Unbinilium: Difference between revisions

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Unbinilium, also known as eka-radium or element 120, is a hypothetical chemical element; it has symbol Ubn and atomic number 120. Unbinilium and Ubn are the temporary systematic IUPAC name and symbol, which are used until the element is discovered, confirmed, and a permanent name is decided upon. In the periodic table of the elements, it is expected to be an s-block element, an alkaline earth metal, and the second element in the eighth period. It has attracted attention because of some predictions that it may be in the island of stability.

Unbinilium has not yet been synthesized, despite multiple attempts from German and Russian teams. Experimental evidence from these attempts shows that the period 8 elements would likely be far more difficult to synthesise than the previous known elements. New attempts by American, Russian, and Chinese teams to synthesize unbinilium are planned to begin in the mid-2020s; in particular, an attempt to synthesize the element was ongoing Template:As of, at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in the United States.

Unbinilium's position as the seventh alkaline earth metal suggests that it would have similar properties to its lighter congeners; however, relativistic effects may cause some of its properties to differ from those expected from a straight application of periodic trends. For example, unbinilium is expected to be less reactive than barium and radium, be closer in behavior to strontium, and while it should show the characteristic +2 oxidation state of the alkaline earth metals, it is also predicted to show the +4 and +6 oxidation states, which are unknown in any other alkaline earth metal.

Introduction

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History

Elements 114 to 118 (flerovium through oganesson) were discovered in "hot fusion" reactions bombarding the actinides plutonium through californium with calcium-48, a quasi-stable neutron-rich isotope which could be used as a projectile to produce more neutron-rich isotopes of superheavy elements.^[1] This cannot easily be continued to elements 119 and 120, because it would require a target of the next actinides einsteinium and fermium. Tens of milligrams of these would be needed to create such targets, but only micrograms of einsteinium and picograms of fermium have so far been produced.^[2] More practical production of further superheavy elements would require bombarding actinides with projectiles heavier than ⁴⁸Ca,^[1] but this is expected to be more difficult.^[2] Attempts to synthesize elements 119 and 120 push the limits of current technology, due to the decreasing cross sections of the production reactions and their probably short half-lives,Template:Sfn expected to be on the order of microseconds.^[3]^[4]

Synthesis attempts

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Past

Following their success in obtaining oganesson by the reaction between ²⁴⁹Cf and ⁴⁸Ca in 2006, the team at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna started experiments in March–April 2007 to attempt to create unbinilium with a ⁵⁸Fe beam and a ²⁴⁴Pu target.^[5]^[6] The attempt was unsuccessful,^[7] and the Russian team planned to upgrade their facilities before attempting the reaction again.^[7]

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In April 2007, the team at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt, Germany attempted to create unbinilium using a ²³⁸U target and a ⁶⁴Ni beam:^[8]

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No atoms were detected. The GSI repeated the experiment with higher sensitivity in three separate runs in April–May 2007, January–March 2008, and September–October 2008, all with negative results, reaching a cross section limit of 90 fb.^[8]

In 2011, after upgrading their equipment to allow the use of more radioactive targets, scientists at the GSI attempted the rather asymmetrical fusion reaction:^[9]

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It was expected that the change in reaction would quintuple the probability of synthesizing unbinilium,^[10] as the yield of such reactions is strongly dependent on their asymmetry.Template:Sfn Although this reaction is less asymmetric than the ²⁴⁹Cf+⁵⁰Ti reaction, it also creates more neutron-rich unbinilium isotopes that should receive increased stability from their proximity to the shell closure at N = 184.^[11] Three signals were observed in May 2011; a possible assignment to ²⁹⁹Ubn and its daughters was considered,^[12] but could not be confirmed,^[13]^[14]^[11] and a different analysis suggested that what was observed was simply a random sequence of events.^[15]

In August–October 2011, a different team at the GSI using the TASCA facility tried a new, even more asymmetrical reaction:^[9]^[16]

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Because of its asymmetry,^[17] the reaction between ²⁴⁹Cf and ⁵⁰Ti was predicted to be the most favorable practical reaction for synthesizing unbinilium, though it produces a less neutron-rich isotope of unbinilium than any other reaction studied. No unbinilium atoms were identified.^[16]

This reaction was investigated again in April to September 2012 at the GSI. This experiment used a ²⁴⁹Bk target and a ⁵⁰Ti beam to produce element 119, but since ²⁴⁹Bk decays to ²⁴⁹Cf with a half-life of about 327 days, both elements 119 and 120 could be searched for simultaneously:

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Neither element 119 nor element 120 was observed.^[18]

Planned

The JINR's plans to investigate the ²⁴⁹Cf+⁵⁰Ti reaction in their new facility were disrupted by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, after which collaboration between the JINR and other institutes completely ceased due to sanctions. Thus, ²⁴⁹Cf could no longer be used as a target, as it would have to be produced at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in the United States.^[19]^[20]^[21] Instead, the ²⁴⁸Cm+⁵⁴Cr reaction will be used.^[22] In 2023, the director of the JINR, Grigory Trubnikov, stated that he hoped that the experiments to synthesise element 120 will begin in 2025.^[23] In preparation for this, the JINR reported success in the ²³⁸U+⁵⁴Cr reaction in late 2023, making a new isotope of livermorium, ²⁸⁸Lv. This was an unexpectedly good result; the aim had been to experimentally determine the cross-section of a reaction with ⁵⁴Cr projectiles and prepare for the synthesis of element 120. It is the first successful reaction producing a superheavy element using an actinide target and a projectile heavier than ⁴⁸Ca.^[24]

The team at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) in Berkeley, California, United States plans to use the 88-inch cyclotron to make new elements using ⁵⁰Ti projectiles.^[2] (Such a plan had already been made before the Russian invasion of Ukraine, in response to theoretical predictions that an attempt to produce element 120 would be feasible.)^[25] First, the ²⁴⁴Pu+⁵⁰Ti reaction was tested, successfully creating two atoms of ²⁹⁰Lv in 2024. Since this was successful, an attempt to make element 120 in the ²⁴⁹Cf+⁵⁰Ti reaction was planned to begin in late 2025.^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29] The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), which previously collaborated with the JINR, will collaborate with the LBNL on this project.^[25] By June 2025, updates were underway at the LBNL in preparation for the search for element 120,^[30]^[31] and by September, the search had begun.^[32]

The team at the Heavy Ion Research Facility in Lanzhou, which is operated by the Institute of Modern Physics (IMP) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, also plans to synthesise elements 119 and 120. The reactions used will involve actinide targets (e.g. ²⁴³Am, ²⁴⁸Cm) and first-row transition metal projectiles (e.g. ⁵⁰Ti, ⁵¹V, ⁵⁴Cr, ⁵⁵Mn).^[33]

Naming

Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements would call unbinilium eka-radium.^[34] The 1979 IUPAC recommendations temporarily call it unbinilium (symbol Ubn) until it is discovered, the discovery is confirmed and a permanent name chosen.^[35] Although the IUPAC systematic names are widely used in the chemical community on all levels, from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks, scientists who work theoretically or experimentally on superheavy elements typically call it "element 120", with the symbol E120, (120) or 120.^[3]

Predicted properties

Nuclear stability and isotopes

A 2D graph with rectangular cells colored in black-and-white colors, spanning from the llc to the urc, with cells mostly becoming lighter closer to the latter

A chart of nuclide stability as used by the Dubna team in 2010. Characterized isotopes are shown with borders. Beyond element 118 (oganesson, the last known element), the line of known nuclides is expected to rapidly enter a region of instability. The elliptical region encloses the predicted location of the island of stability, centered on element 112, copernicium.Template:Sfn

File:Next proton shell.svg

Orbitals with high azimuthal quantum number are raised in energy, eliminating what would otherwise be a gap in orbital energy corresponding to a closed proton shell at element 114, as shown in the left diagram which does not take this effect into account. This raises the next proton shell to the region around element 120, as shown in the right diagram, potentially increasing the half-lives of element 119 and 120 isotopes.^[36]

The stability of nuclei decreases greatly with the increase in atomic number after curium, element 96, whose half-life is four orders of magnitude longer than that of any currently known higher-numbered element. All isotopes with an atomic number above 101 undergo radioactive decay with half-lives of less than 30 hours. No elements with atomic numbers above 82 (after lead) have stable isotopes.^[37] Nevertheless, because of reasons not yet well understood, there is a slight increase of nuclear stability around atomic numbers 110–114, which leads to the appearance of what is known in nuclear physics as the "island of stability". This concept, proposed by University of California professor Glenn Seaborg, explains why superheavy elements last longer than predicted.^[38]

Isotopes of unbinilium are predicted to have alpha decay half-lives of the order of microseconds.^[39]^[40] In a quantum tunneling model with mass estimates from a macroscopic-microscopic model, the alpha-decay half-lives of several unbinilium isotopes (^292–304Ubn) have been predicted to be around 1–20 microseconds.^[39]^[41]^[42]^[40] Some heavier isotopes may be more stable; Fricke and Waber predicted ³²⁰Ubn to be the most stable unbinilium isotope in 1971.^[43] Since unbinilium is expected to decay via a cascade of alpha decays leading to spontaneous fission around copernicium, the total half-lives of unbinilium isotopes are also predicted to be measured in microseconds.^[3]^[4] This has consequences for the synthesis of unbinilium, as isotopes with half-lives below one microsecond would decay before reaching the detector.^[3]^[4] Nevertheless, new theoretical models show that the expected gap in energy between the proton orbitals 2f_7/2 (filled at element 114) and 2f_5/2 (filled at element 120) is smaller than expected, so that element 114 no longer appears to be a stable spherical closed nuclear shell, and this energy gap may increase the stability of elements 119 and 120. The next doubly magic nucleus is now expected to be around the spherical ³⁰⁶Ubb (element 122), but the expected low half-life and low production cross section of this nuclide makes its synthesis challenging.^[36]

Given that element 120 fills the 2f_5/2 proton orbital, much attention has been given to the compound nucleus ³⁰²Ubn* and its properties. Several experiments have been performed between 2000 and 2008 at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna studying the fission characteristics of the compound nucleus ³⁰²Ubn*. Two nuclear reactions have been used, namely ²⁴⁴Pu+⁵⁸Fe and ²³⁸U+⁶⁴Ni. The results have revealed how nuclei such as this fission predominantly by expelling closed shell nuclei such as ¹³²Sn (Z = 50, N = 82). It was also found that the yield for the fusion-fission pathway was similar between ⁴⁸Ca and ⁵⁸Fe projectiles, suggesting a possible future use of ⁵⁸Fe projectiles in superheavy element formation.^[44]

