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{{redirect|1 Pet.|the first volume of ''Peters's Reports''|List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 26}}
{{redirect|1 Pet.|the first volume of ''Peters's Reports''|List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 26}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
[[File:Papyrus Bodmer VIII.jpg|thumb|1 Peter 5:11–14, continuing on to [[2 Peter]] on [[Papyrus 72]] ({{Circa|AD 300}})<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aland |first=Kurt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2pYDsAhUOxAC |title=The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism |last2=Aland |first2=Barbara |publisher=[[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-8028-4098-1 |edition=2nd |location=Grand Rapids, MI |pages=159 |language=en |translator-last=Rhodes |translator-first=Erroll F. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005232815/https://books.google.com/books?id=2pYDsAhUOxAC |archive-date=October 5, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
<!-- IMPORTANT: The following image provides an example of a Category I manuscript in the Gregory–Aland numbering system. Its placement affects what is displayed as the thumbnail for inbound wikilinks and Wikipedia search bar results, and matches all other New Testament book articles. -->[[File:Papyrus Bodmer VIII.jpg|thumb|1 Peter 5:11–14, continuing on to [[2 Peter]] on [[Papyrus 72]] ({{Circa|AD 300}})<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aland |first=Kurt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2pYDsAhUOxAC |title=The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism |last2=Aland |first2=Barbara |author1-link = Kurt Aland | author2-link = Barbara Aland|publisher=[[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-8028-4098-1 |edition=2nd |location=Grand Rapids, MI |pages=159 |language=en |translator-last=Rhodes |translator-first=Erroll F. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005232815/https://books.google.com/books?id=2pYDsAhUOxAC |archive-date=October 5, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
{{Books of the New Testament}}
{{Books of the New Testament}}
{{Peter}}
{{Peter}}


The '''First Epistle of Peter'''{{Efn|The book is sometimes called the '''First Letter of Peter''', or simply '''1 Peter'''.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HiPouAEACAAJ |title=ESV Pew Bible |publisher= Crossway |year= 2018 |isbn=978-1-4335-6343-0 |location= Wheaton, IL |page = 1014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210603093159/https://www.google.com/books/edition/ESV_Pew_Bible_Black/HiPouAEACAAJ |archive-date=June 3, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> It is most commonly abbreviated as "1 Pet."<ref>{{Cite web |title= Bible Book Abbreviations |url= https://www.logos.com/bible-book-abbreviations |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220421100743/https://www.logos.com/bible-book-abbreviations |archive-date= April 21, 2022 |access-date=April 21, 2022 |website= Logos Bible Software}}</ref>}} is a book of the [[New Testament]]. The author presents himself as [[Peter the Apostle]]. The ending of the letter includes a statement that implies that it was written from "[[Babylon]]", which may be a reference to [[Rome]]. The letter is addressed to the "[[First Epistle of Peter#Audience |chosen pilgrims of the diaspora]]" in [[Early Christianity#Anatolia|Asia Minor]] suffering religious persecution.
The '''First Epistle of Peter'''{{Efn|The book is sometimes called the '''First Letter of Peter''', or simply '''1 Peter'''.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HiPouAEACAAJ |title=ESV Pew Bible |publisher= Crossway |year= 2018 |isbn=978-1-4335-6343-0 |location= Wheaton, IL |page = 1014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210603093159/https://www.google.com/books/edition/ESV_Pew_Bible_Black/HiPouAEACAAJ |archive-date=June 3, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> It is most commonly abbreviated as "1 Pet."<ref>{{Cite web |title= Bible Book Abbreviations |url= https://www.logos.com/bible-book-abbreviations |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220421100743/https://www.logos.com/bible-book-abbreviations |archive-date= April 21, 2022 |access-date=April 21, 2022 |website= Logos Bible Software}}</ref>}} is a book of the [[New Testament]]. The author presents himself as [[Peter the Apostle]]. The ending of the letter includes a statement that implies that it was written from "[[Babylon]]", which may be a reference to [[Rome]]. The letter is addressed to the "[[First Epistle of Peter#Audience |chosen pilgrims of the diaspora]]" in [[Early Christianity#Anatolia|Asia Minor]] suffering religious persecution.
The epistle is traditionally attributed to the Apostle Peter, though [[Authorship of the Petrine epistles|modern scholarship]] generally rejects the [[Authorship of the Petrine epistles|Petrine authorship]].<ref name="Martin 2009" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Horrell |first=David G. |url=https://books.google.co.tz/books/about/1_Peter.html?id=3bWmEAAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y#:~:text=The%20first%20volume%20in%20Travis%20B.%20Williams'%20and,-%20to%20help%20the%20reader%20understand%20the%20letter. |title=1 Peter: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary: Volume 1: Chapters 1-2 |last2=Williams |first2=Travis B. |date=2023-02-23 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-567-70998-1 |pages=117 |language=en |quote="While evangelical scholars continue to defend traditional authorship claims, most critical scholars are now in agreement that the letter is pseudepigraphic"}}</ref> Scholars debate whether its persecution refers to social discrimination or official Roman oppression. The letter also discusses the “[[Harrowing of Hell]]” and instructions for wives to [[Deference|submit]] to their husbands, alongside exhortations for husbands to treat their wives with respect.


