last2=Murray |first2=Sarah H. |title=Gender Differences in Desire Discrepancy as a Predictor of Sexual and Relationship Satisfaction in a College Sample of Heterosexual Romantic Relationships |journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy |date=March 2012 |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=198–215 |doi=10.1080/0092623X.2011.606877 |pmid=22390532 }}</ref>
-Individuals with [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) may find themselves with reduced sexual desire. Struggling to find pleasure, as well as having trust issues, many with PTSD experience feelings of vulnerability, rage and anger, and emotional shutdowns, which have been shown to inhibit sexual desire in those with PTSD.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Yehuda|first1=Rachel|last2=Lehrner|first2=Amy|last3=Rosenbaum|first3=Talli Y.|date=2015|title=PTSD and Sexual Dysfunction in Men and Women|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|volume=12|issue=5|pages=1107–1119|doi=10.1111/jsm.12856|pmid=25847589|s2cid=1746180|issn=1743-6109}}</ref> Reduced sex drive may also be present in trauma victims due to issues arising in sexual function. For women, it has been found that treatment can improve sexual function, thus helping restore sexual desire.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wells|first1=Stephanie Y.|last2=Glassman|first2=Lisa H.|last3=Talkovsky|first3=Alexander M.|last4=Chatfield|first4=Miranda A.|last5=Sohn|first5=Min Ji|last6=Morland|first6=Leslie A.|last7=Mackintosh|first7=Margaret-Anne|date=2019-01-01|title=Examining Changes in Sexual Functioning after Cognitive Processing Therapy in a Sample of Women Trauma Survivors|url=https://www.whijournal.com/article/S1049-3867(18)30101-4/abstract|journal=Women's Health Issues|language=en|volume=29|issue=1|pages=72–79|doi=10.1016/j.whi.2018.10.003|issn=1049-3867|pmid=30455090|s2cid=53871527|doi-access=free}}</ref> Depression and libido decline often coincide, with reduced sex drive being one of the symptoms of [[Depression (mood)|depression]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Robert L. Phillips|first1=Jr|last2=Slaughter|first2=James R.|date=2000-08-15|title=Depression and Sexual Desire|url=https://www.aafp.org/afp/2000/0815/p782.html|journal=American Family Physician|volume=62|issue=4|pages=782–786|pmid=10969857|issn=0002-838X}}</ref> Those with depression often report the decline in libido to be far reaching and more noticeable than other symptoms.<ref name=":12" /> In addition, those with depression often are reluctant to report their reduced sex drive, often normalizing it with cultural/social values, or by the failure of the physician to inquire about it.
+Another 2012 study found that testosterone did not account for sexual differences between men and women.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van Anders |first1=Sari M. |title=Testosterone and Sexual Desire in Healthy Women and Men |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |date=December 2012 |volume=41 |issue=6 |pages=1471–1484 |doi=10.1007/s10508-012-9946-2 |pmid=22552705 }}</ref>
+Certain psychological or social factors can reduce the desire for sex. These factors can include lack of privacy or [[intimacy]], [[stress (medicine)|stress]] or [[fatigue (medical)|fatigue]], distraction, safety social stigma (in women, it can account for a large part of rejecting sex), or depression. Environmental stress, such as prolonged exposure to [[noise health effects|elevated sound levels]] or [[over-illumination|bright light]], can also affect libido. Other causes include experience of sexual abuse, assault, trauma, or neglect, body image issues, and anxiety about engaging in sexual activity. Women whose first sexual experience was pleasant report the same sex drive as men. <ref>[[Irvin D. Yalom|Yalom, I.D.]], ''Love's Executioner and Other Tales of Psychotherapy''. New York: Basic Books, 1989. {{ISBN|0-06-097334-X}}.</ref>
+Individuals with [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) may find themselves with reduced sexual desire. Struggling to find pleasure, as well as having trust issues, many with PTSD experience feelings of vulnerability, rage and anger, and emotional shutdowns, which have been shown to inhibit sexual desire in those with PTSD.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yehuda |first1=Rachel |last2=Lehrner |first2=A.m.y. |last3=Rosenbaum |first3=Talli Y. |title=PTSD and Sexual Dysfunction in Men and Women |journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine |date=May 2015 |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=1107–1119 |doi=10.1111/jsm.12856 |pmid=25847589 }}</ref> Reduced sex drive may also be present in trauma victims due to issues arising in sexual function. For women, it has been found that treatment can improve sexual function, thus helping restore sexual desire.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wells |first1=Stephanie Y. |last2=Glassman |first2=Lisa H. |last3=Talkovsky |first3=Alexander M. |last4=Chatfield |first4=Miranda A. |last5=Sohn |first5=Min Ji |last6=Morland |first6=Leslie A. |last7=Mackintosh |first7=Margaret-Anne |title=Examining Changes in Sexual Functioning after Cognitive Processing Therapy in a Sample of Women Trauma Survivors |journal=Women's Health Issues |date=January 2019 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=72–79 |doi=10.1016/j.whi.2018.10.003 |pmid=30455090 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Depression and libido decline often coincide, with reduced sex drive being one of the symptoms of [[Depression (mood)|depression]].<ref name=":12">{{cite journal |last1=Phillips |first1=R. L. |last2=Slaughter |first2=J. R. |title=Depression and sexual desire |journal=American Family Physician |date=15 August 2000 |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=782–786 |url=https://www.aafp.org/link_out?pmid=10969857 |pmid=10969857 }}</ref> Those with depression often report the decline in libido to be far reaching and more noticeable than other symptoms.<ref name=":12" /> In addition, those with depression often are reluctant to report their reduced sex drive, often normalizing it with cultural/social values, or by the failure of the physician to inquire about it.