In 2008, the team at GANIL, France, described the results from a new technique which attempts to measure the fission half-life of a compound nucleus at high excitation energy, since the yields are significantly higher than from neutron evaporation channels. It is also a useful method for probing the effects of shell closures on the survivability of compound nuclei in the super-heavy region, which can indicate the exact position of the next proton shell (Z = 114, 120, 124, or 126). The team studied the nuclear fusion reaction between uranium ions and a target of natural nickel:^[45]^[46]

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The results indicated that nuclei of unbinilium were produced at high (≈70 MeV) excitation energy which underwent fission with measurable half-lives just over 10⁻¹⁸ s.^[45]^[46] Although very short (indeed insufficient for the element to be considered by IUPAC to exist, because a compound nucleus has no internal structure and its nucleons have not been arranged into shells until it has survived for 10⁻¹⁴ s, when it forms an electronic cloud),^[47] the ability to measure such a process indicates a strong shell effect at Z = 120. At lower excitation energy (see neutron evaporation), the effect of the shell will be enhanced and ground-state nuclei can be expected to have relatively long half-lives. This result could partially explain the relatively long half-life of ²⁹⁴Og measured in experiments at Dubna. Similar experiments have indicated a similar phenomenon at element 124 but not for flerovium, suggesting that the next proton shell does in fact lie beyond element 120.^[45]^[46] In September 2007, the team at RIKEN began a program utilizing ²⁴⁸Cm targets and have indicated future experiments to probe the possibility of 120 being the next proton magic number (and 184 being the next neutron magic number) using the aforementioned nuclear reactions to form ³⁰²Ubn*, as well as ²⁴⁸Cm+⁵⁴Cr. They also planned to further chart the region by investigating the nearby compound nuclei ²⁹⁶Og*, ²⁹⁸Og*, ³⁰⁶Ubb*, and ³⁰⁸Ubb*.^[48]

The most likely isotopes of unbinilium to be synthesised in the near future are ²⁹⁵Ubn through ²⁹⁹Ubn, because they can be produced in the 3n and 4n channels of the ^249–251Cf+⁵⁰Ti, ²⁴⁵Cm+⁵⁴Cr, and ²⁴⁸Cm+⁵⁴Cr reactions.^[49]

Atomic and physical

Being the second period 8 element, unbinilium is predicted to be an alkaline earth metal, below beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium. Each of these elements has two valence electrons in the outermost s-orbital (valence electron configuration ns²), which is easily lost in chemical reactions to form the +2 oxidation state: thus the alkaline earth metals are rather reactive elements, with the exception of beryllium due to its small size. Unbinilium is predicted to continue the trend and have a valence electron configuration of 8s². It is therefore expected to behave much like its lighter congeners; however, it is also predicted to differ from the lighter alkaline earth metals in some properties.^[3]

The main reason for the predicted differences between unbinilium and the other alkaline earth metals is the spin–orbit (SO) interaction—the mutual interaction between the electrons' motion and spin. The SO interaction is especially strong for the superheavy elements because their electrons move faster—at velocities comparable to the speed of light—than those in lighter atoms.^[50] In unbinilium atoms, it lowers the 7p and 8s electron energy levels, stabilizing the corresponding electrons, but two of the 7p electron energy levels are more stabilized than the other four.^[51] The effect is called subshell splitting, as it splits the 7p subshell into more-stabilized and the less-stabilized parts. Computational chemists understand the split as a change of the second (azimuthal) quantum number l from 1 to 1/2 and 3/2 for the more-stabilized and less-stabilized parts of the 7p subshell, respectively.^[50]Template:Efn Thus, the outer 8s electrons of unbinilium are stabilized and become harder to remove than expected, while the 7p_3/2 electrons are correspondingly destabilized, perhaps allowing them to participate in chemical reactions.^[3] This stabilization of the outermost s-orbital (already significant in radium) is the key factor affecting unbinilium's chemistry, and causes all the trends for atomic and molecular properties of alkaline earth metals to reverse direction after barium.^[52]

File:Atomic radius of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals.svg

Empirical (Na–Cs, Mg–Ra) and predicted (Fr–Uhp, Ubn–Uhh) atomic radii of the alkali and alkaline earth metals from the third to the ninth period, measured in angstroms^[3]^[53]

File:Ionization energy of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals.svg

Empirical (Na–Fr, Mg–Ra) and predicted (Uue–Uhp, Ubn–Uhh) ionization energy of the alkali and alkaline earth metals from the third to the ninth period, measured in electron volts^[3]^[53]

Due to the stabilization of its outer 8s electrons, unbinilium's first ionization energy—the energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom—is predicted to be 6.0 eV, comparable to that of calcium.^[3] The electron of the hydrogen-like unbinilium atom—oxidized so it has only one electron, Ubn¹¹⁹⁺—is predicted to move so quickly that its mass is 2.05 times that of a non-moving electron, a feature coming from the relativistic effects. For comparison, the figure for hydrogen-like radium is 1.30 and the figure for hydrogen-like barium is 1.095.^[50] According to simple extrapolations of relativity laws, that indirectly indicates the contraction of the atomic radius^[50] to around 200 pm,^[3] very close to that of strontium (215 pm); the ionic radius of the Ubn²⁺ ion is also correspondingly lowered to 160 pm.^[3] The trend in electron affinity is also expected to reverse direction similarly at radium and unbinilium.^[52]

Unbinilium should be a solid at room temperature, with melting point 680 °C:^[54] this continues the downward trend down the group, being lower than the value 700 °C for radium.^[55] The boiling point of unbinilium is expected to be around 1700 °C, which is lower than that of all the previous elements in the group (in particular, radium boils at 1737 °C), following the downward periodic trend.^[43] The density of unbinilium has been predicted to be 7 g/cm³, continuing the trend of increasing density down the group: the value for radium is 5.5 g/cm³.^[43]^[56]

Chemical

Bond lengths and bond-dissociation energies of alkaline earth metal dimers. Data for Ba₂, Ra₂ and Ubn₂ is predicted.^[52]
Compound	Bond length (Å)	Bond-dissociation energy (eV)
Ca₂	4.277	0.14
Sr₂	4.498	0.13
Ba₂	4.831	0.23
Ra₂	5.19	0.11
Ubn₂	5.65	0.02

The chemistry of unbinilium is predicted to be similar to that of the alkaline earth metals,^[3] but it would probably behave more like calcium or strontium^[3] than barium or radium. Like strontium, unbinilium should react vigorously with air to form an oxide (UbnO) and with water to form the hydroxide (Ubn(OH)₂), which would be a strong base, and releasing hydrogen gas. It should also react with the halogens to form salts such as UbnCl₂.^[57] While these reactions would be expected from periodic trends, their lowered intensity is somewhat unusual, as ignoring relativistic effects, periodic trends would predict unbinilium to be even more reactive than barium or radium. This lowered reactivity is due to the relativistic stabilization of unbinilium's valence electron, increasing unbinilium's first ionization energy and decreasing the metallic and ionic radii;^[58] this effect is already seen for radium.^[3] On the other hand, the ionic radius of the Ubn²⁺ ion is predicted to be larger than that of Sr²⁺, because the 7p orbitals are destabilized and are thus larger than the p-orbitals of the lower shells.^[50]

Unbinilium may also show the +4 oxidation state,^[3] which is not seen in any other alkaline earth metal,^[59] in addition to the +2 oxidation state that is characteristic of the other alkaline earth metals and is also the main oxidation state of all the known alkaline earth metals: this is because of the destabilization and expansion of the 7p_3/2 spinor, causing its outermost electrons to have a lower ionization energy than what would otherwise be expected.^[3]^[59] The +6 state involving all the 7p_3/2 electrons has been suggested in a hexafluoride, UbnF₆.^[60] The +1 state may also be isolable.^[50] Many unbinilium compounds are expected to have a large covalent character, due to the involvement of the 7p_3/2 electrons in the bonding: this effect is also seen to a lesser extent in radium, which shows some 6s and 6p_3/2 contribution to the bonding in radium fluoride (RaF₂) and astatide (RaAt₂), resulting in these compounds having more covalent character.^[50] The standard reduction potential of the Ubn²⁺/Ubn couple is predicted to be −2.9 V, which is almost exactly the same as that for the Sr²⁺/Sr couple of strontium (−2.899 V).^[54]

Bond lengths and bond-dissociation energies of MAu (M = an alkaline earth metal). All data is predicted, except for CaAu.^[52]
Compound	Bond length (Å)	Bond-dissociation energy (kJ/mol)
CaAu	2.67	2.55
SrAu	2.808	2.63
BaAu	2.869	3.01
RaAu	2.995	2.56
UbnAu	3.050	1.90

In the gas phase, the alkaline earth metals do not usually form covalently bonded diatomic molecules like the alkali metals do, since such molecules would have the same number of electrons in the bonding and antibonding orbitals and would have very low dissociation energies.^[61] Thus, the M–M bonding in these molecules is predominantly through van der Waals forces.^[52] The metal–metal bond lengths in these M₂ molecules increase down the group from Ca₂ to Ubn₂. On the other hand, their metal–metal bond-dissociation energies generally increase from Ca₂ to Ba₂ and then drop to Ubn₂, which should be the most weakly bound of all the group 2 homodiatomic molecules. The cause of this trend is the increasing participation of the p_3/2 and d electrons as well as the relativistically contracted s orbital.^[52] From these M₂ dissociation energies, the enthalpy of sublimation (ΔH_sub) of unbinilium is predicted to be 150 kJ/mol.^[52]

Bond lengths, harmonic frequency, vibrational anharmonicity and bond-dissociation energies of MH and MAu (M = an alkaline earth metal). Data for UbnH and UbnAu are predicted.^[62] Data for BaH is taken from experiment,^[63] except bond-dissociation energy.^[62] Data for BaAu is taken from experiment,^[64] except bond-dissociation energy and bond length.^[62]
Compound	Bond length (Å)	Harmonic frequency, cm⁻¹	Vibrational anharmonicity, cm⁻¹	Bond-dissociation energy (eV)
UbnH	2.38	1070	20.1	1.00
BaH	2.23	1168	14.5	2.06

UbnAu	3.03	100	0.13	1.80
BaAu	2.91	129	0.18	2.84

The Ubn–Au bond should be the weakest of all bonds between gold and an alkaline earth metal, but should still be stable. This gives extrapolated medium-sized adsorption enthalpies (−ΔH_ads) of 172 kJ/mol on gold (the radium value should be 237 kJ/mol) and 50 kJ/mol on silver, the smallest of all the alkaline earth metals, that demonstrate that it would be feasible to study the chromatographic adsorption of unbinilium onto surfaces made of noble metals.^[52] The ΔH_sub and −ΔH_ads values are correlated for the alkaline earth metals.^[52]