== Authorship ==
== Authorship ==
{{Main|Authorship of the Petrine epistles}}
{{Main|Authorship of the Petrine epistles}}
The authorship of 1 Peter has traditionally been attributed to the Apostle Peter because it bears his name and identifies him as its author (1:1).  Although the text identifies Peter as its author, the language, dating, style, and structure of this letter have led most scholars to conclude that it is pseudonymous.<ref name="moyise">{{cite book|first=Steve|last=Moyise|title=The Old Testament in the New|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCSOK_Q4D1sC&pg=PA116|date=9 December 2004|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-567-08199-5|page=116}}</ref><ref name="Harris1992">{{cite book|author=Stephen L. Harris|title=Understanding the Bible|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a64SAQAAIAAJ|year=1992|publisher=Mayfield|isbn=978-1-55934-083-0|page=388|quote=Most scholars believe that 1 Peter is pseudonymous (written anonymously in the name of a well-known figure) and was produced during postapostolic times.}}</ref><ref name="Martin 2009">[[Dale Martin (scholar)|Dale Martin]] 2009 (lecture). {{YouTube|XJ9Gt_R5a-k|"24. Apocalyptic and Accommodation"}}. [[Yale University]]. Accessed 22 July 2013. [http://www.cosmolearning.com/video-lectures/apocalyptic-and-accommodation-6817/ Lecture 24 (transcript)]</ref> Many scholars argue that Peter was not the author of the letter because its writer appears to have had a formal education in [[rhetoric]] and [[philosophy]], and an advanced knowledge of the Greek language,<ref name= "ReferenceA">Achtemeier, Paul. ''Peter 1 Hermeneia''. Fortress Press. 1996</ref> none of which would be usual for a [[Galilee|Galilean]] fisherman.
The authorship of 1 Peter has traditionally been attributed to the Apostle Peter because it bears his name and identifies him as its author (1:1).  Although the text identifies Peter as its author, the language, dating, style, and structure of this letter have led most scholars to conclude that it is pseudonymous.<ref name="moyise">{{cite book|first=Steve|last=Moyise|title=The Old Testament in the New|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCSOK_Q4D1sC&pg=PA116|date=9 December 2004|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-567-08199-5|page=116}}</ref><ref name="Harris1992">{{cite book|author=Stephen L. Harris|title=Understanding the Bible|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a64SAQAAIAAJ|year=1992|publisher=Mayfield|isbn=978-1-55934-083-0|page=388|quote=Most scholars believe that 1 Peter is pseudonymous (written anonymously in the name of a well-known figure) and was produced during postapostolic times.}}</ref><ref name="Martin 2009">[[Dale Martin (scholar)|Dale Martin]] 2009 (lecture). {{YouTube|XJ9Gt_R5a-k|"24. Apocalyptic and Accommodation"}}. [[Yale University]]. Accessed 22 July 2013. [http://www.cosmolearning.com/video-lectures/apocalyptic-and-accommodation-6817/ Lecture 24 (transcript)]</ref> With 1 Peter being considered a positive example of early Christian pseudonymity practices.<ref>M. Eugene Boring, ‘First Peter in Recent Study’, ''WW'' 24 (2004), [https://wordandworld.luthersem.edu/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/24-4_First_Peter/First%20Peter%20in%20Recent%20Study.pdf First Peter in Recent Study.pdf]</ref> Many scholars argue that Peter was not the author of the letter because its writer appears to have had a formal education in [[rhetoric]] and [[philosophy]], and an advanced knowledge of the Greek language,<ref name= "ReferenceA">Achtemeier, Paul. ''Peter 1 Hermeneia''. Fortress Press. 1996</ref> none of which would be usual for a [[Galilee|Galilean]] fisherman.


New Testament scholar [[Graham Stanton]] rejects Petrine authorship because 1 Peter was most likely written during the reign of [[Domitian]] in AD 81, which is when he believes widespread Christian persecution began, which is long after the death of Peter.{{Sfn | Stanton | 2003}}{{Page needed |date=April 2022}} More recent scholars such as Travis Williams say that the persecution described does not appear to be describing official Roman persecutions after Peter's death, thus not directly ruling out an early date for the composition of the epistle.{{Sfn | Williams | 2012 |pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b0C&pg=PA28  28–]}}  
New Testament scholar [[Graham Stanton]] rejects Petrine authorship because 1 Peter was most likely written during the reign of [[Domitian]] in AD 81, which is when he believes widespread Christian persecution began, which is long after the death of Peter.{{Sfn | Stanton | 2003}}{{Page needed |date=April 2022}} More recent scholars such as Travis Williams say that the persecution described does not appear to be describing official Roman persecutions after Peter's death, thus not directly ruling out an early date for the composition of the epistle.{{Sfn | Williams | 2012 |pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b0C&pg=PA28  28–]}}  
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Another dating issue is the reference to "Babylon" in chapter 5 verse 13, generally agreed to be a claim the letter was written from Rome. It is believed that the identification of Rome with Babylon, the ancient enemy of the Jews, only came after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE) |destruction of the Temple in AD 70]].<ref name= "forged" /> Other scholars doubt Petrine authorship because they are convinced that 1 Peter is dependent on the [[Pauline epistles]] and thus was written after [[Paul the Apostle]]'s ministry because it shares many of the same motifs espoused in [[Ephesians]], [[Colossians]], and the [[Pastoral Epistles]].<ref name="Bartlett, David 1998">Bartlett, David, ''New Interpreter's Bible Commentary'', 1 Peter. Abingdon Press. 1998</ref>  
Another dating issue is the reference to "Babylon" in chapter 5 verse 13, generally agreed to be a claim the letter was written from Rome. It is believed that the identification of Rome with Babylon, the ancient enemy of the Jews, only came after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE) |destruction of the Temple in AD 70]].<ref name= "forged" /> Other scholars doubt Petrine authorship because they are convinced that 1 Peter is dependent on the [[Pauline epistles]] and thus was written after [[Paul the Apostle]]'s ministry because it shares many of the same motifs espoused in [[Ephesians]], [[Colossians]], and the [[Pastoral Epistles]].<ref name="Bartlett, David 1998">Bartlett, David, ''New Interpreter's Bible Commentary'', 1 Peter. Abingdon Press. 1998</ref>  