 [[Sexual desire]]s are often an important factor in the formation and maintenance of [[intimate relationship]]s in humans. A lack or loss of sexual desire can adversely affect relationships. Changes in the sexual desires of any partner in a sexual relationship, if sustained and unresolved, may cause [[Relationship breakup|problems in the relationship]]. The [[infidelity]] of a partner may be an indication that a partner's changing sexual desires can no longer be satisfied within the current relationship. Problems can arise from disparity of sexual desires between partners, or poor communication between partners of sexual needs and preferences.<ref name="B">{{cite web|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/low-sex-drive-in-women/DS01043/DSECTION=causes |title=Low sex drive in women|website=Mayo Clinic|publisher=Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research|access-date=July 28, 2010}}</ref>
@@ Line 50: / Line 55: @@
 Other neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, and sex hormones that affect sex drive by modulating activity in or acting upon this pathway include:
-* [[Testosterone]]<ref name="MEDRS review" /> (directly correlated) – and other [[androgen]]s<ref name="Lichterman" /><ref name="pmid20920505">{{cite journal |vauthors=Harding SM, Velotta JP | title = Comparing the relative amount of testosterone required to restore sexual arousal, motivation, and performance in male rats | journal = Horm Behav | volume = 59 | issue = 5 | pages = 666–73 |date=May 2011 | pmid = 20920505 | doi = 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.09.009 | s2cid = 1577450 }}</ref><ref name="Davis_2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Davis SR, Moreau M, Kroll R, Bouchard C, Panay N, Gass M, Braunstein GD, Hirschberg AL, Rodenberg C, Pack S, Koch H, Moufarege A, Studd J | title = Testosterone for low libido in postmenopausal women not taking estrogen | journal = N. Engl. J. Med. | volume = 359 | issue = 19 | pages = 2005–17 |date=November 2008 | pmid = 18987368 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa0707302 | s2cid = 181727 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last = Renneboog B |title = [Andropause and testosterone deficiency: how to treat in 2012?] |journal = [[Revue Médicale de Bruxelles]] |volume = 33 |pages = 443–9 |year = 2012 |pmid=23091954 |issue = 4}}</ref>
+* [[Testosterone]]<ref name="MEDRS review" /> (directly correlated) – and other [[androgen]]s<ref name= "Lichterman">{{cite book| title=28 Days: What Your Cycle Reveals about Your Love Life, Moods, and Potential| first= Gabrielle|last=Lichterman| isbn= 978-1-59337-345-0| date= November 2004| publisher= Adams Media Corporation}}{{pn|date=November 2025}}</ref><ref name="pmid20920505">{{cite journal |vauthors=Harding SM, Velotta JP | title = Comparing the relative amount of testosterone required to restore sexual arousal, motivation, and performance in male rats | journal = Horm Behav | volume = 59 | issue = 5 | pages = 666–73 |date=May 2011 | pmid = 20920505 | doi = 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.09.009 }}</ref><ref name="Davis_2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Davis SR, Moreau M, Kroll R, Bouchard C, Panay N, Gass M, Braunstein GD, Hirschberg AL, Rodenberg C, Pack S, Koch H, Moufarege A, Studd J | title = Testosterone for low libido in postmenopausal women not taking estrogen | journal = N. Engl. J. Med. | volume = 359 | issue = 19 | pages = 2005–17 |date=November 2008 | pmid = 18987368 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa0707302 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last = Renneboog B |title = [Andropause and testosterone deficiency: how to treat in 2012?] |journal = [[Revue Médicale de Bruxelles]] |volume = 33 |pages = 443–9 |year = 2012 |pmid=23091954 |issue = 4}}</ref>
-* [[Estrogen]]<ref name="MEDRS review" /> (directly correlated) – and related female sex hormones<ref name = "DeLamater&Sill2005">{{cite journal |last1= DeLamater|first1=J.D. |last2=Sill |first2=M.|year=2005 |title=Sexual Desire in Later Life |journal=The Journal of Sex Research |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=138–149 |doi=10.1080/00224490509552267|pmid=16123844 |s2cid=15894788 }}</ref><ref name="pmid21514299">{{cite journal |vauthors=Heiman JR, Rupp H, Janssen E, Newhouse SK, Brauer M, Laan E | title = Sexual desire, sexual arousal and hormonal differences in premenopausal US and Dutch women with and without low sexual desire | journal = Horm. Behav. | volume = 59 | issue = 5 | pages = 772–779 |date=May 2011 | pmid = 21514299 | doi = 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.03.013| s2cid = 20807391 }}</ref><ref name= "pmid16037752">{{cite journal |vauthors=Warnock JK, Swanson SG, Borel RW, Zipfel LM, Brennan JJ | title = Combined esterified estrogens and methyltestosterone versus esterified estrogens alone in the treatment of loss of sexual interest in surgically menopausal women | journal = Menopause | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 359–60 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16037752 | doi = 10.1097/01.GME.0000153933.50860.FD | s2cid = 24557071 }}</ref><ref name="Ziegler-51-p1-2" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Simerly |first=Richard B. |title=Wired for reproduction: organization and development of sexually dimorphic circuits in the mammalian forebrain |journal=Annu. Rev. Neurosci. |volume=25 |pages=507–536 |date=2002-03-27 |url=http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/neuroscience/BehavioralNeuroscience/Simerley-EFR-1-4.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001223447/http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/neuroscience/BehavioralNeuroscience/Simerley-EFR-1-4.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date= 2008-10-01 |doi= 10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142745 |pmid=12052919 |access-date= 2007-03-07 }}</ref>
+* [[Estrogen]]<ref name="MEDRS review" /> (directly correlated) – and related female sex hormones<ref name = "DeLamater&Sill2005">{{cite journal |last1= DeLamater|first1=J.D. |last2=Sill |first2=M.|year=2005 |title=Sexual Desire in Later Life |journal=The Journal of Sex Research |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=138–149 |doi=10.1080/00224490509552267 |pmid=16123844 }}</ref><ref name="pmid21514299">{{cite journal |vauthors=Heiman JR, Rupp H, Janssen E, Newhouse SK, Brauer M, Laan E | title = Sexual desire, sexual arousal and hormonal differences in premenopausal US and Dutch women with and without low sexual desire | journal = Horm. Behav. | volume = 59 | issue = 5 | pages = 772–779 |date=May 2011 | pmid = 21514299 | doi = 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.03.013 }}</ref><ref name= "pmid16037752">{{cite journal |vauthors=Warnock JK, Swanson SG, Borel RW, Zipfel LM, Brennan JJ | title = Combined esterified estrogens and methyltestosterone versus esterified estrogens alone in the treatment of loss of sexual interest in surgically menopausal women | journal = Menopause | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 359–60 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16037752 | doi = 10.1097/01.GME.0000153933.50860.FD }}</ref><ref name="Ziegler-51-p1-2" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Simerly |first1=Richard B. |title=Wired for Reproduction: Organization and Development of Sexually Dimorphic Circuits in the Mammalian Forebrain |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |date=March 2002 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=507–536 |doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142745 |pmid=12052919 }}</ref>