Notes

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References

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Bibliography

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@@ Line 6: / Line 6: @@
 '''Unbinilium''', also known as '''eka-radium''' or '''element 120''', is a hypothetical [[chemical element]]; it has symbol '''Ubn''' and [[atomic number]] 120. ''Unbinilium'' and ''Ubn'' are the temporary [[systematic element name|systematic IUPAC name and symbol]], which are used until the element is discovered, confirmed, and a permanent name is decided upon. In the [[periodic table]] of the elements, it is expected to be an [[s-block]] element, an [[alkaline earth metal]], and the second element in the eighth [[Period (periodic table)|period]]. It has attracted attention because of some predictions that it may be in the [[island of stability]].
-Unbinilium has not yet been synthesized, despite multiple attempts from German and Russian teams. Experimental evidence from these attempts shows that the period 8 elements would likely be far more difficult to synthesise than the previous known elements. New attempts by American, Russian, and Chinese teams to synthesize unbinilium are planned to begin in the mid-2020s.
+Unbinilium has not yet been synthesized, despite multiple attempts from German and Russian teams. Experimental evidence from these attempts shows that the period 8 elements would likely be far more difficult to synthesise than the previous known elements. New attempts by American, Russian, and Chinese teams to synthesize unbinilium are planned to begin in the mid-2020s; in particular, an attempt to synthesize the element was ongoing {{as of|lc=yes|September 2025}}, at [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]] in the United States.
 Unbinilium's position as the seventh alkaline earth metal suggests that it would have similar properties to its lighter [[congener (chemistry)|congeners]]; however, [[relativistic quantum chemistry|relativistic effects]] may cause some of its properties to differ from those expected from a straight application of [[periodic trend]]s. For example, unbinilium is expected to be less reactive than [[barium]] and [[radium]], be closer in behavior to [[strontium]], and while it should show the characteristic +2 [[oxidation state]] of the alkaline earth metals, it is also predicted to show the +4 and +6 oxidation states, which are unknown in any other alkaline earth metal.
@@ Line 14: / Line 14: @@
 ==History==
-Elements 114 to 118 ([[flerovium]] through [[oganesson]]) were discovered in "hot fusion" reactions bombarding the actinides [[plutonium]] through [[californium]] with [[calcium-48]], a quasi-stable neutron-rich isotope which could be used as a projectile to produce more neutron-rich isotopes of superheavy elements.<ref name="Folden" /> This cannot easily be continued to elements 119 and 120, because it would require a target of the next actinides [[einsteinium]] and [[fermium]]. Tens of milligrams of these would be needed to create such targets, but only micrograms of einsteinium and picograms of fermium have so far been produced.<ref name=usprogram>{{cite journal |url=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1896856 |title=The Status and Ambitions of the US Heavy Element Program |first1=J. |last1=Gates |first2=J. |last2=Pore |first3=H. |last3=Crawford |first4=D. |last4=Shaughnessy |first5=M. A. |last5=Stoyer |date=25 October 2022 |website=osti.gov |publisher= |access-date=13 November 2022 |doi=10.2172/1896856 |osti=1896856 |s2cid=253391052 |quote=}}</ref> More practical production of further superheavy elements would require bombarding actinides with projectiles heavier than <sup>48</sup>Ca,<ref name="Folden">{{cite journal |last1=Folden III |first=C. M. |last2=Mayorov |first2=D. A. |last3=Werke |first3=T. A. |last4=Alfonso |first4=M. C. |last5=Bennett |first5=M. E. |last6=DeVanzo |first6=M. J. |display-authors=2 |year=2013 |title=Prospects for the discovery of the next new element: Influence of projectiles with ''Z'' > 20 |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/420/1/012007 |journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |publisher=IOP Publishing Ltd |volume=420 |issue=1 |at=012007 |arxiv=1209.0498 |bibcode=2013JPhCS.420a2007F |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/420/1/012007 |s2cid=119275964}}</ref> but this is expected to be more difficult.<ref name=usprogram/> Attempts to synthesize elements 119 and 120 push the limits of current technology, due to the decreasing [[cross section (physics)|cross sections]] of the production reactions and their probably short [[half-life|half-lives]],{{sfn|Zagrebaev|Karpov|Greiner|2013}} expected to be on the order of microseconds.<ref name="Haire" /><ref name="Hofmann">{{cite book |last=Hofmann |first=Sigurd |editor1-first=Walter |editor1-last=Greiner |date=2013 |title=Overview and Perspectives of SHE Research at GSI SHIP |pages=23–32 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-00047-3 |isbn=978-3-319-00046-6 |url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/1551965 }}</ref>
+Elements 114 to 118 ([[flerovium]] through [[oganesson]]) were discovered in "hot fusion" reactions bombarding the actinides [[plutonium]] through [[californium]] with [[calcium-48]], a quasi-stable neutron-rich isotope which could be used as a projectile to produce more neutron-rich isotopes of superheavy elements.<ref name="Folden" /> This cannot easily be continued to elements 119 and 120, because it would require a target of the next actinides [[einsteinium]] and [[fermium]]. Tens of milligrams of these would be needed to create such targets, but only micrograms of einsteinium and picograms of fermium have so far been produced.<ref name=usprogram>{{cite journal |url=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1896856 |title=The Status and Ambitions of the US Heavy Element Program |first1=J. |last1=Gates |first2=J. |last2=Pore |first3=H. |last3=Crawford |first4=D. |last4=Shaughnessy |first5=M. A. |last5=Stoyer |date=25 October 2022 |website=osti.gov |publisher= |access-date=13 November 2022 |doi=10.2172/1896856 |osti=1896856 |s2cid=253391052 |quote=}}</ref> More practical production of further superheavy elements would require bombarding actinides with projectiles heavier than <sup>48</sup>Ca,<ref name="Folden">{{cite journal |last1=Folden III |first1=C. M. |last2=Mayorov |first2=D. A. |last3=Werke |first3=T. A. |last4=Alfonso |first4=M. C. |last5=Bennett |first5=M. E. |last6=DeVanzo |first6=M. J. |display-authors=2 |year=2013 |title=Prospects for the discovery of the next new element: Influence of projectiles with ''Z'' > 20 |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/420/1/012007 |journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |publisher=IOP Publishing Ltd |volume=420 |issue=1 |at=012007 |arxiv=1209.0498 |bibcode=2013JPhCS.420a2007F |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/420/1/012007 |s2cid=119275964}}</ref> but this is expected to be more difficult.<ref name=usprogram/> Attempts to synthesize elements 119 and 120 push the limits of current technology, due to the decreasing [[cross section (physics)|cross sections]] of the production reactions and their probably short [[half-life|half-lives]],{{sfn|Zagrebaev|Karpov|Greiner|2013}} expected to be on the order of microseconds.<ref name="Haire" /><ref name="Hofmann">{{cite book |last=Hofmann |first=Sigurd |editor1-first=Walter |editor1-last=Greiner |date=2013 |title=Overview and Perspectives of SHE Research at GSI SHIP |pages=23–32 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-00047-3 |isbn=978-3-319-00046-6 |url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/1551965 }}</ref>
 ===Synthesis attempts===
@@ Line 34: / Line 34: @@
 :{{nuclide|Cm|248}} + {{nuclide|Cr|54}} → {{nuclide|Ubn|302}}* → no atoms
-It was expected that the change in reaction would quintuple the probability of synthesizing unbinilium,<ref>{{cite web |title=Searching for the island of stability |author=GSI |website=www.gsi.de |date=5 April 2012 |publisher=GSI |url=https://www.gsi.de/de/work/forschung/nustarenna/nustarenna_divisions/she_physik/research/super_heavy_elements/future_projects.htm |access-date=23 September 2016}}</ref> as the yield of such reactions is strongly dependent on their asymmetry.{{sfn|Zagrebaev|Karpov|Greiner|2013}} Although this reaction is less asymmetric than the <sup>249</sup>Cf+<sup>50</sup>Ti reaction, it also creates more neutron-rich unbinilium isotopes that should receive increased stability from their proximity to the shell closure at ''N'' = 184.<ref name="Hofmann2016" /> Three signals were observed in May 2011; a possible assignment to <sup>299</sup>Ubn and its daughters was considered,<ref name="EXON">{{cite conference |title=Remarks on the Fission Barriers of SHN and Search for Element 120 |display-authors=3 |first1=S. |last1=Hofmann |first2=S. |last2=Heinz |first3=R. |last3=Mann |first4=J. |last4=Maurer |first5=G. |last5=Münzenberg |first6=S. |last6=Antalic |first7=W. |last7=Barth |first8=H. G. |last8=Burkhard |first9=L. |last9=Dahl |first10=K. |last10=Eberhardt |first11=R. |last11=Grzywacz |first12=J. H. |last12=Hamilton |first13=R. A. |last13=Henderson |first14=J. M. |last14=Kenneally |first15=B. |last15=Kindler |first16=I. |last16=Kojouharov |first17=R. |last17=Lang |first18=B. |last18=Lommel |first19=K. |last19=Miernik |first20=D. |last20=Miller |first21=K. J. |last21=Moody |first22=K. |last22=Morita |first23=K. |last23=Nishio |first24=A. G. |last24=Popeko |first25=J. B. |last25=Roberto |first26=J. |last26=Runke |first27=K. P. |last27=Rykaczewski |first28=S. |last28=Saro |first29=C. |last29=Schneidenberger |first30=H. J. |last30=Schött |first31=D. A. |last31=Shaughnessy |first32=M. A. |last32=Stoyer |first33=P. |last33=Thörle-Pospiech |first34=K. |last34=Tinschert |first35=N. |last35=Trautmann |first36=J. |last36=Uusitalo |first37=A. V. |last37=Yeremin |year=2016 |conference=Exotic Nuclei |editor1-first=Yu. E. |editor1-last=Peninozhkevich |editor2-first=Yu. G. |editor2-last=Sobolev |book-title=Exotic Nuclei: EXON-2016 Proceedings of the International Symposium on Exotic Nuclei |pages=155–164 |isbn=9789813226555}}</ref> but could not be confirmed,<ref name="Hoffman">{{cite web |url=https://jphysplus.iop.org/2015/10/02/weighty-matters-sigurd-hofmann-on-the-heaviest-of-nuclei/ |title=Weighty matters: Sigurd Hofmann on the heaviest of nuclei |last1=Adcock |first1=Colin |date=2 October 2015 |website=JPhys+ |publisher=Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics |access-date=23 September 2016 |archive-date=18 