Others argue that it makes little sense to ascribe the work to Peter when it could have been ascribed to Paul.{{Sfn | Williams | 2012 | pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b0C&pg=PA28  28–]}} Alternatively, one theory supporting legitimate Petrine authorship of 1 Peter is the "secretarial hypothesis", which suggests that 1 Peter was dictated by Peter and was written in Greek by his secretary, [[Silas |Silvanus]] (5:12). John Elliot disagrees, suggesting that the notion of Silvanus as secretary or author or drafter of 1 Peter introduces more problems than it solves, and claims that the Greek rendition of 5:12 suggests that Silvanus was not the secretary, but the courier/bearer of 1 Peter.<ref>Elliot, John. ''1 Peter'': Anchor Bible Commentary. Yale University Press. 2001.</ref> Like English translations generally, the more recent NRSV (2021) translation of this verse from the Greek does not exclude understanding Silvanus as secretary: "Through Silvanus, whom I consider a faithful brother, I have written this short letter to encourage you and to testify that this is the true grace of God. Stand fast in it." Some see Mark as a contributive [[amanuensis]] in the composition and writing of the work.{{Sfn | Williams | 2012 | pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b0C&pg=PA25  25–]}}<ref name= "Moon2009">{{cite book| first = Jongyoon | last = Moon |title= Mark As Contributive Amanuensis of 1 Peter?|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WPtf9DCl1S4C|year=2009 |publisher= LIT | place = Münster |isbn= 978-3-643-10428-1}}</ref>  
Others argue that it makes little sense to ascribe the work to Peter when it could have been ascribed to Paul.{{Sfn | Williams | 2012 | pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b0C&pg=PA28  28–]}} Alternatively, one theory supporting legitimate Petrine authorship of 1 Peter is the "secretarial hypothesis", which suggests that 1 Peter was dictated by Peter and was written in Greek by his secretary, [[Silas |Silvanus]] (5:12). John Elliot disagrees, suggesting that the notion of Silvanus as secretary or author or drafter of 1 Peter introduces more problems than it solves, and claims that the Greek rendition of 5:12 suggests that Silvanus was not the secretary, but the courier/bearer of 1 Peter.<ref>Elliot, John. ''1 Peter'': Anchor Bible Commentary. Yale University Press. 2001.</ref> Like English translations generally, the more recent NRSVUE (2021) translation of this verse from the Greek does not exclude understanding Silvanus as secretary: "Through Silvanus, whom I consider a faithful brother, I have written this short letter to encourage you and to testify that this is the true grace of God. Stand fast in it." Some see Mark as a contributive [[amanuensis]] in the composition and writing of the work.{{Sfn | Williams | 2012 | pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b0C&pg=PA25  25–]}}<ref name= "Moon2009">{{cite book| first = Jongyoon | last = Moon |title= Mark As Contributive Amanuensis of 1 Peter?|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WPtf9DCl1S4C|year=2009 |publisher= LIT | place = Münster |isbn= 978-3-643-10428-1}}</ref>  


On the one hand, some scholars such as [[Bart D. Ehrman]] are convinced that the language, dating, literary style, and structure of this text makes it implausible to conclude that 1 Peter was written by Peter.<ref name= "forged">{{cite book |last1= Ehrman |first1=Bart D. |author-link1=Bart D. Ehrman |title= Forged |url= https://archive.org/details/forgedwritinginn00ehrm |url-access=registration |year= 2011 |publisher=HarperOne, [[HarperCollins]] |isbn= 978-0-06-201262-3|pages= [https://archive.org/details/forgedwritinginn00ehrm/page/65 65–77]}}</ref>  According to these scholars, it is more likely that 1 Peter is a pseudonymous letter, written later by an unknown Christian in his name.  
On the one hand, some scholars such as [[Bart D. Ehrman]] are convinced that the language, dating, literary style, and structure of this text makes it implausible to conclude that 1 Peter was written by Peter.<ref name= "forged">{{cite book |last1= Ehrman |first1=Bart D. |author-link1=Bart D. Ehrman |title= Forged |url= https://archive.org/details/forgedwritinginn00ehrm |url-access=registration |year= 2011 |publisher=HarperOne, [[HarperCollins]] |isbn= 978-0-06-201262-3|pages= [https://archive.org/details/forgedwritinginn00ehrm/page/65 65–77]}}</ref>  According to these scholars, it is more likely that 1 Peter is a pseudonymous letter, written later by an unknown Christian in his name.  