 * [[Progesterone]]<ref name="Ziegler-51-p1-2">Ziegler, T. E. (2007). Female sexual motivation during non-fertile periods: a primate phenomenon. Hormones and Behavior, 51(1), 1–2</ref> (inversely correlated)
 * [[Oxytocin]]<ref name= "Oxytocinergic circuit">{{cite journal |vauthors=McGregor IS, Callaghan PD, Hunt GE | title = From ultrasocial to antisocial: a role for oxytocin in the acute reinforcing effects and long-term adverse consequences of drug use? | journal = Br. J. Pharmacol. | volume = 154 | issue = 2 | pages = 358–368 |date=May 2008 | pmid = 18475254 | pmc = 2442436 | doi = 10.1038/bjp.2008.132 | quote = Recent evidence suggests that popular party drugs such as MDMA and gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) may preferentially activate brain oxytocin systems to produce their characteristic prosocial and prosexual effects. Oxytocin interacts with the mesolimbic dopamine system to facilitate sexual and social behaviour, and this oxytocin-dopamine interaction may also influence the acquisition and expression of drug-seeking behaviour.}}</ref> (directly correlated)
 * [[Serotonin]]<ref name="dop and nor"/><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Hu XH, Bull SA, Hunkeler EM, etal |title=Incidence and duration of side effects and those rated as bothersome with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment for depression: patient report versus physician estimate |journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry |volume=65 |issue=7 |pages= 959–65 |date=July 2004 |pmid= 15291685 |doi= 10.4088/JCP.v65n0712}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Landén M, Högberg P, Thase ME |title=Incidence of sexual side effects in refractory depression during treatment with citalopram or paroxetine |journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=100–6 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15669895 |doi=10.4088/JCP.v66n0114}}</ref> (inversely correlated)
-* [[Norepinephrine]]<ref name="dop and nor">{{cite journal |author=Clayton AH |title=The pathophysiology of hypoactive sexual desire disorder in women |journal=Int J Gynaecol Obstet |volume=110 |issue=1 |pages=7–11 |date=July 2010 |pmid=20434725 |doi=10.1016/j.ijgo.2010.02.014 |s2cid=29172936 }}</ref> (directly correlated)
+* [[Norepinephrine]]<ref name="dop and nor">{{cite journal |author=Clayton AH |title=The pathophysiology of hypoactive sexual desire disorder in women |journal=Int J Gynaecol Obstet |volume=110 |issue=1 |pages=7–11 |date=July 2010 |pmid=20434725 |doi=10.1016/j.ijgo.2010.02.014 }}</ref> (directly correlated)
-* [[Acetylcholine]]<ref>''Int J Impot Res''. 2000 Oct;12 Suppl 4:S26-33.</ref>
+* [[Acetylcholine]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Andersson |first1=K-E |title=Neurotransmitters: central and peripheral mechanisms |journal=International Journal of Impotence Research |date=October 2000 |volume=12 |issue=S4 |pages=S26–S33 |doi=10.1038/sj.ijir.3900574 |pmid=11035383 }}</ref>
 ==== Sex hormone levels and the menstrual cycle ====
-A woman's desire for sex is correlated to her [[menstrual cycle]], with many women experiencing a heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before [[ovulation]],<ref>{{cite journal| first1=Susan B. | last1= Bullivant |first2= Sarah A.| last2= Sellergren | first3= Kathleen |last3= Stern |title=Women's sexual experience during the menstrual cycle: identification of the sexual phase by noninvasive measurement of luteinizing hormone |journal=Journal of Sex Research |date=February 2004 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=82–93 (in online article, see pp.14–15, 18–22) |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00224490409552216 |pmid=15216427 |doi=10.1080/00224490409552216 |s2cid=40401379 |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070923001735/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_1_41/ai_n6032944 |archive-date=2007-09-23 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> which is her peak fertility period, which normally occurs two days before and until two days after the ovulation.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.duofertility.com/en/my-body/my-cycle/my-fertile-period.html |title=My Fertile Period| website= DuoFertility.com| date= | publisher= |access-date= 2008-09-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221225600/http://www.duofertility.com/en/my-body/my-cycle/my-fertile-period.html |archive-date=2008-12-21 }}</ref> This cycle has been associated with changes in a woman's [[testosterone]] levels during the menstrual cycle. According to Gabrielle Lichterman, testosterone levels have a direct impact on a woman's interest in sex. According to her, testosterone levels rise gradually from about the 24th day of a woman's menstrual cycle until ovulation on about the 14th day of the next cycle, and during this period the woman's desire for sex increases consistently. The 13th day is generally the day with the highest testosterone levels. In the week following ovulation, the testosterone level is the lowest and as a result women will experience less interest in sex.<ref name= "Lichterman">{{cite book| title=28 Days: What Your Cycle Reveals about Your Love Life, Moods, and Potential| first= Gabrielle|last=Lichterman| isbn= 978-1-59337-345-0| date= November 2004| publisher= Adams Media Corporation}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2015}}
+A woman's desire for sex is correlated to her [[menstrual cycle]], with many women experiencing a heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before [[ovulation]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bullivant |first1=Susan B. |last2=Sellergren |first2=Sarah A. |last3=Stern |first3=Kathleen |last4=Spencer |first4=Natasha A. |last5=Jacob |first5=Suma |last6=Mennella |first6=Julie A. |last7=McClintock |first7=Martha K. |title=Women's sexual experience during the menstrual cycle: Identification of the sexual phase by noninvasive measurement of luteinizing hormone |journal=Journal of Sex Research |date=February 2004 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=82–93 |doi=10.1080/00224490409552216 }}</ref> which is her peak fertility period, which normally occurs two days before and until two days after the ovulation.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.duofertility.com/en/my-body/my-cycle/my-fertile-period.html |title=My Fertile Period| website= DuoFertility.com| date= | publisher= |access-date= 2008-09-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221225600/http://www.duofertility.com/en/my-body/my-cycle/my-fertile-period.html |archive-date=2008-12-21 }}</ref> This cycle has been associated with changes in a woman's estradiol and testosterone levels during the menstrual cycle. Women whose ovaries are removed before menopause often experience a dramatic loss of libido.
-Also, during the week following ovulation, [[progesterone]] levels increase, resulting in a woman experiencing difficulty achieving [[orgasm]]. Although the last days of the menstrual cycle are marked by a constant testosterone level, women's libido may get a boost as a result of the thickening of the [[Endometrium|uterine lining]] which stimulates [[nerve endings]] and makes a woman feel aroused.<ref name="C">{{cite web |url=http://www.emaxhealth.com/48/4247.html |title=Women Can Now Predict When They Will Have The Best Sex | website= emaxhealth.com |access-date=July 28, 2010 |archive-date=July 5, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705133933/https://www.emaxhealth.com/48/4247.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Also, during these days, [[estrogen]] levels decline, resulting in a decrease of [[vaginal lubrication|natural lubrication]].