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718025533/https://jphysplus.iop.org/2015/10/02/weighty-matters-sigurd-hofmann-on-the-heaviest-of-nuclei/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hofmann |first=Sigurd |date=August 2015 |title=Search for Isotopes of Element 120 on the Island of SHN |journal=Exotic Nuclei |pages=213–224 |doi=10.1142/9789814699464_0023|bibcode=2015exon.conf..213H |isbn=978-981-4699-45-7 }}</ref><ref name="Hofmann2016">{{cite journal |display-authors=3 |last1=Hofmann |first1=S. |last2=Heinz |first2=S. |first3=R. |last3=Mann |first4=J. |last4=Maurer |first5=G. |last5=Münzenberg |first6=S. |last6=Antalic |first7=W. |last7=Barth |first8=H. G. |last8=Burkhard |first9=L. |last9=Dahl |first10=K. |last10=Eberhardt |first11=R. |last11=Grzywacz |first12=J. H. |last12=Hamilton |first13=R. A. |last13=Henderson |first14=J. M. |last14=Kenneally |first15=B. |last15=Kindler |first16=I. |last16=Kojouharov |first17=R. |last17=Lang |first18=B. |last18=Lommel |first19=K. |last19=Miernik |first20=D. |last20=Miller |first21=K. J. |last21=Moody |first22=K. |last22=Morita |first23=K. |last23=Nishio |first24=A. G. |last24=Popeko |first25=J. B. |last25=Roberto |first26=J. |last26=Runke |first27=K. P. |last27=Rykaczewski |first28=S. |last28=Saro |first29=C. |last29=Scheidenberger |first30=H. J. |last30=Schött |first31=D. A. |last31=Shaughnessy |first32=M. A. |last32=Stoyer |first33=P. |last33=Thörle-Popiesch |first34=K. |last34=Tinschert |first35=N. |last35=Trautmann |first36=J. |last36=Uusitalo |first37=A. V. |last37=Yeremin |date=2016 |title=Review of even element super-heavy nuclei and search for element 120 |journal=The European Physical Journal A |volume=2016 |issue=52 |pages=180 |doi=10.1140/epja/i2016-16180-4|bibcode=2016EPJA...52..180H |s2cid=124362890 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304459935 }}</ref> and a different analysis suggested that what was observed was simply a random sequence of events.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Heßberger |first1=F. P. |last2=Ackermann |first2=D. |date=2017 |title=Some critical remarks on a sequence of events interpreted to possibly originate from a decay chain of an element 120 isotope |journal=The European Physical Journal A |volume=53 |issue=123 |page=123 |doi=10.1140/epja/i2017-12307-5|bibcode=2017EPJA...53..123H |s2cid=125886824 }}</ref>
+It was expected that the change in reaction would quintuple the probability of synthesizing unbinilium,<ref>{{cite web |title=Searching for the island of stability |author=GSI |website=www.gsi.de |date=5 April 2012 |publisher=GSI |url=https://www.gsi.de/de/work/forschung/nustarenna/nustarenna_divisions/she_physik/research/super_heavy_elements/future_projects.htm |access-date=23 September 2016}}</ref> as the yield of such reactions is strongly dependent on their asymmetry.{{sfn|Zagrebaev|Karpov|Greiner|2013}} Although this reaction is less asymmetric than the <sup>249</sup>Cf+<sup>50</sup>Ti reaction, it also creates more neutron-rich unbinilium isotopes that should receive increased stability from their proximity to the shell closure at ''N'' = 184.<ref name="Hofmann2016" /> Three signals were observed in May 2011; a possible assignment to <sup>299</sup>Ubn and its daughters was considered,<ref name="EXON">{{cite conference |title=Remarks on the Fission Barriers of SHN and Search for Element 120 |display-authors=3 |first1=S. |last1=Hofmann |first2=S. |last2=Heinz |first3=R. |last3=Mann |first4=J. |last4=Maurer |first5=G. |last5=Münzenberg |first6=S. |last6=Antalic |first7=W. |last7=Barth |first8=H. G. |last8=Burkhard |first9=L. |last9=Dahl |first10=K. |last10=Eberhardt |first11=R. |last11=Grzywacz |first12=J. H. |last12=Hamilton |first13=R. A. |last13=Henderson |first14=J. M. |last14=Kenneally |first15=B. |last15=Kindler |first16=I. |last16=Kojouharov |first17=R. |last17=Lang |first18=B. |last18=Lommel |first19=K. |last19=Miernik |first20=D. |last20=Miller |first21=K. J. |last21=Moody |first22=K. |last22=Morita |first23=K. |last23=Nishio |first24=A. G. |last24=Popeko |first25=J. B. |last25=Roberto |first26=J. |last26=Runke |first27=K. P. |last27=Rykaczewski |first28=S. |last28=Saro |first29=C. |last29=Schneidenberger |first30=H. J. |last30=Schött |first31=D. A. |last31=Shaughnessy |first32=M. A. |last32=Stoyer |first33=P. |last33=Thörle-Pospiech |first34=K. |last34=Tinschert |first35=N. |last35=Trautmann |first36=J. |last36=Uusitalo |first37=A. V. |last37=Yeremin |year=2016 |conference=Exotic Nuclei |editor1-first=Yu. E. |editor1-last=Peninozhkevich |editor2-first=Yu. G. |editor2-last=Sobolev |book-title=Exotic Nuclei: EXON-2016 Proceedings of the International Symposium on Exotic Nuclei |pages=155–164 |isbn=978-981-322-655-5}}</ref> but could not be confirmed,<ref name="Hoffman">{{cite web |url=https://jphysplus.iop.org/2015/10/02/weighty-matters-sigurd-hofmann-on-the-heaviest-of-nuclei/ |title=Weighty matters: Sigurd Hofmann on the heaviest of nuclei |last1=Adcock |first1=Colin |date=2 October 2015 |website=JPhys+ |publisher=Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics |access-date=23 September 2016 |archive-date=18 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718025533/https://jphysplus.iop.org/2015/10/02/weighty-matters-sigurd-hofmann-on-the-heaviest-of-nuclei/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hofmann |first=Sigurd |date=August 2015 |title=Search for Isotopes of Element 120 on the Island of SHN |journal=Exotic Nuclei |pages=213–224 |doi=10.1142/9789814699464_0023|bibcode=2015exon.conf..213H |isbn=978-981-4699-45-7 }}</ref><ref name="Hofmann2016">{{cite journal |display-authors=3 |last1=Hofmann |first1=S. |last2=Heinz |first2=S. |first3=R. |last3=Mann |first4=J. |last4=Maurer |first5=G. |last5=Münzenberg |first6=S. |last6=Antalic |first7=W. |last7=Barth |first8=H. G. |last8=Burkhard |first9=L. |last9=Dahl |first10=K. |last10=Eberhardt |first11=R. |last11=Grzywacz |first12=J. H. |last12=Hamilton |first13=R. A. |last13=Henderson |first14=J. M. |last14=Kenneally |first15=B. |last15=Kindler |first16=I. |last16=Kojouharov |first17=R. |last17=Lang |first18=B. |last18=Lommel |first19=K. |last19=Miernik |first20=D. |last20=Miller |first21=K. J. |last21=Moody |first22=K. |last22=Morita |first23=K. |last23=Nishio |first24=A. G. |last24=Popeko |first25=J. B. |last25=Roberto |first26=J. |last26=Runke |first27=K. P. |last27=Rykaczewski |first28=S. |last28=Saro |first29=C. |last29=Scheidenberger |first30=H. J. |last30=Schött |first31=D. A. |last31=Shaughnessy |first32=M. A. |last32=Stoyer |first33=P. |last33=Thörle-Popiesch |first34=K. |last34=Tinschert |first35=N. |last35=Trautmann |first36=J. |last36=Uusitalo |first37=A. V. |last37=Yeremin |date=2016 |title=Review of even element super-heavy nuclei and search for element 120 |journal=The European Physical Journal A |volume=2016 |issue=52 |page=180 |doi=10.1140/epja/i2016-16180-4|bibcode=2016EPJA...52..180H |osti=1410078 |s2cid=124362890 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304459935 }}</ref> and a different analysis suggested that what was observed was simply a random sequence of events.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Heßberger |first1=F. P. |last2=Ackermann |first2=D. |date=2017 |title=Some critical remarks on a sequence of events interpreted to possibly originate from a decay chain of an element 120 isotope |journal=The European Physical Journal A |volume=53 |issue=123 |page=123 |doi=10.1140/epja/i2017-12307-5|bibcode=2017EPJA...53..123H |s2cid=125886824 }}</ref>
 In August–October 2011, a different team at the GSI using the TASCA facility tried a new, even more asymmetrical reaction:<ref name="Duellmann">{{cite web |last1=Düllmann |first1=C. E. |date=20 October 2011 |url=http://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/7293741/superheavy-element-research-superheavy-element-research |title=Superheavy Element Research: News from GSI and Mainz |access-date=23 September 2016}}</ref><ref name="Yakushev" />
 :{{nuclide|Cf|249}} + {{nuclide|Ti|50}} → {{nuclide|Ubn|299}}* → no atoms
-Because of its asymmetry,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siwek-Wilczyńska |first1=K. |last2=Cap |first2=T. |last3=Wilczyński |first3=J. |date=April 2010 |title=How can one synthesize the element ''Z'' = 120? |journal=International Journal of Modern Physics E |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=500 |doi=10.1142/S021830131001490X|bibcode=2010IJMPE..19..500S }}</ref> the reaction between <sup>249</sup>Cf and <sup>50</sup>Ti was predicted to be the most favorable practical reaction for synthesizing unbinilium, though it produces a less neutron-rich isotope of unbinilium than any other reaction studied. No unbinilium atoms were identified.<ref name="Yakushev">{{cite web |url=http://asrc.jaea.go.jp/soshiki/gr/chiba_gr/workshop3/&Yakushev.pdf |title=Superheavy Element Research at TASCA |last1=Yakushev |first1=A. |date=2012 |website=asrc.jaea.go.jp |access-date=23 September 2016}}</ref>
+Because of its asymmetry,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siwek-Wilczyńska |first1=K. |last2=Cap |first2=T. |last3=Wilczyński |first3=J. |date=April 2010 |title=How can one synthesize the element ''Z'' = 120? |journal=International Journal of Modern Physics E |volume=19 |issue=4 |page=500 |doi=10.1142/S021830131001490X|bibcode=2010IJMPE..19..500S }}</ref> the reaction between <sup>249</sup>Cf and <sup>50</sup>Ti was predicted to be the most favorable practical reaction for synthesizing unbinilium, though it produces a less neutron-rich isotope of unbinilium than any other reaction studied. No unbinilium atoms were identified.<ref name="Yakushev">{{cite web |url=http://asrc.jaea.go.jp/soshiki/gr/chiba_gr/workshop3/%26Yakushev.pdf |title=Superheavy Element Research at TASCA |last1=Yakushev |first1=A. |date=2012 |website=asrc.jaea.go.jp |access-date=23 September 2016 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082617/http://asrc.jaea.go.jp/soshiki/gr/chiba_gr/workshop3/%26Yakushev.pdf }}</ref>
 This reaction was investigated again in April to September 2012 at the GSI. This experiment used a <sup>249</sup>Bk target and a <sup>50</sup>Ti beam to produce [[ununennium|element 119]], but since <sup>249</sup>Bk decays to <sup>249</sup>Cf with a half-life of about 327&nbsp;days, both elements 119 and 120 could be searched for simultaneously:
 :{{nuclide|Bk|249}} + {{nuclide|Ti|50}} → {{nuclide|Uue|299}}* → no atoms
 :{{nuclide|Cf|249}} + {{nuclide|Ti|50}} → {{nuclide|Ubn|299}}* → no atoms