On the other hand, some scholars argue that there is enough evidence to conclude that Peter did, in fact, write 1 Peter.  For instance, there are similarities between 1 Peter and Peter's speeches in the Biblical [[Acts of the Apostles|book of Acts]],<ref>Daniel Keating, ''First and Second Peter Jude'' (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2011) 18. Norman Hillyer, ''1 and 2 Peter, Jude'', New International Biblical Commentary (Peabody, MA: Henrickson, 1992), 1–3. [[Karen H. Jobes]], ''1 Peter'' (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005), 14–19.</ref> allusions to several historical sayings of Jesus indicative of eyewitness testimony (e.g., compare Luke 12:35 with 1 Peter 1:13, Matthew 5:16 with 1 Peter 2:12, and Matthew 5:10 with 1 Peter 3:14),<ref>{{cite book |last1= Lane |first1=Dennis |last2= Schreiner |first2=Thomas |title= ESV Study Bible |date=2016 |publisher= Crossway |location= Wheaton, IL |page=2401 |chapter= Introduction to 1 Peter}}</ref> and early attestation of Peter's authorship found in [[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]] (AD 60–160)<ref>Bauckham, RJ (1983), ''Word Bible Commentary'', Vol. 50, Jude – 2 Peter, Waco</ref> and the [[Epistles of Clement|letters of Clement]] (AD 70–140),{{Sfn | Williams | 2012 | pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b0C&pg=PA28  28–]}} all supporting genuine Petrine origin. Ultimately, the authorship of 1 Peter remains contested.
On the other hand, some scholars argue that there is enough evidence to conclude that Peter did, in fact, write 1 Peter.  For instance, there are similarities between 1 Peter and Peter's speeches in the Biblical [[Acts of the Apostles|book of Acts]],<ref>Daniel Keating, ''First and Second Peter Jude'' (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2011) 18. Norman Hillyer, ''1 and 2 Peter, Jude'', New International Biblical Commentary (Peabody, MA: Henrickson, 1992), 1–3. [[Karen H. Jobes]], ''1 Peter'' (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005), 14–19.</ref> allusions to several historical sayings of Jesus indicative of eyewitness testimony (e.g., compare Luke 12:35 with 1 Peter 1:13, Matthew 5:16 with 1 Peter 2:12, and Matthew 5:10 with 1 Peter 3:14),<ref>{{cite book |last1= Lane |first1=Dennis |last2= Schreiner |first2=Thomas |title= ESV Study Bible |date=2016 |publisher= Crossway |location= Wheaton, IL |page=2401 |chapter= Introduction to 1 Peter}}</ref> and early attestation of Peter's authorship found in [[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]] (AD 60–160)<ref>Bauckham, RJ (1983), ''Word Bible Commentary'', Vol. 50, Jude – 2 Peter, Waco</ref> and the [[Epistles of Clement|letters of Clement]] (AD 70–140),{{Sfn | Williams | 2012 | pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b0C&pg=PA28  28–]}} all supporting genuine Petrine origin. Atheist scholar [[Richard Carrier]] claims that the Epistle dates to the 60s AD and that it may be authentic: he asserts as possible that Peter being an illiterate fisherman was a later invention of the [[evangelists]], and that the historical Peter (attested for in the authentic [[Pauline epistles]], which never mention Peter's economic status and education) was actually a learned hellenized Jew.<ref>{{Cite work|title=The Obsolete Paradigm of an Historical Jesus|chapter=UPDATES, DEVELOPMENTS, TRENDLINES. Are Hebrews, 1 Clement and 1 Peter early mythicist texts?}}</ref> Ultimately, the authorship of 1 Peter remains contested.
 
<!-- A Yale professor stating that the majority of scholars reject the Petrine authorship is a valid source for the statement that the majority of scholars reject the Petrine authorship. EVERY OTHER REPUTABLE ACADEMIC SOURCE says the same thing. DO NOT ALTER THIS SENTENCE TO SAY SOMETHING DIFFERENT TO WHAT THE SOURCE SAYS AGAIN. -->
<!-- A Yale professor stating that the majority of scholars reject the Petrine authorship is a valid source for the statement that the majority of scholars reject the Petrine authorship. EVERY OTHER REPUTABLE ACADEMIC SOURCE says the same thing. DO NOT ALTER THIS SENTENCE TO SAY SOMETHING DIFFERENT TO WHAT THE SOURCE SAYS AGAIN. -->


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The original manuscript of this letter is lost, as are several centuries of copies. The [[Textual variants in the First Epistle of Peter|text of the surviving manuscripts varies]]. The oldest surviving manuscripts that contain some or all of this book include:
The original manuscript of this letter is lost, as are several centuries of copies. The [[Textual variants in the First Epistle of Peter|text of the surviving manuscripts varies]]. The oldest surviving manuscripts that contain some or all of this book include:


;In Coptic
*[[Crosby–Schøyen Codex MS 193]] (3rd century)<ref name=crosbyschoyen>{{Cite web|title=MS 193 - The Schoyen Collection|url=https://www.schoyencollection.com/bible-collection-foreword/coptic-bible/crosby-schoyen-codex-ms-193 |access-date=2025-10-06|website=www.schoyencollection.com}}</ref>
;In Greek
;In Greek
*[[Papyrus 72]] (3rd/4th century)
*[[Papyrus 72]] (3rd/4th century)
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==Context==
==Context==
The Petrine author writes of his addressees undergoing "various trials" (1 Peter 1:6), being "tested by fire" (which is not a physical reference but a metaphor for [[spiritual warfare]]; 1:7), maligned "as evildoers" (2:12) and suffering "for doing good" (3:17). Based on such internal evidence, biblical scholar John Elliott summarizes the addressees' situation as one marked by undeserved suffering.{{Sfn | Elliott | 2000}}{{Page needed |date= April 2022}} Verse [[1 Peter 3:19|3:19]], "[[Spirits in prison]]", is a continuing theme in Christianity, and one considered by most theologians to be enigmatic and difficult to interpret.<ref>{{Citation | work = Christian Monthly Standard | url = http://www.christianmonthlystandard.com/index.php/preached-to-the-spirits-in-prison-1-peter-318-20/ | title = Preached to the spirits in prison: I Peter iii:18–20}}.</ref>
The Petrine author writes of his addressees undergoing "various trials" (1 Peter 1:6), being "tested by fire" (which is not a physical reference but a metaphor for [[spiritual warfare]]; 1:7), maligned "as evildoers" (2:12) and suffering "for doing good" (3:17). Based on such internal evidence, biblical scholar John Elliott summarizes the addressees' situation as one marked by undeserved suffering.{{Sfn | Elliott | 2000}}{{Page needed |date= April 2022}} Verse [[1 Peter 3:19|3:19]], "[[Spirits in prison]]", is a continuing theme in Christianity, and one considered by most theologians to be enigmatic and difficult to interpret.<ref>{{Citation | work = Christian Monthly Standard | url = http://www.christianmonthlystandard.com/index.php/preached-to-the-spirits-in-prison-1-peter-318-20/ | title = Preached to the spirits in prison: I Peter iii:18–20 | access-date = 3 October 2016 | archive-date = 4 October 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161004150713/http://www.christianmonthlystandard.com/index.php/preached-to-the-spirits-in-prison-1-peter-318-20/ | url-status = dead }}.</ref>


A number of verses in the epistle contain possible clues about the reasons Christians experienced opposition. Exhortations to live blameless lives (2:15; 3:9, 13, 16) may suggest that the Christian addressees were accused of immoral behavior, and exhortations to civil obedience (2:13–17) perhaps imply that they were accused of disloyalty to governing powers.<ref name= "ReferenceA"/>
A number of verses in the epistle contain possible clues about the reasons Christians experienced opposition. Exhortations to live blameless lives (2:15; 3:9, 13, 16) may suggest that the Christian addressees were accused of immoral behavior, and exhortations to civil obedience (2:13–17) perhaps imply that they were accused of disloyalty to governing powers.<ref name= "ReferenceA"/>


However, scholars differ on the nature of persecution inflicted on the addressees of 1 Peter. Some read the epistle to be describing persecution in the form of social [[discrimination]], while some read them to be official persecution.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Mason|first1=Eric F.|last2= Martin|first2=Troy W.|title= Reading 1–2 Peter and Jude : A Resource for Students|date=2014|publisher=Society of Biblical Literature|location= Atlanta, GA |isbn= 978-1-58983737-9 |pages=16–17}}</ref>
However, scholars differ on the nature of persecution inflicted on the addressees of 1 Peter. Some read the epistle to be describing persecution in the form of social [[discrimination]], while some read them to be official persecution.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Mason|first1=Eric F.|last2= Martin|first2=Troy W.|title= Reading 1–2 Peter and Jude : A Resource for Students|date=2014|publisher=Society of Biblical Literature|location= Atlanta, GA |isbn= 978-1-58983737-9 |pages=16–17}}</ref>
[[File:Authentic_Leaf_of_a_Geneva_Bible_1578_-_Translation_of_the_Bible_used_by_many_Protestant_Reformers.jpg|thumb|English translation of 1 Peter from the 1578 [[Geneva Bible]].]]
[[File:Authentic_Leaf_of_a_Geneva_Bible_1578_-_Translation_of_the_Bible_used_by_many_Protestant_Reformers.jpg|thumb|English translation of 1 Peter from the 1578 [[Geneva Bible]]]]
===Social discrimination of Christians===
===Social discrimination of Christians===
Some scholars believe that the sufferings the epistle's addressees were experiencing were social in nature, specifically in the form of verbal derision.{{Sfn | Elliott | 2000}}{{Page needed |date=April 2022}} Internal evidence for this includes the use of words like "malign" (2:12; 3:16), and "reviled" (4:14). Biblical scholar John Elliott notes that the author explicitly urges the addressees to respect authority (2:13) and even honor the emperor (2:17), strongly suggesting that they were unlikely to be suffering from official Roman persecution.  It is significant to him that the author notes that "your brothers and sisters in all the world are undergoing the same kinds of suffering" (5:9), indicating suffering that is worldwide in scope. Elliott sees this as grounds to reject the idea that the epistle refers to official persecution, because the first worldwide [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|persecution of Christians]] officially meted by Rome did not occur until the persecution initiated by [[Decius]] in AD 250.
Some scholars believe that the sufferings the epistle's addressees were experiencing were social in nature, specifically in the form of verbal derision.{{Sfn | Elliott | 2000}}{{Page needed |date=April 2022}} Internal evidence for this includes the use of words like "malign" (2:12; 3:16), and "reviled" (4:14). Biblical scholar John Elliott notes that the author explicitly urges the addressees to respect authority (2:13) and even honor the emperor (2:17), strongly suggesting that they were unlikely to be suffering from official Roman persecution.  It is significant to him that the author notes that "your brothers and sisters in all the world are undergoing the same kinds of suffering" (5:9), indicating suffering that is worldwide in scope. Elliott sees this as grounds to reject the idea that the epistle refers to official persecution, because the first worldwide [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|persecution of Christians]] officially meted by Rome did not occur until the persecution initiated by [[Decius]] in AD 250.
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==The Harrowing of Hell==
==The Harrowing of Hell==
{{Main|Harrowing of Hell}}
{{Main|Harrowing of Hell}}
The author refers to Jesus, after his death, proclaiming to spirits in prison (3:18–20). This passage, and a few others (such as Matthew 27:52 and Luke 23:43), are the basis of the traditional Christian belief in the descent of Christ into hell, or the [[harrowing of hell]].<ref name="ODCC Descent">Cross, F. L. 2005, ed. "Descent of Christ into Hell."  ''The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Though interpretations vary, some theologians{{Who|date=June 2012}} see this passage as referring to Jesus, after his death, going to a place (neither heaven nor hell in the ultimate sense) where the souls of pre-Christian people waited for the Gospel. The first creeds to mention the harrowing of hell were Arian formularies of [[Fourth Council of Sirmium|Sirmium]] (359), Nike (360), and [[Council of Constantinople (360)|Constantinople]] (360). It spread through the west and later appeared in the [[Apostles' Creed]].<ref name="ODCC Descent"/>
The author refers to Jesus, after his death, proclaiming to spirits in prison (3:18–20). This passage, and a few others (such as Matthew 27:52 and Luke 23:43), are the basis of the traditional Christian belief in the descent of Christ into hell, or the [[harrowing of hell]].<ref name="ODCC Descent">Cross, F. L. 2005, ed. "Descent of Christ into Hell."  ''The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Though interpretations vary, some theologians{{Who|date=June 2012}} see this passage as referring to Jesus, after his death, going to a place (neither heaven nor hell in the ultimate sense) where the souls of pre-Christian people waited for the Gospel. The first creeds to mention the harrowing of hell were Arian formularies of [[Fourth Council of Sirmium|Sirmium]] (359), Nike (360), and [[Council of Constantinople (360)|Constantinople]] (360). It spread through the West and later appeared in the [[Apostles' Creed]].<ref name="ODCC Descent"/>