+Also, during the week following ovulation, [[progesterone]] levels increase, resulting in a woman experiencing difficulty achieving [[orgasm]]. As the last days of the menstrual cycle are marked by a higher estrogen level, women's libido may get a boost as a result of the thickening of the [[Endometrium|uterine lining]] which stimulates [[nerve endings]] and makes a woman feel aroused.<ref name="C">{{cite web |url=http://www.emaxhealth.com/48/4247.html |title=Women Can Now Predict When They Will Have The Best Sex | website= emaxhealth.com |access-date=July 28, 2010 |archive-date=July 5, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705133933/https://www.emaxhealth.com/48/4247.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Also, during these days, [[estrogen]] levels decline, resulting in a decrease of [[vaginal lubrication|natural lubrication]].
-Although some specialists disagree with this theory, [[menopause]] is still considered by the majority a factor that can cause decreased sexual desire in women. The levels of estrogen decrease at menopause and this usually causes a lower interest in sex and vaginal dryness which makes sex painful. However, the levels of testosterone increase at menopause and this may be why some women may experience a contrary effect of an increased libido.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shearer|first1=Jasmin L|last2= Salmons|first2=Nabeel|last3=Murphy|first3=Damian J|last4= Gama|first4= Rousseau|date=January 2017| title= Postmenopausal hyperandrogenism: the under-recognized value of inhibins| journal=Annals of Clinical Biochemistry| language=en-US| volume= 54| issue= 1|pages=174–177| doi= 10.1177/0004563216656873|pmid=27278937|issn=0004-5632|doi-access= free}}</ref>
+A large study found that testosterone did not reliably predict women's sexual desire at any time point. It provided correlational evidence indicating that circulating estradiol, but not testosterone, was associated with the midcycle peak in women's sexual desire.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roney |first1=James R. |last2=Simmons |first2=Zachary L. |title=Hormonal predictors of sexual motivation in natural menstrual cycles |journal=Hormones and Behavior |date=April 2013 |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=636–645 |doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.02.013 |pmid=23601091 }}</ref>
+Another study found that there is little support for the notion that testosterone is the critical libidinal hormone for women. It found that, in all other female mammals, only estradiol has been shown to be critical for female sexual motivation and behavior.<ref name="Cappelletti Wallen Increasing">{{cite journal |last1=Cappelletti |first1=Maurand |last2=Wallen |first2=Kim |title=Increasing women's sexual desire: The comparative effectiveness of estrogens and androgens |journal=Hormones and Behavior |date=February 2016 |volume=78 |pages=178–193 |doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2015.11.003 }}</ref>
+A report from the University of Michigan supported this claim, reporting that several studies found no difference in testosterone levels in women who have high levels of desire and those diagnosed with a libido disorder <ref>{{cite web | title=The enduring enigma of female sexual desire &#124; U-M LSA Department of Psychology | url=https://lsa.umich.edu/psych/news-events/all-news/faculty-news/the-enduring-enigma-of-female-sexual-desire.html }}</ref>
+Although some specialists disagree with this theory, [[menopause]] is still considered by the majority a factor that can cause decreased sexual desire in women. The levels of estrogen decrease at menopause and this usually causes a lower interest in sex and vaginal dryness which makes sex painful. Estrogen helps a woman's sexual drive, contributing to vaginal lubrication.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shearer |first1=Jasmin L |last2=Salmons |first2=Nabeel |last3=Murphy |first3=Damian J |last4=Gama |first4=Rousseau |title=Postmenopausal hyperandrogenism: the under-recognized value of inhibins |journal=Annals of Clinical Biochemistry: International Journal of Laboratory Medicine |date=January 2017 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=174–177 |doi=10.1177/0004563216656873 |pmid=27278937 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
 === Physical factors ===
@@ Line 73: / Line 84: @@
 ==== Medications ====
-Some people purposefully attempt to decrease their libido through the usage of [[anaphrodisiac]]s.<ref>Rebal Jr, Ronald F., Robert A. Faguet, and Sherwyn M. Woods. "Unusual sexual syndromes." ''Extraordinary Disorders of Human Behavior''. Springer US, 1982. 121-154.</ref> Aphrodisiacs, such as [[dopaminergic]] psychostimulants, are a class of drugs which can increase libido. On the other hand, a reduced libido is also often [[iatrogenic]] and can be caused by many medications, such as [[hormonal contraception]], [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor|SSRI]]s and other [[antidepressants]], [[antipsychotic]]s, [[opioid]]s, [[beta blocker]]s and [[isotretinoin]].
+Some people purposefully attempt to decrease their libido through the usage of [[anaphrodisiac]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rebal |first1=Ronald F. |last2=Faguet |first2=Robert A. |last3=Woods |first3=Sherwyn M. |title=Extraordinary Disorders of Human Behavior |chapter=Unusual Sexual Syndromes |date=1982 |pages=121–154 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-9251-8_8 |isbn=978-1-4615-9253-2 }}</ref> Aphrodisiacs, such as [[dopaminergic]] psychostimulants, are a class of drugs which can increase libido. On the other hand, a reduced libido is also often [[iatrogenic]] and can be caused by many medications, such as [[hormonal contraception]], [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor|SSRI]]s and other [[antidepressants]], [[antipsychotic]]s, [[opioid]]s, [[beta blocker]]s and [[isotretinoin]].
+Isotretinoin, [[finasteride]] and many SSRIs and SNRIs uncommonly can cause a long-term decrease in libido and overall sexual function, sometimes lasting for months or years after users of these drugs have stopped taking them. These long-lasting effects have been classified as iatrogenic medical disorders, respectively termed post-retinoid sexual dysfunction/post-Accutane syndrome (PRSD/PAS), post-finasteride syndrome (PFS) and [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor#Sexual dysfunction|post-SSRI sexual dysfunction (PSSD)]].<ref name=":12"/><ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Bala |first1=Areeg |last2=Nguyen |first2=Hoang Minh Tue |last3=Hellstrom |first3=Wayne J.G. |title=Post-SSRI Sexual Dysfunction: A Literature Review |journal=Sexual Medicine Reviews |date=January 2018 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=29–34 |doi=10.1016/j.sxmr.2017.07.002 |pmid=28778697 }}</ref> These three disorders share many overlapping symptoms in addition to reduced libido, and are thought to share a common etiology, but collectively remain poorly-understood and lack effective treatments.