-Neither element 119 nor element 120 was observed.<ref name="search">{{cite journal |last1=Khuyagbaatar |first1=J. |last2=Yakushev |first2=A. |last3=Düllmann |first3=Ch. E. |first4=D. |last4=Ackermann |first5=L.-L. |last5=Andersson |first6=M. |last6=Asai |first7=M. |last7=Block |first8=R. A. |last8=Boll |first9=H. |last9=Brand |first10=D. M. |last10=Cox |first11=M. |last11=Dasgupta |first12=X. |last12=Derkx |first13=A. |last13=Di Nitto |first14=K. |last14=Eberhardt |first15=J. |last15=Even |first16=M. |last16=Evers |first17=C. |last17=Fahlander |first18=U. |last18=Forsberg |first19=J. M. |last19=Gates <!--there are even more--> |display-authors=3 |date=December 2020 |title=Search for elements 119 and 120 |url=https://jyx.jyu.fi/bitstream/handle/123456789/73027/2/khuyagbaatarym0812.pdf |journal=Physical Review C |volume=102 |issue=6 |page=064602 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.102.064602 |bibcode=2020PhRvC.102f4602K |s2cid=229401931 |access-date=25 January 2021}}</ref>
+Neither element 119 nor element 120 was observed.<ref name="search">{{cite journal |last1=Khuyagbaatar |first1=J. |last2=Yakushev |first2=A. |last3=Düllmann |first3=Ch. E. |first4=D. |last4=Ackermann |first5=L.-L. |last5=Andersson |first6=M. |last6=Asai |first7=M. |last7=Block |first8=R. A. |last8=Boll |first9=H. |last9=Brand |first10=D. M. |last10=Cox |first11=M. |last11=Dasgupta |first12=X. |last12=Derkx |first13=A. |last13=Di Nitto |first14=K. |last14=Eberhardt |first15=J. |last15=Even |first16=M. |last16=Evers |first17=C. |last17=Fahlander |first18=U. |last18=Forsberg |first19=J. M. |last19=Gates <!--there are even more--> |display-authors=3 |date=December 2020 |title=Search for elements 119 and 120 |url=https://jyx.jyu.fi/bitstream/handle/123456789/73027/2/khuyagbaatarym0812.pdf |journal=Physical Review C |volume=102 |issue=6 |article-number=064602 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.102.064602 |bibcode=2020PhRvC.102f4602K |hdl=10852/85485 |s2cid=229401931 |access-date=25 January 2021}}</ref>
 ====Planned====
 The JINR's plans to investigate the <sup>249</sup>Cf+<sup>50</sup>Ti reaction in their new facility were disrupted by the 2022 [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]], after which collaboration between the JINR and other institutes completely ceased due to sanctions. Thus, <sup>249</sup>Cf could no longer be used as a target, as it would have to be produced at the [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] (ORNL) in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jinr.ru/posts/how-are-new-chemical-elements-born/ |title=How are new chemical elements born? |last1=Sokolova |first1=Svetlana |last2=Popeko |first2=Andrei |date=24 May 2021 |website=jinr.ru |publisher=JINR |access-date=4 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.unistra.fr/unistra-news/research/in-search-of-element-120-in-the-periodic-table-of-elements |title=In search of element 120 in the periodic table of elements |last=Riegert |first=Marion |date=19 July 2021 |website=en.unistra.fr |publisher=[[University of Strasbourg]] |access-date=20 February 2022}}</ref><ref name=ft>{{cite news |last=Ahuja |first=Anjana |date=18 October 2023 |title=Even the periodic table must bow to the reality of war |url=https://www.ft.com/content/6b6b0afc-39b2-4955-af5a-d0ea6b4d8306 |work=Financial Times |location= |access-date=20 October 2023}}</ref> Instead, the <sup>248</sup>Cm+<sup>54</sup>Cr reaction will be used.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jinr.ru/posts/at-seminar-on-synthesis-of-element-120/ |title=At seminar on synthesis of element 120 |author=JINR |date=29 March 2022 |website=jinr.ru |publisher=JINR |access-date=17 April 2022}}</ref> In 2023, the director of the JINR, [[Grigory Trubnikov]], stated that he hoped that the experiments to synthesise element 120 will begin in 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mayer |first=Anastasiya |date=31 May 2023 |language=ru |title="Большинство наших партнеров гораздо мудрее политиков" |trans-title="Most of our partners are much wiser than politicians" |url=https://www.vedomosti.ru/technology/characters/2023/05/31/977789-bolshinstvo-nashih-partnerov-mudree-politikov |work=[[Vedomosti]] |location= |access-date=15 August 2023 |quote=В этом году мы фактически завершаем подготовительную серию экспериментов по отладке всех режимов ускорителя и масс-спектрометров для синтеза 120-го элемента. Научились получать высокие интенсивности ускоренного хрома и титана. Научились детектировать сверхтяжелые одиночные атомы в реакциях с минимальным сечением. Теперь ждем, когда закончится наработка материала для мишени на реакторах и сепараторах у наших партнеров в «Росатоме» и в США: кюрий, берклий, калифорний. Надеюсь, что в 2025 г. мы полноценно приступим к синтезу 120-го элемента.}}</ref> In preparation for this, the JINR reported success in the <sup>238</sup>U+<sup>54</sup>Cr reaction in late 2023, making a new isotope of livermorium, [[livermorium-288|<sup>288</sup>Lv]]. This was an unexpectedly good result; the aim had been to experimentally determine the cross-section of a reaction with <sup>54</sup>Cr projectiles and prepare for the synthesis of element 120. It is the first successful reaction producing a superheavy element using an actinide target and a projectile heavier than <sup>48</sup>Ca.<ref name=Lv288>{{cite news |url=http://www.jinr.ru/posts/v-lyar-oiyai-vpervye-v-mire-sintezirovan-livermorij-288/ |title=В ЛЯР ОИЯИ впервые в мире синтезирован ливерморий-288 |trans-title=Livermorium-288 was synthesized for the first time in the world at FLNR JINR |language=ru |date=23 October 2023 |publisher=Joint Institute for Nuclear Research |access-date=18 November 2023}}</ref>
-The team at the [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]] (LBNL) in [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], [[California]], United States plans to use the 88-inch cyclotron to make new elements using <sup>50</sup>Ti projectiles.<ref name=usprogram/> First, the <sup>244</sup>Pu+<sup>50</sup>Ti reaction was tested, successfully creating two atoms of <sup>290</sup>Lv in 2024. Since this was successful, an attempt to make element 120 in the <sup>249</sup>Cf+<sup>50</sup>Ti reaction is planned to begin in 2025.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://newscenter.lbl.gov/2024/07/23/a-new-way-to-make-element-116-opens-the-door-to-heavier-atoms/ |title=A New Way to Make Element 116 Opens the Door to Heavier Atoms |last=Biron |first=Lauren |date=23 July 2024 |website=lbl.gov |publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory |access-date=24 July 2024 |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bourzac |first1=Katherine |date=23 July 2024 |title=Heaviest element yet within reach after major breakthrough |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-02416-3 |journal=Nature |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi=10.1038/d41586-024-02416-3 |access-date=24 July 2024|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Service |first=Robert F. |date=23 July 2024 |title=U.S. back in race to forge unknown, superheavy elements |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/u-s-back-race-forge-unknown-superheavy-elements |work=Science |location= |access-date=24 July 2024}}</ref> The [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] (LLNL), which previously collaborated with the JINR, will collaborate with the LBNL on this project.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=Felicity |date=15 August 2024 |title=How Japan Took the Lead in the Race to Discover Element 119 |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acscentsci.4c01266 |journal=ACS Central Science |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi=10.1021/acscentsci.4c01266 |access-date=13 September 2024|doi-access=free |pmc=11539895 }}</ref>
+The team at the [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]] (LBNL) in [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], [[California]], United States plans to use the 88-inch cyclotron to make new elements using <sup>50</sup>Ti projectiles.<ref name=usprogram/> (Such a plan had already been made before the Russian invasion of Ukraine, in response to theoretical predictions that an attempt to produce element 120 would be feasible.)<ref name=nelson/> First, the <sup>244</sup>Pu+<sup>50</sup>Ti reaction was tested, successfully creating two atoms of <sup>290</sup>Lv in 2024. Since this was successful, an attempt to make element 120 in the <sup>249</sup>Cf+<sup>50</sup>Ti reaction was planned to begin in late 2025.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://newscenter.lbl.gov/2024/07/23/a-new-way-to-make-element-116-opens-the-door-to-heavier-atoms/ |title=A New Way to Make Element 116 Opens the Door to Heavier Atoms |last=Biron |first=Lauren |date=23 July 2024 |website=lbl.gov |publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory |access-date=24 July 2024 |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bourzac |first1=Katherine |date=23 July 2024 |title=Heaviest element yet within reach after major breakthrough |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-02416-3 |journal=Nature |volume= 632|issue= 8023|pages= 16–17|doi=10.1038/d41586-024-02416-3 |pmid=39043946 |access-date=24 July 2024|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Service |first=Robert F. |date=23 July 2024 |title=U.S. back in race to forge unknown, superheavy elements |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/u-s-back-race-forge-unknown-superheavy-elements |work=Science |location= |access-date=24 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mohamed |first=Marwan |date=2024 |title=Characterising a Super Heavy element RECoil detector (SHREC) |url=https://indico.lucas.lu.se/event/2937/contributions/7010/attachments/1533/2937/Nuclear%20Physics%20Conference.pdf |website=indico.lucas.lu.se |location= |publisher=[[Lund University]] |access-date=27 October 2025}}</ref> The [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] (LLNL), which previously collaborated with the JINR, will collaborate with the LBNL on this project.<ref name=nelson>{{cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=Felicity |date=15 August 2024 |title=How Japan Took the Lead in the Race to Discover Element 119 |journal=ACS Central Science |volume= 10|issue= 9|pages= 1669–1673|doi=10.1021/acscentsci.4c01266 |doi-access=free |pmid=39507239 |pmc=11539895 }}</ref> By June 2025, updates were underway at the LBNL in preparation for the search for element 120,<ref>{{cite web |last=Orford |first=Rodney |date=2025 |title=Unravelling the layers of future element discovery with SHREC |url=https://indico.ibs.re.kr/event/701/contributions/7270/contribution.pdf |website=indico.ibs.re.kr |location= |publisher=The 29th International Nuclear Physics Conference (INPC 2025) |access-date=27 October 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Todd |first1=Damon |first2=Janilee |last2=Benitez |first3=Nick |last3=Brickner |first4=Patrick |last4=Coleman |first5=Nishi |last5=Intwala |first6=Scott |last6=Small |first7=Devin |last7=Thatcher |date=25 June 2025 |title=High intensity <sup>50</sup>Ti beam production for superheavy element research |url=https://meow.elettra.eu/82/pdf/WEY02_talk.pdf |website=meow.elettra.eu |location= |publisher= |access-date=27 October 2025}}</ref> and by September, the search had begun.<ref>{{cite web |last=Pontzen |first=Andrew |date=10 September 2025 |title=BBC Podcast: New Elements |url=https://nuclearscience.lbl.gov/2025/09/10/bbc-podcast-new-elements/ |website= |location= |publisher= |access-date=15 November 2025}}</ref>