==Submissiveness of women==
==Submissiveness of women==

Latest revision as of 10:43, 2 December 2025

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File:Papyrus Bodmer VIII.jpg
1 Peter 5:11–14, continuing on to 2 Peter on Papyrus 72 (c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".)[1]

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The First Epistle of PeterTemplate:Efn is a book of the New Testament. The author presents himself as Peter the Apostle. The ending of the letter includes a statement that implies that it was written from "Babylon", which may be a reference to Rome. The letter is addressed to the "chosen pilgrims of the diaspora" in Asia Minor suffering religious persecution.

The epistle is traditionally attributed to the Apostle Peter, though modern scholarship generally rejects the Petrine authorship.[2][3] Scholars debate whether its persecution refers to social discrimination or official Roman oppression. The letter also discusses the “Harrowing of Hell” and instructions for wives to submit to their husbands, alongside exhortations for husbands to treat their wives with respect.

Authorship

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". The authorship of 1 Peter has traditionally been attributed to the Apostle Peter because it bears his name and identifies him as its author (1:1). Although the text identifies Peter as its author, the language, dating, style, and structure of this letter have led most scholars to conclude that it is pseudonymous.[4][5][2] With 1 Peter being considered a positive example of early Christian pseudonymity practices.[6] Many scholars argue that Peter was not the author of the letter because its writer appears to have had a formal education in rhetoric and philosophy, and an advanced knowledge of the Greek language,[7] none of which would be usual for a Galilean fisherman.

New Testament scholar Graham Stanton rejects Petrine authorship because 1 Peter was most likely written during the reign of Domitian in AD 81, which is when he believes widespread Christian persecution began, which is long after the death of Peter.Template:SfnScript error: No such module "Unsubst". More recent scholars such as Travis Williams say that the persecution described does not appear to be describing official Roman persecutions after Peter's death, thus not directly ruling out an early date for the composition of the epistle.Template:Sfn

Another dating issue is the reference to "Babylon" in chapter 5 verse 13, generally agreed to be a claim the letter was written from Rome. It is believed that the identification of Rome with Babylon, the ancient enemy of the Jews, only came after the destruction of the Temple in AD 70.[8] Other scholars doubt Petrine authorship because they are convinced that 1 Peter is dependent on the Pauline epistles and thus was written after Paul the Apostle's ministry because it shares many of the same motifs espoused in Ephesians, Colossians, and the Pastoral Epistles.[9]

Others argue that it makes little sense to ascribe the work to Peter when it could have been ascribed to Paul.Template:Sfn Alternatively, one theory supporting legitimate Petrine authorship of 1 Peter is the "secretarial hypothesis", which suggests that 1 Peter was dictated by Peter and was written in Greek by his secretary, Silvanus (5:12). John Elliot disagrees, suggesting that the notion of Silvanus as secretary or author or drafter of 1 Peter introduces more problems than it solves, and claims that the Greek rendition of 5:12 suggests that Silvanus was not the secretary, but the courier/bearer of 1 Peter.[10] Like English translations generally, the more recent NRSVUE (2021) translation of this verse from the Greek does not exclude understanding Silvanus as secretary: "Through Silvanus, whom I consider a faithful brother, I have written this short letter to encourage you and to testify that this is the true grace of God. Stand fast in it." Some see Mark as a contributive amanuensis in the composition and writing of the work.Template:Sfn[11]

On the one hand, some scholars such as Bart D. Ehrman are convinced that the language, dating, literary style, and structure of this text makes it implausible to conclude that 1 Peter was written by Peter.[8] According to these scholars, it is more likely that 1 Peter is a pseudonymous letter, written later by an unknown Christian in his name.