+Multiple studies have shown that with the exception of [[bupropion]] (Wellbutrin), [[trazodone]] (Desyrel) and [[nefazodone]] (Serzone), antidepressants generally will lead to lowered libido.<ref name=":12" /> SSRIs and SNRIs that typically lead to decreased libido are [[fluoxetine]] (Prozac), [[paroxetine]] (Paxil), [[fluvoxamine]] (Luvox), [[citalopram]] (Celexa),  [[sertraline]] (Zoloft), escitalopram (Lexapro), venlafaxine (Effexor), Duloxetine (Cymbalta), and lecomilnacipran (Fetzima).<ref name=":12" /> Lowering the dosage of SSRI and SNRI medications has been shown to improve libido in some patients.<ref name="Gonzales_1997">{{cite journal |last1=Montejo-González |first1=A L |last2=Llorca |first2=G |last3=Izquierdo |first3=J A |date=Fall 1997 |title=SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction: fluoxetine, paroxetine, sertraline, and fluvoxamine in a prospective, multicenter, and descriptive clinical study of 344 patients |journal=J Sex Marital Ther |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=176–194 |doi=10.1080/00926239708403923 |pmid=9292833 }}</ref> Other users try enrolling in psychotherapy to solve depression-related issues of libido. However, the effectiveness of this therapy is mixed, with many reporting that it had no or little effect on sexual drive.<ref name=":12" />
-Isotretinoin, [[finasteride]] and many SSRIs uncommonly can cause a long-term decrease in libido and overall sexual function, sometimes lasting for months or years after users of these drugs have stopped taking them. These long-lasting effects have been classified as iatrogenic medical disorders, respectively termed post-retinoid sexual dysfunction/post-Accutane syndrome (PRSD/PAS), post-finasteride syndrome (PFS) and [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor#Sexual dysfunction|post-SSRI sexual dysfunction (PSSD)]].<ref name=":12"/><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Bala|first1=Areeg|last2=Nguyen|first2=Hoang Minh Tue| last3= Hellstrom|first3=Wayne J. G.| date= 2018-01-01|title=Post-SSRI Sexual Dysfunction: A Literature Review| journal=Sexual Medicine Reviews |volume=6|issue=1|pages=29–34| doi=10.1016/j.sxmr.2017.07.002|pmid=28778697|issn=2050-0521}}</ref> These three disorders share many overlapping symptoms in addition to reduced libido, and are thought to share a common etiology, but collectively remain poorly-understood and lack effective treatments.
+Several studies have found that estrogen-only therapies that produce periovulatory levels of circulating estradiol increase sexual desire in postmenopausal women.<ref name="Cappelletti Wallen Increasing"/>
-Multiple studies have shown that with the exception of [[bupropion]] (Wellbutrin), [[trazodone]] (Desyrel) and [[nefazodone]] (Serzone), antidepressants generally will lead to lowered libido.<ref name=":12" /> SSRIs that typically lead to decreased libido are [[fluoxetine]] (Prozac), [[paroxetine]] (Paxil), [[fluvoxamine]] (Luvox), [[citalopram]] (Celexa) and [[sertraline]] (Zoloft).<ref name=":12" /> Lowering the dosage of SSRI medications has been shown to improve libido in some patients.<ref name="Gonzales_1997">{{cite journal |last1=Montejo-González |first1=A L |last2=Llorca |first2=G |last3=Izquierdo |first3=J A |date=Fall 1997 |title=SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction: fluoxetine, paroxetine, sertraline, and fluvoxamine in a prospective, multicenter, and descriptive clinical study of 344 patients |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9292833/ |journal=J Sex Marital Ther |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=176–194 |doi=10.1080/00926239708403923 |pmid=9292833 |access-date=2024-09-27}}</ref> Other users try enrolling in psychotherapy to solve depression-related issues of libido. However, the effectiveness of this therapy is mixed, with many reporting that it had no or little effect on sexual drive.<ref name=":12" />
+[[Testosterone]] is one of the hormones controlling libido in human beings, with the correlations being higher for men and less related in women. Emerging research<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Warnock |first1=Julia K. |last2=Clayton |first2=Anita |last3=Croft |first3=Harry |last4=Segraves |first4=Robert |last5=Biggs |first5=Faye C. |title=Comparison of Androgens in Women with Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: Those on Combined Oral Contraceptives (COCs) vs. Those Not on COCs |journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine |date=September 2006 |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=878–882 |doi=10.1111/j.1743-6109.2006.00294.x |pmid=16942531 }}</ref> is showing that hormonal contraception methods like oral [[contraceptive pill]]s (which rely on [[estrogen]] and [[progesterone]] together) are causing low libido in females by elevating levels of [[sex hormone-binding globulin]] (SHBG). SHBG binds to sex hormones, including testosterone, rendering them unavailable. Research is showing that even after ending a hormonal contraceptive method, SHBG levels remain elevated and no reliable data exists to predict when this phenomenon will diminish.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Panzer |first1=Claudia |last2=Wise |first2=Sarah |last3=Fantini |first3=Gemma |last4=Kang |first4=Dongwoo |last5=Munarriz |first5=Ricardo |last6=Guay |first6=Andre |last7=Goldstein |first7=Irwin |title=Impact of Oral Contraceptives on Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin and Androgen Levels: A Retrospective Study in Women with Sexual Dysfunction |journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine |date=January 2006 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=104–113 |doi=10.1111/j.1743-6109.2005.00198.x |pmid=16409223 }}</ref>
-[[Testosterone]] is one of the hormones controlling libido in human beings. Emerging research<ref>{{Cite journal
+Several studies have found that estrogen-only therapies that produce periovulatory levels of circulating estradiol increase sexual desire in postmenopausal women.<ref name="Cappelletti Wallen Increasing"/>
-| last1 = Warnock | first1 = J. K.
-| last2 = Clayton | first2 = A.
-| last3 = Croft | first3 = H.
-| last4 = Segraves | first4 = R.
-| last5 = Biggs | first5 = F. C.