-The team at the Heavy Ion Research Facility in [[Lanzhou]], which is operated by the [[Institute of Modern Physics]] (IMP) of the [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]], also plans to synthesise elements 119 and 120. The reactions used will involve actinide targets (e.g. <sup>243</sup>Am, <sup>248</sup>Cm) and first-row transition metal projectiles (e.g. <sup>50</sup>Ti, <sup>51</sup>V, <sup>54</sup>Cr, <sup>55</sup>Mn).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gan |first1=Z. G. |last2=Huang |first2=W. X. |last3=Zhang |first3=Z. Y. |last4=Zhou |first4=X. H. |last5=Xu |first5=H. S. |date=2022 |title=Results and perspectives for study of heavy and super-heavy nuclei and elements at IMP/CAS |url= |journal=The European Physical Journal A |volume=58 |issue=158 |pages= |doi=10.1140/epja/s10050-022-00811-w |access-date=}}</ref>
+The team at the Heavy Ion Research Facility in [[Lanzhou]], which is operated by the [[Institute of Modern Physics]] (IMP) of the [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]], also plans to synthesise elements 119 and 120. The reactions used will involve actinide targets (e.g. <sup>243</sup>Am, <sup>248</sup>Cm) and first-row transition metal projectiles (e.g. <sup>50</sup>Ti, <sup>51</sup>V, <sup>54</sup>Cr, <sup>55</sup>Mn).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gan |first1=Z. G. |last2=Huang |first2=W. X. |last3=Zhang |first3=Z. Y. |last4=Zhou |first4=X. H. |last5=Xu |first5=H. S. |date=2022 |title=Results and perspectives for study of heavy and super-heavy nuclei and elements at IMP/CAS |url= |journal=The European Physical Journal A |volume=58 |issue=158 |article-number=158 |doi=10.1140/epja/s10050-022-00811-w |bibcode=2022EPJA...58..158G }}</ref>
 ===Naming===
-[[Mendeleev's predicted elements|Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements]] would call unbinilium ''eka-[[radium]]''. The 1979 IUPAC [[systematic element name|recommendations]] [[placeholder name|temporarily call it]] ''unbinilium'' (symbol ''Ubn'') until it is discovered, the discovery is confirmed and a permanent name chosen.<ref name="iupac">{{cite journal |last=Chatt |first=J. |journal=Pure and Applied Chemistry |date=1979 |volume=51 |pages=381–384 |title=Recommendations for the naming of elements of atomic numbers greater than 100 |doi=10.1351/pac197951020381 |issue=2 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Although the IUPAC systematic names are widely used in the chemical community on all levels, from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks, scientists who work theoretically or experimentally on superheavy elements typically call it "element 120", with the symbol ''E120'', ''(120)'' or ''120''.<ref name="Haire" />
+[[Mendeleev's predicted elements|Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements]] would call unbinilium ''eka-[[radium]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Karol |first1=Paul J. |date=2017 |title=The Periodic Table (continued?): Eka-francium Et Seq. |url=https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/ci-2017-0104/html |journal=Chemistry International |volume=39 |issue=1 |publisher=De Gruyter |pages=10–14 |doi=10.1515/ci-2017-0104 |access-date=11 October 2025}}</ref> The 1979 IUPAC [[systematic element name|recommendations]] [[placeholder name|temporarily call it]] ''unbinilium'' (symbol ''Ubn'') until it is discovered, the discovery is confirmed and a permanent name chosen.<ref name="iupac">{{cite journal |last=Chatt |first=J. |journal=Pure and Applied Chemistry |date=1979 |volume=51 |pages=381–384 |title=Recommendations for the naming of elements of atomic numbers greater than 100 |doi=10.1351/pac197951020381 |issue=2 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Although the IUPAC systematic names are widely used in the chemical community on all levels, from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks, scientists who work theoretically or experimentally on superheavy elements typically call it "element 120", with the symbol ''E120'', ''(120)'' or ''120''.<ref name="Haire" />
 ==Predicted properties==
 ===Nuclear stability and isotopes===
-[[File:Island of Stability derived from Zagrebaev.svg|thumb|upright=2.5|alt=A 2D graph with rectangular cells colored in black-and-white colors, spanning from the llc to the urc, with cells mostly becoming lighter closer to the latter|A chart of nuclide stability as used by the Dubna team in 2010. Characterized isotopes are shown with borders. Beyond element 118 (oganesson, the last known element), the line of known nuclides is expected to rapidly enter a region of instability. The elliptical region encloses the predicted location of the island of stability.{{sfn|Zagrebaev|Karpov|Greiner|2013}}]]
+[[File:Island of Stability derived from Zagrebaev.svg|thumb|upright=2.5|alt=A 2D graph with rectangular cells colored in black-and-white colors, spanning from the llc to the urc, with cells mostly becoming lighter closer to the latter|A chart of nuclide stability as used by the Dubna team in 2010. Characterized isotopes are shown with borders. Beyond element 118 (oganesson, the last known element), the line of known nuclides is expected to rapidly enter a region of instability. The elliptical region encloses the predicted location of the island of stability, centered on element 112, [[copernicium]].{{sfn|Zagrebaev|Karpov|Greiner|2013}}]]
 [[File:Next proton shell.svg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|upright=1.2|Orbitals with high [[azimuthal quantum number]] are raised in energy, eliminating what would otherwise be a gap in orbital energy corresponding to a closed proton shell at element 114, as shown in the left diagram which does not take this effect into account. This raises the next proton shell to the region around element 120, as shown in the right diagram, potentially increasing the half-lives of element 119 and 120 isotopes.<ref name="Kratz">{{cite conference |last1=Kratz |first1=J. V. |date=5 September 2011 |title=The Impact of Superheavy Elements on the Chemical and Physical Sciences |url=http://tan11.jinr.ru/pdf/06_Sep/S_1/02_Kratz.pdf |conference=4th International Conference on the Chemistry and Physics of the Transactinide Elements |access-date=27 August 2013}}</ref>]]
 The stability of nuclei decreases greatly with the increase in atomic number after [[curium]], element 96, whose half-life is four orders of magnitude longer than that of any currently known higher-numbered element. All isotopes with an atomic number above [[mendelevium|101]] undergo [[radioactive decay]] with half-lives of less than 30 hours. No elements with atomic numbers above 82 (after [[lead]]) have stable isotopes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Marcillac |first1=Pierre |last2=Coron |first2=Noël |last3=Dambier |first3=Gérard |last4=Leblanc |first4=Jacques |last5=Moalic |first5=Jean-Pierre |display-authors=3 |date=2003 |title=Experimental detection of α-particles from the radioactive decay of natural bismuth |journal=Nature |volume=422 |pages=876–878 |pmid=12712201 |doi=10.1038/nature01541 |issue=6934 |bibcode=2003Natur.422..876D |s2cid=4415582 }}</ref> Nevertheless, because of reasons not yet well understood, there is a slight increase of nuclear stability around atomic numbers [[darmstadtium|110]]–[[flerovium|114]], which leads to the appearance of what is known in nuclear physics as the "[[island of stability]]". This concept, proposed by [[University of California, Berkeley|University of California]] professor [[Glenn Seaborg]], explains why superheavy elements last longer than predicted.<ref>{{cite book |title=Van Nostrand's scientific encyclopedia |first1=Glenn D. |last1=Considine |first2=Peter H. |last2=Kulik |publisher=Wiley-Interscience |date=2002 |edition=9th |isbn=978-0-471-33230-5 |oclc=223349096 }}</ref>
-Isotopes of unbinilium are predicted to have alpha decay half-lives of the order of [[microsecond]]s.<ref name="prc08ADNDT08">{{cite journal|journal=Physical Review C|volume=77|page=044603|year=2008|title=Search for long lived heaviest nuclei beyond the valley of stability|author=Chowdhury, P. Roy|author2=Samanta, C.|author3=Basu, D. N.|name-list-style=amp |doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.77.044603|bibcode=2008PhRvC..77d4603C |issue=4|arxiv=0802.3837|s2cid=119207807}}</ref><ref name="sciencedirect1">{{cite journal |author=Chowdhury |first=P. Roy |author2=Samanta |first2=C. |author3=Basu |first3=D. N. |name-list-style=amp |year=2008 |title=Nuclear half-lives for α -radioactivity of elements with 100 ≤ Z ≤ 130 |journal=[[Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables]] |volume=94 |issue=6 |pages=781–806 |arxiv=0802.4161 |bibcode=2008ADNDT..94..781C |doi=10.1016/j.adt.2008.01.003 |s2cid=96718440}}</ref> In a [[quantum tunneling]] model with mass estimates from a macroscopic-microscopic model, the [[alpha decay|alpha-decay]] half-lives of several unbinilium [[isotope]]s (<sup>292–304</sup>Ubn) have been predicted to be around 1–20 microseconds.<ref name="prc08ADNDT08" /><ref name="half-lifesall">{{cite journal|journal=Phys. Rev. C|volume=73 |issue=1|at=014612|date=2006|title=α decay half-lives of new superheavy elements|author=Chowdhury, P. Roy |author2=Samanta, C.|author3=Basu, D. N.|name-list-style=amp |doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.73.014612 |bibcode=2006PhRvC..73a4612C |arxiv=nucl-th/0507054|s2cid=118739116 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| journal=Nucl. Phys. A |volume=789|issue=1–4|pages=142–154|date=2007| title=Predictions of alpha decay half lives of heavy and superheavy elements |author=Samanta, C.|author2=Chowdhury, P. Roy|author3=Basu, D.N.|name-list-style=amp |doi=10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2007.04.001|bibcode=2007NuPhA.789..142S |arxiv=nucl-th/0703086|s2cid=7496348}}</ref><ref name="sciencedirect1"/> Some heavier isotopes may be more stable; Fricke and Waber predicted <sup>320</sup>Ubn to be the most stable unbinilium isotope in 1971.<ref name="Fricke1971" /> Since unbinilium is expected to decay via a cascade of alpha decays leading to [[spontaneous fission]] around [[copernicium]], the total half-lives of unbinilium isotopes are also predicted to be measured in microseconds.<ref name="Haire" /><ref name="Hofmann" /> This has consequences for the synthesis of unbinilium, as isotopes with half-lives below one microsecond would decay before reaching the detector.<ref name="Haire" /><ref name="Hofmann" /> Nevertheless, new theoretical models show that the expected gap in energy between the [[nuclear shell model|proton orbitals]] 2f<sub>7/2</sub> (filled at element 114) and 2f<sub>5/2</sub> (filled at element 120) is smaller than expected, so that element 114 no longer appears to be a stable spherical closed nuclear shell, and this energy gap may increase the stability of elements 119 and 120. The next [[doubly magic]] nucleus is now expected to be around the spherical <sup>306</sup>Ubb (element 122), but the expected low half-life and low production [[cross section (physics)|cross section]] of this nuclide makes its synthesis challenging.<ref name="Kratz" />