On the other hand, some scholars argue that there is enough evidence to conclude that Peter did, in fact, write 1 Peter. For instance, there are similarities between 1 Peter and Peter's speeches in the Biblical book of Acts,[12] allusions to several historical sayings of Jesus indicative of eyewitness testimony (e.g., compare Luke 12:35 with 1 Peter 1:13, Matthew 5:16 with 1 Peter 2:12, and Matthew 5:10 with 1 Peter 3:14),[13] and early attestation of Peter's authorship found in 2 Peter (AD 60–160)[14] and the letters of Clement (AD 70–140),Template:Sfn all supporting genuine Petrine origin. Atheist scholar Richard Carrier claims that the Epistle dates to the 60s AD and that it may be authentic: he asserts as possible that Peter being an illiterate fisherman was a later invention of the evangelists, and that the historical Peter (attested for in the authentic Pauline epistles, which never mention Peter's economic status and education) was actually a learned hellenized Jew.[15] Ultimately, the authorship of 1 Peter remains contested.


Oldest surviving manuscripts

The original manuscript of this letter is lost, as are several centuries of copies. The text of the surviving manuscripts varies. The oldest surviving manuscripts that contain some or all of this book include:

In Coptic
In Greek
In Latin

Audience

1 Peter is addressed to the "elect resident aliens" scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia. The five areas listed in 1:1 as the geographical location of the first readers were Roman provinces in Asia Minor. The order in which the provinces are listed may reflect the route to be taken by the messenger who delivered the circular letter. The recipients of this letter are referred to in 1:1 as "exiles of the Dispersion". In 1:17, they are urged to "live in reverent fear during the time of your exile".Template:SfnScript error: No such module "Unsubst". The social makeup of the addressees of 1 Peter is debatable because some scholars interpret "strangers" (1:1) as Christians longing for their home in heaven, some interpret it as literal "strangers", or as an Old Testament adaptation applied to Christian believers.Template:SfnScript error: No such module "Unsubst".

While the new Christians have encountered oppression and hostility from locals, Peter advises them to maintain loyalty both to their religion and the Roman Empire (1 Peter 2:17).[18]

The author counsels (1) to steadfastness and perseverance under persecution (1–2:10); (2) to the practical duties of a holy life (2:11–3:13); (3) he adduces the example of Christ and other motives to patience and holiness (3:14–4:19); and (4) concludes with counsels to pastors and people (chap. 5).

Outline

David Bartlett uses the following outline to structure the literary divisions of 1 Peter:[9]

File:Dolní Jelení, kříž na návsi, nápis.jpg
Gravestone in the Czech Republic quoting 1 Peter 2:21 — "To this you were called, because Christ suffered for you, leaving you an example, that you should follow in his steps."
  • Greeting (1:1–2)
  • Praise to God (1:3–12)
  • God's Holy People (1:13–2:10)
  • Life in Exile (2:11–4:11)
  • Steadfast in Faith (4:12–5:11)
  • Final Greeting (5:12–14)

Context

The Petrine author writes of his addressees undergoing "various trials" (1 Peter 1:6), being "tested by fire" (which is not a physical reference but a metaphor for spiritual warfare; 1:7), maligned "as evildoers" (2:12) and suffering "for doing good" (3:17). Based on such internal evidence, biblical scholar John Elliott summarizes the addressees' situation as one marked by undeserved suffering.Template:SfnScript error: No such module "Unsubst". Verse 3:19, "Spirits in prison", is a continuing theme in Christianity, and one considered by most theologians to be enigmatic and difficult to interpret.[19]

A number of verses in the epistle contain possible clues about the reasons Christians experienced opposition. Exhortations to live blameless lives (2:15; 3:9, 13, 16) may suggest that the Christian addressees were accused of immoral behavior, and exhortations to civil obedience (2:13–17) perhaps imply that they were accused of disloyalty to governing powers.[7]

However, scholars differ on the nature of persecution inflicted on the addressees of 1 Peter. Some read the epistle to be describing persecution in the form of social discrimination, while some read them to be official persecution.[20]

File:Authentic Leaf of a Geneva Bible 1578 - Translation of the Bible used by many Protestant Reformers.jpg
English translation of 1 Peter from the 1578 Geneva Bible

Social discrimination of Christians

Some scholars believe that the sufferings the epistle's addressees were experiencing were social in nature, specifically in the form of verbal derision.Template:SfnScript error: No such module "Unsubst". Internal evidence for this includes the use of words like "malign" (2:12; 3:16), and "reviled" (4:14). Biblical scholar John Elliott notes that the author explicitly urges the addressees to respect authority (2:13) and even honor the emperor (2:17), strongly suggesting that they were unlikely to be suffering from official Roman persecution. It is significant to him that the author notes that "your brothers and sisters in all the world are undergoing the same kinds of suffering" (5:9), indicating suffering that is worldwide in scope. Elliott sees this as grounds to reject the idea that the epistle refers to official persecution, because the first worldwide persecution of Christians officially meted by Rome did not occur until the persecution initiated by Decius in AD 250.