-| title = Comparison of Androgens in Women with Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: Those on Combined Oral Contraceptives (COCs) vs. Those not on COCs
-| doi = 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2006.00294.x
-| journal = The Journal of Sexual Medicine
-| volume = 3
-| issue = 5
-| pages = 878–882
-| year = 2006
-| pmid = 16942531
-}}.</ref> is showing that hormonal contraception methods like oral [[contraceptive pill]]s (which rely on [[estrogen]] and [[progesterone]] together) are causing low libido in females by elevating levels of [[sex hormone-binding globulin]] (SHBG). SHBG binds to sex hormones, including testosterone, rendering them unavailable. Research is showing that even after ending a hormonal contraceptive method, SHBG levels remain elevated and no reliable data exists to predict when this phenomenon will diminish.<ref>{{Cite journal
-| last1 = Panzer | first1 = C.
-| last2 = Wise | first2 = S.
-| last3 = Fantini | first3 = G.
-| last4 = Kang | first4 = D.
-| last5 = Munarriz | first5 = R.
-| last6 = Guay | first6 = A.
-| last7 = Goldstein | first7 = I.
-| doi = 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2005.00198.x
-| title = Impact of Oral Contraceptives on Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin and Androgen Levels: A Retrospective Study in Women with Sexual Dysfunction
-| journal = The Journal of Sexual Medicine
-| volume = 3
-| issue = 1
-| pages = 104–113
-| year = 2006
-| pmid = 16409223
-}}.</ref>
-[[Oral contraceptive pill|Oral contraceptives]] lower androgen levels in users, and lowered androgen levels generally lead to a decrease in sexual desire. However, usage of oral contraceptives has shown to typically not have a connection with lowered libido in women.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1=Burrows|first1=Lara J.|last2= Basha|first2=Maureen|last3=Goldstein|first3=Andrew T.|date=2012-09-01| title=The Effects of Hormonal Contraceptives on Female Sexuality: A Review|url=https://www.jsm.jsexmed.org/article/S1743-6095(15)34100-X/abstract|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine| language=en| volume=9|issue=9|pages=2213–2223| doi=10.1111/j.1743-6109.2012.02848.x| pmid=22788250|issn=1743-6095|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| last1= Davis| first1=Anne R.| last2= Castaño| first2=Paula M.|date=2004|title=Oral contraceptives and libido in women| journal=Annual Review of Sex Research|volume=15|pages=297–320| issn=1053-2528|pmid=16913282}}</ref>
+[[Oral contraceptive pill|Oral contraceptives]] lower androgen levels in users, and lowered androgen levels generally lead to a decrease in sexual desire. However, usage of oral contraceptives has shown to typically not have a connection with lowered libido in women.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Burrows |first1=Lara J. |last2=Basha |first2=Maureen |last3=Goldstein |first3=Andrew T. |title=The Effects of Hormonal Contraceptives on Female Sexuality: A Review |journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine |date=September 2012 |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=2213–2223 |doi=10.1111/j.1743-6109.2012.02848.x |pmid=22788250 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Anne R. |last2=Castaño |first2=Paula M. |title=Oral Contraceptives and Libido in Women |journal=Annual Review of Sex Research |date=March 2004 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=297–320 |doi=10.1080/10532528.2004.10559822 |pmid=16913282 }}</ref>
 ==== Effects of age ====
-Males reach the peak of their sex drive in their teenage years {{Dubious|reason= Males clearly peak in sex drive in their early 20s|date=May 2023}}, while females reach it in their thirties.<ref>{{cite book | page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=4eRtj_DxQgoC&pg=PA149 149]| title= Reconceiving the second sex | first=Marcia Claire | last=Inhorn |year= 2009 | publisher=| isbn= |via= Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=I7sQAQAAMAAJ | title=Principles and practice of adult health nursing | first= Patricia | last= Gauntlett Beare | date=1990 | publisher=Mosby| isbn= 9780801603860|via= Google Books}}</ref> The surge in testosterone hits the male at puberty resulting in a sudden and extreme sex drive which reaches its peak at age 15–16, then drops slowly over their lifetime.{{Disputed inline|date=May 2023}} In contrast, a female's libido increases slowly during adolescence and peaks in their mid-thirties.{{why|date=August 2021}}<ref>{{cite book
+Males reach the peak of their sex drive in their teenage years, while females reach it in their thirties.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first1=Marcia C. |editor-first2=Tine |editor-first3=Helene |editor-first4=Maruska |editor-last1=Inhorn |editor-last2=Tjørnhøj-Thomsen |editor-last3=Goldberg |editor-last4=La Cour Mosegaard |title=Reconceiving the Second Sex |date=2009 |doi=10.3167/9781845454722 |isbn=978-1-84545-472-2 |first1=Laury |last1=Oaks |chapter=Manhood and Meaning in the Marketing of the 'Male Pill' |pages=139–159 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Beare |first1=Patricia Gauntlett |last2=Myers |first2=Judith L. |title=Principles and Practice of Adult Health Nursing |date=1990 |publisher=Mosby |isbn=978-0-8016-0386-0 }}{{pn|date=November 2025}}</ref> The surge in testosterone hits the male at puberty resulting in a sudden and extreme sex drive which reaches its peak at age 15–16, then drops slowly over their lifetime. In contrast, a female's libido increases slowly during adolescence and peaks in their mid-thirties.{{why|date=August 2021}}<ref>{{cite book
   |publisher = Penguin (Non-Classics)
   |ol = 7360364M
-  |isbn = 9780142004678 | page = [https://archive.org/details/sextimepowerho00shla/page/140 140]
+  |isbn = 978-0-14-200467-8 | page = [https://archive.org/details/sextimepowerho00shla/page/140 140]
   |title = Sex, Time, and Power
   |url = https://archive.org/details/sextimepower00leon_0
@@ Line 126: / Line 111: @@
 Actual testosterone and estrogen levels that affect a person's sex drive vary considerably.