+Isotopes of unbinilium are predicted to have alpha decay half-lives of the order of [[microsecond]]s.<ref name="prc08ADNDT08">{{cite journal|journal=Physical Review C|volume=77|article-number=044603|year=2008|title=Search for long lived heaviest nuclei beyond the valley of stability|author=Chowdhury, P. Roy|author2=Samanta, C.|author3=Basu, D. N.|name-list-style=amp |doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.77.044603|bibcode=2008PhRvC..77d4603C |issue=4|arxiv=0802.3837|s2cid=119207807}}</ref><ref name="sciencedirect1">{{cite journal |author=Chowdhury |first1=P. Roy |last2=Samanta |first2=C. |last3=Basu |first3=D. N. |name-list-style=amp |year=2008 |title=Nuclear half-lives for α -radioactivity of elements with 100 ≤ Z ≤ 130 |journal=[[Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables]] |volume=94 |issue=6 |pages=781–806 |arxiv=0802.4161 |bibcode=2008ADNDT..94..781C |doi=10.1016/j.adt.2008.01.003 |s2cid=96718440}}</ref> In a [[quantum tunneling]] model with mass estimates from a macroscopic-microscopic model, the [[alpha decay|alpha-decay]] half-lives of several unbinilium [[isotope]]s (<sup>292–304</sup>Ubn) have been predicted to be around 1–20 microseconds.<ref name="prc08ADNDT08" /><ref name="half-lifesall">{{cite journal|journal=Phys. Rev. C|volume=73 |issue=1|at=014612|date=2006|title=α decay half-lives of new superheavy elements|author=Chowdhury, P. Roy |author2=Samanta, C.|author3=Basu, D. N.|name-list-style=amp |doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.73.014612 |bibcode=2006PhRvC..73a4612C |arxiv=nucl-th/0507054|s2cid=118739116 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| journal=Nucl. Phys. A |volume=789|issue=1–4|pages=142–154|date=2007| title=Predictions of alpha decay half lives of heavy and superheavy elements |author=Samanta, C.|author2=Chowdhury, P. Roy|author3=Basu, D.N.|name-list-style=amp |doi=10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2007.04.001|bibcode=2007NuPhA.789..142S |arxiv=nucl-th/0703086|s2cid=7496348}}</ref><ref name="sciencedirect1"/> Some heavier isotopes may be more stable; Fricke and Waber predicted <sup>320</sup>Ubn to be the most stable unbinilium isotope in 1971.<ref name="Fricke1971" /> Since unbinilium is expected to decay via a cascade of alpha decays leading to [[spontaneous fission]] around [[copernicium]], the total half-lives of unbinilium isotopes are also predicted to be measured in microseconds.<ref name="Haire" /><ref name="Hofmann" /> This has consequences for the synthesis of unbinilium, as isotopes with half-lives below one microsecond would decay before reaching the detector.<ref name="Haire" /><ref name="Hofmann" /> Nevertheless, new theoretical models show that the expected gap in energy between the [[nuclear shell model|proton orbitals]] 2f<sub>7/2</sub> (filled at element 114) and 2f<sub>5/2</sub> (filled at element 120) is smaller than expected, so that element 114 no longer appears to be a stable spherical closed nuclear shell, and this energy gap may increase the stability of elements 119 and 120. The next [[doubly magic]] nucleus is now expected to be around the spherical <sup>306</sup>Ubb (element 122), but the expected low half-life and low production [[cross section (physics)|cross section]] of this nuclide makes its synthesis challenging.<ref name="Kratz" />
 Given that element 120 fills the 2f<sub>5/2</sub> proton orbital, much attention has been given to the compound nucleus <sup>302</sup>Ubn* and its properties. Several experiments have been performed between 2000 and 2008 at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna studying the fission characteristics of the compound nucleus <sup>302</sup>Ubn*. Two nuclear reactions have been used, namely <sup>244</sup>Pu+<sup>58</sup>Fe and <sup>238</sup>U+<sup>64</sup>Ni. The results have revealed how nuclei such as this fission predominantly by expelling closed shell nuclei such as <sup>132</sup>[[tin|Sn]] (''[[atomic number|Z]]''&nbsp;=&nbsp;50, ''[[neutron number|N]]''&nbsp;=&nbsp;82). It was also found that the yield for the fusion-fission pathway was similar between <sup>48</sup>Ca and <sup>58</sup>Fe projectiles, suggesting a possible future use of <sup>58</sup>Fe projectiles in superheavy element formation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www1.jinr.ru/Reports/Reports_eng_arh.html |title=JINR Publishing Department: Annual Reports (Archive) |author=JINR |date=1998–2014 |website=jinr.ru |publisher=JINR |access-date=23 September 2016}}</ref>
@@ Line 72: / Line 72: @@
 :{{nuclide|U|238}} + {{nuclide|Ni|nat}} → {{nuclide|Ubn|296,298,299,300,302}}* → fission
-The results indicated that nuclei of unbinilium were produced at high (≈70&nbsp;MeV) excitation energy which underwent fission with measurable half-lives just over 10<sup>−18</sup> s.<ref name="Natowitz" /><ref name="Morjean" /> Although very short (indeed insufficient for the element to be considered by [[IUPAC]] to exist, because a compound nucleus has no internal structure and its nucleons have not been arranged into shells until it has survived for 10<sup>−14</sup>&nbsp;s, when it forms an electronic cloud),<ref>{{cite web |title=Kernchemie |url=http://www.kernchemie.de/Transactinides/Transactinide-2/transactinide-2.html |access-date=23 September 2016|language=de|trans-title=Nuclear Chemistry}}</ref> the ability to measure such a process indicates a strong shell effect at ''Z''&nbsp;=&nbsp;120. At lower excitation energy (see neutron evaporation), the effect of the shell will be enhanced and ground-state nuclei can be expected to have relatively long half-lives. This result could partially explain the relatively long half-life of <sup>294</sup>Og measured in experiments at Dubna. Similar experiments have indicated a similar phenomenon at [[unbiquadium|element 124]] but not for [[flerovium]], suggesting that the next proton shell does in fact lie beyond element 120.<ref name="Natowitz">{{cite journal |doi=10.1103/Physics.1.12|title=How stable are the heaviest nuclei?|date=2008|author=Natowitz, Joseph |journal=Physics|volume=1|pages=12|bibcode = 2008PhyOJ...1...12N |doi-access=}}</ref><ref name="Morjean">{{cite journal|journal=Phys. Rev. Lett. |volume=101|issue=7|date=2008 |at=072701|title=Fission Time Measurements: A New Probe into Superheavy Element Stability|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.101.072701|pmid=18764526|bibcode=2008PhRvL.101g2701M |last1=Morjean|first1=M.|last2=Jacquet|first2=D. |last3=Charvet |first3=J. |display-authors=etal |url=http://hal.in2p3.fr/in2p3-00289928/document}}</ref> In September 2007, the team at RIKEN began a program utilizing <sup>248</sup>Cm targets and have indicated future experiments to probe the possibility of 120 being the next proton magic number (and 184 being the next neutron magic number) using the aforementioned nuclear reactions to form <sup>302</sup>Ubn*, as well as <sup>248</sup>Cm+<sup>54</sup>Cr. They also planned to further chart the region by investigating the nearby compound nuclei <sup>296</sup>Og*, <sup>298</sup>Og*, <sup>306</sup>Ubb*, and <sup>308</sup>Ubb*.<ref>{{cite web |title=Future Plan of the Experimental Program on Synthesizing the Heaviest Element at RIKEN |last1=Morita |first1=K. |date=28 September 2007 |url=http://www-win.gsi.de/tasca07/contributions/TASCA07_Contribution_Morita.pdf |access-date=23 September 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403120113/http://www-win.gsi.de/tasca07/contributions/TASCA07_Contribution_Morita.pdf |archive-date=3 April 2015 }}</ref>
+The results indicated that nuclei of unbinilium were produced at high (≈70&nbsp;MeV) excitation energy which underwent fission with measurable half-lives just over 10<sup>−18</sup> s.<ref name="Natowitz" /><ref name="Morjean" /> Although very short (indeed insufficient for the element to be considered by [[IUPAC]] to exist, because a compound nucleus has no internal structure and its nucleons have not been arranged into shells until it has survived for 10<sup>−14</sup>&nbsp;s, when it forms an electronic cloud),<ref>{{cite web |title=Kernchemie |url=http://www.kernchemie.de/Transactinides/Transactinide-2/transactinide-2.html |access-date=23 September 2016|language=de|trans-title=Nuclear Chemistry}}</ref> the ability to measure such a process indicates a strong shell effect at ''Z''&nbsp;=&nbsp;120. At lower excitation energy (see neutron evaporation), the effect of the shell will be enhanced and ground-state nuclei can be expected to have relatively long half-lives. This result could partially explain the relatively long half-life of <sup>294</sup>Og measured in experiments at Dubna. Similar experiments have indicated a similar phenomenon at [[unbiquadium|element 124]] but not for [[flerovium]], suggesting that the next proton shell does in fact lie beyond element 120.<ref name="Natowitz">{{cite journal |doi=10.1103/Physics.1.12|title=How stable are the heaviest nuclei?|date=2008|author=Natowitz, Joseph |journal=Physics|volume=1|article-number=12|bibcode = 2008PhyOJ...1...12N |doi-access=}}</ref><ref name="Morjean">{{cite journal|journal=Phys. Rev. Lett. |volume=101|issue=7|date=2008 |at=072701|title=Fission Time Measurements: A New Probe into Superheavy Element Stability|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.101.072701|pmid=18764526|bibcode=2008PhRvL.101g2701M |last1=Morjean|first1=M.|last2=Jacquet|first2=D. |last3=Charvet |first3=J. |display-authors=etal |url=http://hal.in2p3.fr/in2p3-00289928/document}}</ref> In September 2007, the team at RIKEN began a program utilizing <sup>248</sup>Cm targets and have indicated future experiments to probe the possibility of 120 being the next proton magic number (and 184 being the next neutron magic number) using the aforementioned nuclear reactions to form <sup>302</sup>Ubn*, as well as <sup>248</sup>Cm+<sup>54</sup>Cr. They also planned to further chart the region by investigating the nearby compound nuclei <sup>296</sup>Og*, <sup>298</sup>Og*, <sup>306</sup>Ubb*, and <sup>308</sup>Ubb*.<ref>{{cite web |title=Future Plan of the Experimental Program on Synthesizing the Heaviest Element at RIKEN |last1=Morita |first1=K. |date=28 September 2007 |url=http://www-win.gsi.de/tasca07/contributions/TASCA07_Contribution_Morita.pdf |access-date=23 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403120113/http://www-win.gsi.de/tasca07/contributions/TASCA07_Contribution_Morita.pdf |archive-date=3 April 2015 }}</ref>