Official persecution of Christians

On the other hand, scholars who support the official persecution theory take the exhortation to defend one's faith (3:15) as a reference to official court proceedings.[7] They believe that these persecutions involved court trials before Roman authorities, and even executions.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

One common supposition is that 1 Peter was written during the reign of Domitian (AD 81–96). Domitian's aggressive claim to divinity would have been rejected and resisted by Christians. Biblical scholar Paul Achtemeier believes that persecution of Christians by Domitian would have been in character, but points out that there is no evidence of official policy targeted specifically at Christians. If Christians were persecuted, it is likely to have been part of Domitian's larger policy suppressing all opposition to his self-proclaimed divinity.[7] There are other scholars who explicitly dispute the idea of contextualizing 1 Peter within Domitian's reign. Duane Warden believes that Domitian's unpopularity even among Romans renders it highly unlikely that his actions would have great influence in the provinces, especially those under the direct supervision of the senate such as Asia (one of the provinces 1 Peter is addressed to).[21]

Also often advanced as a possible context for 1 Peter is the trials and executions of Christians in the Roman province of Bithynia-Pontus under Pliny the Younger. Scholars who support this theory believe that a famous letter from Pliny to Emperor Trajan concerning the delation of Christians reflects the situation faced by the addressees of this epistle.[22][23] In Pliny's letter, written in AD 112, he asks Trajan if the accused Christians brought before him should be punished based on the name 'Christian' alone, or for crimes associated with the name. For biblical scholar John Knox, the use of the word "name" in 4:14–16 is the "crucial point of contact" with that in Pliny's letter.[22] In addition, many scholars in support of this theory believe that there is content within 1 Peter that directly mirrors the situation as portrayed in Pliny's letter. For instance, they interpret the exhortation to defend one's faith "with gentleness and reverence" in 3:15–16 as a response to Pliny executing Christians for the obstinate manner in which they professed to be Christians. Generally, this theory is rejected mainly by scholars who read the suffering in 1 Peter to be caused by social, rather than official, discrimination.[24]

The Harrowing of Hell

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". The author refers to Jesus, after his death, proclaiming to spirits in prison (3:18–20). This passage, and a few others (such as Matthew 27:52 and Luke 23:43), are the basis of the traditional Christian belief in the descent of Christ into hell, or the harrowing of hell.[25] Though interpretations vary, some theologiansScript error: No such module "Unsubst". see this passage as referring to Jesus, after his death, going to a place (neither heaven nor hell in the ultimate sense) where the souls of pre-Christian people waited for the Gospel. The first creeds to mention the harrowing of hell were Arian formularies of Sirmium (359), Nike (360), and Constantinople (360). It spread through the West and later appeared in the Apostles' Creed.[25]

Submissiveness of women

1 Peter 3:1 instructs women to submit to their husbands, "so that, even if some of them do not obey the Word, they may be won over without a word by their wives' conduct, when they see the purity and reverence of your lives."[26] The author also instructs husbands to "show consideration for your wives in your life together" and pay honor to them, "since they too are also heirs of the gracious gift of life—so that nothing may hinder your prayers."[27]

See also

Notes

Template:Notelist

References

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  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ a b Dale Martin 2009 (lecture). Template:Trim Template:Replace on YouTubeScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".. Yale University. Accessed 22 July 2013. Lecture 24 (transcript)
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ M. Eugene Boring, ‘First Peter in Recent Study’, WW 24 (2004), First Peter in Recent Study.pdf
  7. ↑ a b c d Achtemeier, Paul. Peter 1 Hermeneia. Fortress Press. 1996
  8. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ a b Bartlett, David, New Interpreter's Bible Commentary, 1 Peter. Abingdon Press. 1998
  10. ↑ Elliot, John. 1 Peter: Anchor Bible Commentary. Yale University Press. 2001.
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Daniel Keating, First and Second Peter Jude (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2011) 18. Norman Hillyer, 1 and 2 Peter, Jude, New International Biblical Commentary (Peabody, MA: Henrickson, 1992), 1–3. Karen H. Jobes, 1 Peter (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005), 14–19.
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Bauckham, RJ (1983), Word Bible Commentary, Vol. 50, Jude – 2 Peter, Waco
  15. ↑ Template:Cite work
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Bruce M. Metzger, The Early Versions of the New Testament, Oxford University Press, 1977, p. 316.
  18. ↑ W. R. F. Browning. 10 May 2012. "Peter, first letter of", A Dictionary of the Bible. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. University of Chicago.
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"..
  20. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ Warden, Duane. "Imperial Persecution and the Dating of 1 Peter and Revelation". Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 34:2. 1991
  22. ↑ a b Knox, John. "Pliny and I Peter: A Note on I Peter 4:14–16 and 3:15". Journal of Biblical Literature 72:3. 1953
  23. ↑ Downing, F Gerald. "Pliny's Prosecutions of Christians: Revelation and 1 Peter". Journal for the Study of the New Testament 34. 1988
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ a b Cross, F. L. 2005, ed. "Descent of Christ into Hell." The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press.
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "Bibleverse".
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "Bibleverse".

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Bibliography

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External links

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Online translations of the First Epistle of Peter

Other

First Epistle of Peter
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