-Some boys and girls will start expressing romantic or sexual interest by age 10–12. The romantic feelings are not necessarily sexual, but are more associated with attraction and desire for another. For boys and girls in their preteen years (ages 11–12), at least 25% report "thinking a lot about sex".<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal| last=Fortenberry|first=J. Dennis| date= July 2013|title=Puberty and Adolescent Sexuality|journal=Hormones and Behavior| volume= 64|issue=2| pages=280–287| doi= 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.03.007| issn= 0018-506X| pmc= 3761219| pmid= 23998672}}</ref> By the early teenage years (ages 13–14), however, boys are much more likely to have [[Sexual fantasy|sexual fantasies]] than girls. In addition, boys are much more likely to report an interest in sexual intercourse at this age than girls.<ref name=":2" /> [[Masturbation]] among youth is common, with prevalence among the population generally increasing until the late 20s and early 30s. Boys generally start masturbating earlier, with less than 10% boys masturbating around age 10, around half participating by age 11–12, and over a substantial majority by age 13–14.<ref name=":2" /> This is in sharp contrast to girls where virtually none are engaging in masturbation before age 13, and only around 20% by age 13–14.<ref name=":2" />
+Some boys and girls will start expressing romantic or sexual interest by age 10–12. The romantic feelings are not necessarily sexual, but are more associated with attraction and desire for another. For boys and girls in their preteen years (ages 11–12), at least 25% report "thinking a lot about sex".<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Fortenberry |first1=J. Dennis |title=Puberty and adolescent sexuality |journal=Hormones and Behavior |date=July 2013 |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=280–287 |doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.03.007 |pmid=23998672 |pmc=3761219 }}</ref> By the early teenage years (ages 13–14), however, boys are much more likely to have [[Sexual fantasy|sexual fantasies]] than girls. In addition, boys are much more likely to report an interest in sexual intercourse at this age than girls.<ref name=":2" /> [[Masturbation]] among youth is common, with prevalence among the population generally increasing until the late 20s and early 30s. Boys generally start masturbating earlier, with less than 10% boys masturbating around age 10, around half participating by age 11–12, and over a substantial majority by age 13–14.<ref name=":2" /> This is in sharp contrast to girls where virtually none are engaging in masturbation before age 13, and only around 20% by age 13–14.<ref name=":2" />
-People in their 60s and early 70s generally retain a healthy sex drive, but this may start to decline in the early to mid-70s.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Psychology of Human Sexuality|last=Lehmiller|first=Justin J|publisher=Wiley Blackwell| year= 2018|isbn=9781119164692|pages=621–626}}</ref> Older adults generally develop a reduced libido due to declining health and environmental or social factors.<ref name=":0" /> In contrast to common belief, postmenopausal women often report an increase in sexual desire and an increased willingness to satisfy their partner.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal| last1=Sinković|first1=Matija|last2=Towler|first2=Lauren|date=2018-12-25| title=Sexual Aging: A Systematic Review of Qualitative Research on the Sexuality and Sexual Health of Older Adults|journal=Qualitative Health Research|volume=29|issue=9|pages=1239–1254| doi= 10.1177/1049732318819834| pmid= 30584788|s2cid=58605636|issn=1049-7323}}</ref> Women often report family responsibilities, health, relationship problems, and well-being as inhibitors to their sexual desires. Aging adults often have more positive attitudes towards sex in older age due to being more relaxed about it, freedom from other responsibilities, and increased self-confidence. Those exhibiting negative attitudes generally cite health as one of the main reasons. Stereotypes about aging adults and sexuality often regard seniors as asexual beings, doing them no favors when they try to talk about sexual interest with caregivers and medical professionals.<ref name=":4" /> Non-western cultures often follow a narrative of older women having a much lower libido, thus not encouraging any sort of sexual behavior for women. Residence in retirement homes has effects on residents' libidos. In these homes, sex occurs, but it is not encouraged by the staff or other residents. Lack of privacy and resident gender imbalance are the main factors lowering desire.<ref name=":4" /> Generally, for older adults, being excited about sex, good health, sexual self-esteem and having a sexually talented partner can be factors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kontula|first1=Osmo|last2=Haavio-Mannila|first2=Elina|date=2009-02-03|title=The Impact of Aging on Human Sexual Activity and Sexual Desire|journal=The Journal of Sex Research|volume=46|issue=1|pages=46–56|doi=10.1080/00224490802624414|issn=0022-4499|pmid=19090411|s2cid=3161449}}</ref>
+People in their 60s and early 70s generally retain a healthy sex drive, but this may start to decline in the early to mid-70s.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Lehmiller |first1=Justin J. |title=The Psychology of Human Sexuality |date=2019 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-16469-2 |pages=621–626 }}</ref> Older adults generally develop a reduced libido due to declining health and environmental or social factors.<ref name=":0" /> In contrast to common belief, postmenopausal women often report an increase in sexual desire and an increased willingness to satisfy their partner.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Sinković |first1=Matija |last2=Towler |first2=Lauren |title=Sexual Aging: A Systematic Review of Qualitative Research on the Sexuality and Sexual Health of Older Adults |journal=Qualitative Health Research |date=July 2019 |volume=29 |issue=9 |pages=1239–1254 |doi=10.1177/1049732318819834 |pmid=30584788 }}</ref> Women often report family responsibilities, health, relationship problems, and well-being as inhibitors to their sexual desires. Aging adults often have more positive attitudes towards sex in older age due to being more relaxed about it, freedom from other responsibilities, and increased self-confidence. Those exhibiting negative attitudes generally cite health as one of the main reasons. Stereotypes about aging adults and sexuality often regard seniors as asexual beings, doing them no favors when they try to talk about sexual interest with caregivers and medical professionals.<ref name=":4" /> Non-western cultures often follow a narrative of older women having a much lower libido, thus not encouraging any sort of sexual behavior for women. Residence in retirement homes has effects on residents' libidos. In these homes, sex occurs, but it is not encouraged by the staff or other residents. Lack of privacy and resident gender imbalance are the main factors lowering desire.<ref name=":4" /> Generally, for older adults, being excited about sex, good health, sexual self-esteem and having a sexually talented partner can be factors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kontula |first1=Osmo |last2=Haavio-Mannila |first2=Elina |title=The Impact of Aging on Human Sexual Activity and Sexual Desire |journal=Journal of Sex Research |date=3 February 2009 |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=46–56 |doi=10.1080/00224490802624414 |pmid=19090411 }}</ref>
 == Sexual desire disorders ==
 {{See also|Hyposexuality|Hypersexuality}}