 The most likely isotopes of unbinilium to be synthesised in the near future are <sup>295</sup>Ubn through <sup>299</sup>Ubn, because they can be produced in the 3n and 4n channels of the <sup>249–251</sup>Cf+<sup>50</sup>Ti, <sup>245</sup>Cm+<sup>54</sup>Cr, and <sup>248</sup>Cm+<sup>54</sup>Cr reactions.<ref name=jinr2024>{{Cite web |url=https://indico.jinr.ru/event/4343/contributions/28663/attachments/20748/36083/U%20+%20Cr%20AYSS%202024.pptx |title=Synthesis and study of the decay properties of isotopes of superheavy element Lv in Reactions <sup>238</sup>U + <sup>54</sup>Cr and <sup>242</sup>Pu + <sup>50</sup>Ti |last=Ibadullayev |first=Dastan |date=2024 |website=jinr.ru |publisher=[[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] |access-date=2 November 2024 |quote=}}</ref>
@@ Line 79: / Line 79: @@
 Being the second [[period 8 element]], unbinilium is predicted to be an alkaline earth metal, below [[beryllium]], [[magnesium]], [[calcium]], [[strontium]], [[barium]], and [[radium]]. Each of these elements has two [[valence electron]]s in the outermost s-orbital (valence electron configuration ''n''s<sup>2</sup>), which is easily lost in chemical reactions to form the +2 [[oxidation state]]: thus the alkaline earth metals are rather [[reactivity (chemistry)|reactive]] elements, with the exception of beryllium due to its small size. Unbinilium is predicted to continue the trend and have a valence electron configuration of 8s<sup>2</sup>. It is therefore expected to behave much like its lighter [[Congener (chemistry)|congeners]]; however, it is also predicted to differ from the lighter alkaline earth metals in some properties.<ref name="Haire" />
-The main reason for the predicted differences between unbinilium and the other alkaline earth metals is the [[spin–orbit interaction|spin–orbit (SO) interaction]]—the mutual interaction between the electrons' motion and [[Spin (physics)|spin]]. The SO interaction is especially strong for the superheavy elements because their electrons move faster—at velocities comparable to the [[speed of light]]—than those in lighter atoms.<ref name="Thayer" /> In unbinilium atoms, it lowers the 7p and 8s electron energy levels,<!-- |level is an important word. Lv has no 8s electrons but they've been shown to affect its chemistry--> stabilizing the corresponding electrons, but two of the 7p electron energy levels are more stabilized than the other four.<ref name="Faegri">{{Cite journal | last1 = Fægri Jr. | first1 = Knut | last2 = Saue | first2 = Trond | doi = 10.1063/1.1385366 | title = Diatomic molecules between very heavy elements of group 13 and group 17: A study of relativistic effects on bonding | journal = The Journal of Chemical Physics | volume = 115 | issue = 6 | pages = 2456 | year = 2001 | publisher = American Institute of Physics |bibcode = 2001JChPh.115.2456F | doi-access = free }}</ref> The effect is called subshell splitting, as it splits the 7p subshell into more-stabilized and the less-stabilized parts. Computational chemists understand the split as a change of the second ([[azimuthal quantum number|azimuthal]]) [[quantum number]] ''l'' from 1 to 1/2 and 3/2 for the more-stabilized and less-stabilized parts of the 7p subshell, respectively.<ref name="Thayer" />{{efn|The quantum number corresponds to the letter in the electron orbital name: 0 to s, 1 to p, 2 to d, etc. See [[azimuthal quantum number]] for more information.}} Thus, the outer 8s electrons of unbinilium are stabilized and become harder to remove than expected, while the 7p<sub>3/2</sub> electrons are correspondingly destabilized, perhaps allowing them to participate in chemical reactions.<ref name="Haire" /> This stabilization of the outermost s-orbital (already significant in radium) is the key factor affecting unbinilium's chemistry, and causes all the trends for atomic and molecular properties of alkaline earth metals to reverse direction after barium.<ref name="Pershina">{{cite book |last=Pershina |first=Valeria |editor1-last=Schädel |editor1-first=Matthias |editor2-last=Shaughnessy |editor2-first=Dawn |chapter=Theoretical Chemistry of the Heaviest Elements |date=2014 |edition=2nd |title=The Chemistry of Superheavy Elements |publisher=Springer-Verlag |pages=204–7 |isbn=978-3-642-37465-4 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-37466-1|s2cid=122675117 |chapter-url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/643991 }}</ref>
+The main reason for the predicted differences between unbinilium and the other alkaline earth metals is the [[spin–orbit interaction|spin–orbit (SO) interaction]]—the mutual interaction between the electrons' motion and [[Spin (physics)|spin]]. The SO interaction is especially strong for the superheavy elements because their electrons move faster—at velocities comparable to the [[speed of light]]—than those in lighter atoms.<ref name="Thayer" /> In unbinilium atoms, it lowers the 7p and 8s electron energy levels,<!-- |level is an important word. Lv has no 8s electrons but they've been shown to affect its chemistry--> stabilizing the corresponding electrons, but two of the 7p electron energy levels are more stabilized than the other four.<ref name="Faegri">{{Cite journal | last1 = Fægri Jr. | first1 = Knut | last2 = Saue | first2 = Trond | doi = 10.1063/1.1385366 | title = Diatomic molecules between very heavy elements of group 13 and group 17: A study of relativistic effects on bonding | journal = The Journal of Chemical Physics | volume = 115 | issue = 6 | page = 2456 | year = 2001 | publisher = American Institute of Physics |bibcode = 2001JChPh.115.2456F | doi-access = free }}</ref> The effect is called subshell splitting, as it splits the 7p subshell into more-stabilized and the less-stabilized parts. Computational chemists understand the split as a change of the second ([[azimuthal quantum number|azimuthal]]) [[quantum number]] ''l'' from 1 to 1/2 and 3/2 for the more-stabilized and less-stabilized parts of the 7p subshell, respectively.<ref name="Thayer" />{{efn|The quantum number corresponds to the letter in the electron orbital name: 0 to s, 1 to p, 2 to d, etc. See [[azimuthal quantum number]] for more information.}} Thus, the outer 8s electrons of unbinilium are stabilized and become harder to remove than expected, while the 7p<sub>3/2</sub> electrons are correspondingly destabilized, perhaps allowing them to participate in chemical reactions.<ref name="Haire" /> This stabilization of the outermost s-orbital (already significant in radium) is the key factor affecting unbinilium's chemistry, and causes all the trends for atomic and molecular properties of alkaline earth metals to reverse direction after barium.<ref name="Pershina">{{cite book |last=Pershina |first=Valeria |editor1-last=Schädel |editor1-first=Matthias |editor2-last=Shaughnessy |editor2-first=Dawn |chapter=Theoretical Chemistry of the Heaviest Elements |date=2014 |edition=2nd |title=The Chemistry of Superheavy Elements |publisher=Springer-Verlag |pages=204–7 |isbn=978-3-642-37465-4 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-37466-1|s2cid=122675117 |chapter-url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/643991 }}</ref>
 {| align="center"
@@ Line 207: / Line 207: @@
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+* {{cite journal |ref={{harvid|Audi et al.|2017}} |title=The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties |doi=10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001 |last1=Audi |first1=G. |last2=Kondev |first2=F. G. |last3=Wang |first3=M. |last4=Huang |first4=W. J. |last5=Naimi |first5=S. |display-authors=3 |journal=Chinese Physics C |volume=41 |number=3|article-number=030001 |year=2017
 |bibcode=2017ChPhC..41c0001A  |url=http://cms.iopscience.org/ac0c0614-0d60-11e7-9a47-19ee90157113/030001.pdf?guest=true}}<!--for consistency and specific pages, do not replace with {{NUBASE2016}}-->
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 * {{cite book |last1=Hoffman |first1=D. C. |author-link=Darleane C. Hoffman |last2=Ghiorso |first2=A. |author-link2=Albert Ghiorso |last3=Seaborg |first3=G. T. |title=The Transuranium People: The Inside Story |year=2000 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=978-1-78-326244-1}}
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-* {{cite journal|last1=Zagrebaev|first1=V.|last2=Karpov|first2=A.|last3=Greiner|first3=W.|date=2013 |title=Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years? |journal=[[Journal of Physics: Conference Series]]|volume=420|issue=1 |at=012001|doi=10.1088/1742-6596/420/1/012001 |arxiv=1207.5700|bibcode=2013JPhCS.420a2001Z|s2cid=55434734|issn=1742-6588 |url=http://nrv.jinr.ru/pdf_file/J_phys_2013.pdf}}
+* {{cite journal|last1=Zagrebaev|first1=V.|last2=Karpov|first2=A.|last3=Greiner|first3=W.|date=2013|title=Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years?|journal=[[Journal of Physics: Conference Series]]|volume=420|issue=1|at=012001|doi=10.1088/1742-6596/420/1/012001|arxiv=1207.5700|bibcode=2013JPhCS.420a2001Z|s2cid=55434734|issn=1742-6588|url=http://nrv.jinr.ru/pdf_file/J_phys_2013.pdf|archive-date=2015-10-03|access-date=2016-06-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003154020/http://nrv.jinr.ru/pdf_file/J_phys_2013.pdf}}
 {{Extended periodic table (by Fricke, 32 columns, compact)}}

Unbinilium: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 01:59, 16 November 2025

Contents

Introduction

History

Synthesis attempts

Past

Planned

Naming

Predicted properties

Nuclear stability and isotopes

Atomic and physical

Chemical

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

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