-Sexual desire disorders are more common in women than in men,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Segraves|first1=K. B.|last2=Segraves|first2=R. T.|date=2008|title=Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: Prevalence and Comorbidity in 906 Subjects|journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=55–58|doi=10.1080/00926239108405469|pmid=2072405|issn=0092-623X}}</ref> and women tend to exhibit less frequent and less intense sexual desires than men.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baumeister|first1=Roy F.|last2=Catanese|first2=Kathleen R.|last3=Vohs|first3=Kathleen D.|date=2001|title=Is There a Gender Difference in Strength of Sex Drive? Theoretical Views, Conceptual Distinctions, and a Review of Relevant Evidence|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review|language=en|volume=5|issue=3|pages=242–273|doi=10.1207/S15327957PSPR0503_5|s2cid=13336463|issn=1088-8683}}</ref> [[Erectile dysfunction]] may happen to the penis because of lack of sexual desire, but these two should not be confused since the two can commonly occur simultaneously.<ref name="malelacksexdrive">{{cite web |url=http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/sex_relationships/facts/malelacksexdrive.htm |title=Lack of sex drive in men (lack of libido) |access-date=July 28, 2010 |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924004540/http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/sex_relationships/facts/malelacksexdrive.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> For example, moderate to large recreational doses of [[cocaine]], [[amphetamine]] or [[methamphetamine]] can simultaneously cause erectile dysfunction (evidently due to [[vasoconstriction]]) while still significantly increasing libido due to heightened levels of dopamine.<ref name="Human amph effects">{{cite book | author=Gunne LM | title=Drug Addiction II: Amphetamine, Psychotogen, and Marihuana Dependence | date=2013 | publisher=Springer | location=Berlin, Germany; Heidelberg, Germany | isbn=9783642667091 | pages=247–260 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gb_uCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA247 | access-date=4 December 2015 | chapter=Effects of Amphetamines in Humans }}</ref> Although conversely, excessive or very regular/repeated high-dose amphetamine use may damage [[leydig cells]] in the male [[testes]], potentially leading to markedly lowered sexual desire subsequently due to [[hypogonadism]]. However, in contrast to this, other [[stimulants]] such as cocaine and even [[caffeine]] appear to lack negative impacts on testosterone levels, and may even increase their concentrations in the body. Studies on [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] however seem to be exceptionally mixed, with some claiming decreased levels on testosterone, others reporting increased levels, and with some showing no measurable changes at all. This varying data seems to coincide with the almost equally conflicting data on cannabis' effects on sex drive as well, which may be dosage or frequency-dependent, due to different amounts of distinct [[cannabinoids]] in the plant, or based on individual enzyme properties responsible for metabolism of the drug. Evidence on [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]]'s effects on testosterone however invariably show a clear decrease, however (like amphetamine, albeit to a lesser degree); temporary increases in libido and related sexual behavior have long been observed during [[alcohol intoxication]] in both sexes, but likely most noticeable with moderation, particularly in males. Additionally, men often also naturally experience a decrease in their libido as they age due to decreased productions in testosterone.
+Sexual desire disorders are more common in women than in men,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Segraves |first1=K. B. |last2=Segraves |first2=R. T. |title=Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: Prevalence and Comorbidity in 906 Subjects |journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy |date=March 1991 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=55–58 |doi=10.1080/00926239108405469 |pmid=2072405 }}</ref> and women tend to exhibit less frequent and less intense sexual desires than men.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baumeister |first1=Roy F. |last2=Catanese |first2=Kathleen R. |last3=Vohs |first3=Kathleen D. |title=Is There a Gender Difference in Strength of Sex Drive? Theoretical Views, Conceptual Distinctions, and a Review of Relevant Evidence |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review |date=August 2001 |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=242–273 |doi=10.1207/S15327957PSPR0503_5 }}</ref> [[Erectile dysfunction]] may happen to the penis because of lack of sexual desire, but these two should not be confused since the two can commonly occur simultaneously.<ref name="malelacksexdrive">{{cite web |url=http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/sex_relationships/facts/malelacksexdrive.htm |title=Lack of sex drive in men (lack of libido) |access-date=July 28, 2010 |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924004540/http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/sex_relationships/facts/malelacksexdrive.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> For example, moderate to large recreational doses of [[cocaine]], [[amphetamine]] or [[methamphetamine]] can simultaneously cause erectile dysfunction (evidently due to [[vasoconstriction]]) while still significantly increasing libido due to heightened levels of dopamine.<ref name="Human amph effects">{{cite web |first1=L.-M.  |last1=Gunne |title=Effects of Amphetamines in Humans |pages=247–275  |url={{GBurl|gb_uCAAAQBAJ|p=247}} }} in: {{cite book |last1=Änggård |first1=E. |last2=Lewander |first2=T. |last3=Gunne |first3=L.-M. |title=Drug Addiction II |chapter=General Pharmacology of Amphetamine-Like Drugs |date=1973 |pages=3–275 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-66709-1_1 |isbn=978-3-642-66711-4 }}</ref> Although conversely, excessive or very regular/repeated high-dose amphetamine use may damage [[leydig cells]] in the male [[testes]], potentially leading to markedly lowered sexual desire subsequently due to [[hypogonadism]]. However, in contrast to this, other [[stimulants]] such as cocaine and even [[caffeine]] appear to lack negative impacts on testosterone levels, and may even increase their concentrations in the body. Studies on [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] however seem to be exceptionally mixed, with some claiming decreased levels on testosterone, others reporting increased levels, and with some showing no measurable changes at all. This varying data seems to coincide with the almost equally conflicting data on cannabis' effects on sex drive as well, which may be dosage or frequency-dependent, due to different amounts of distinct [[cannabinoids]] in the plant, or based on individual enzyme properties responsible for metabolism of the drug. Evidence on [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]]'s effects on testosterone however invariably show a clear decrease, however (like amphetamine, albeit to a lesser degree); temporary increases in libido and related sexual behavior have long been observed during [[alcohol intoxication]] in both sexes, but likely most noticeable with moderation, particularly in males. Additionally, men often also naturally experience a decrease in their libido as they age due to decreased productions in testosterone.
 The [[American Medical Association]] has estimated that several million US women have a [[female sexual arousal disorder]], though arousal is not at all synonymous with desire, so this finding is of limited relevance to the discussion of libido.<ref name="A"/> Some specialists claim that women may experience low libido due to some hormonal abnormalities such as lack of [[luteinising hormone]] or androgenic hormones, although these theories are still controversial.
@@ Line 153: / Line 138: @@
 * [[Henri Ellenberger|Ellenberger, Henri]] (1970). ''[[The Discovery of the Unconscious]]: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry''. New York: Basic Books. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-465-01672-3}}, softcover {{ISBN|0-465-01672-3}}.
 * Froböse, Gabriele, and Froböse, Rolf. ''Lust and Love: Is It More than Chemistry?'' Michael Gross (trans. and ed.). Royal Society of Chemistry, {{ISBN|0-85404-867-7}} (2006).
-* Giles, James, ''The Nature of Sexual Desire'', Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 2008.
+* {{cite book |last1=Giles |first1=James |title=The Nature of Sexual Desire |date=2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing PLC |isbn=978-0-7618-4041-1 }}
 {{Sex|state=expanded}}