Quinoa: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 04:32, 30 October 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "For". Template:Use American English Template:Cs1 config Template:Use dmy dates Template:Speciesbox Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa; Template:IPAc-en,^[1]^[2]^[3] from Quechua Script error: No such module "Lang". or Script error: No such module "Lang".)^[4] is a flowering plant in the amaranth family. It is a herbaceous annual plant grown as a crop primarily for its edible seeds; the seeds are high in protein, dietary fiber, B vitamins and dietary minerals especially potassium and magnesium in amounts greater than in many grains.^[5] Quinoa is not a grass but rather a pseudocereal botanically related to spinach and amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), and originated in the Andean region of northwestern South America.^[6] It was first used to feed livestock 5,200Template:Ndash7,000 years ago, and for human consumption 3,000Template:Ndash4,000 years ago in the Lake Titicaca basin of Bolivia and Peru.^[7]

The plant thrives at high elevations and produces seeds that are rich in protein.^[8] Almost all production in the Andean region is done by small farms and associations. Its cultivation has spread to more than 70 countries, including Kenya, India, the United States, and European countries.^[9] As a result of increased consumption in North America, Europe, and Australasia, quinoa crop prices tripled between 2006 and 2014, entering a boom and bust cycle.^[10]^[11]^[12]

The quinoa monoculture that arose from increased production, combined with climate change effects in the native Andean region, created challenges for production and yield, and led to environmental degradation.

Description

File:QuinoaGrains.jpg

Quinoa seeds

Chenopodium quinoa is a dicotyledonous annual plant, usually about Template:Cvt high. It has broad, generally powdery, hairy, lobed leaves, normally arranged alternately. The woody central stem is branched or unbranched depending on the variety and may be green, red or purple. The flowering panicles arise from the top of the plant or from leaf axils along the stem. Each panicle has a central axis from which a secondary axis emerges either with flowers (amaranthiform) or bearing a tertiary axis carrying the flowers (glomeruliform).^[13] These are small, incomplete, sessile flowers of the same colour as the sepals, and both pistillate and perfect forms occur. Pistillate flowers are generally located at the proximal end of the glomeruli and the perfect ones at the distal end of it. A perfect flower has five sepals, five anthers and a superior ovary, from which two to three stigmatic branches emerge.^[14]

The green hypogynous flowers have a simple perianth and are generally self-fertilizing,^[13]^[15] though cross-pollination occurs.^[16] In the natural environment, betalains serve to attract animals to generate a greater rate of pollination and ensure, or improve, seed dissemination.^[17] The fruits (seeds) are about Template:Cvt in diameter and of various colors — from white to red or black, depending on the cultivar.^[18]

In regards to the "newly" developed salinity resistance of C.Template:Nbspquinoa, some studies have concluded that accumulation of organic osmolytes plays a dual role for the species. They provide osmotic adjustment, in addition to protection against oxidative stress of the photosynthetic structures in developing leaves. Studies also suggested that reduction in stomatal density in reaction to salinity levels represents an essential instrument of defence to optimize water use efficiency under the given conditions to which it may be exposed.^[19]

Taxonomy

The species Chenopodium quinoa was first described by Carl Ludwig Willdenow (1765–1812),Template:Sfn a German botanist who studied plants from South America, brought back by explorers Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland.

Quinoa is an allotetraploid plant, containing two full sets of chromosomes from two different species which hybridised with each other at one time. According to a 1979 study, its presumed ancestor is either Chenopodium berlandieri, from North America, or the Andean species Ch. hircinum. On the other hand, morphological features relate Ch.Template:Nbspquinoa of the Andes and Ch. nuttalliae of Mexico. More recent studies indicate that Andean and Mexican quinoas were independently domesticated and that both derive from wild North American C. berlandieri, carrying the genome formula AABB, and are likely derived from a hybridization several million years ago between AA and BB diploids closely related to the modern C. subglabrum and C. suecicum, respectively.^[20]^[21] Quinoa's wild South American ancestor, C. hircinum, may have been translocated from North to South America via zoochory. A feral-weedy quinoa, Ch.Template:Nbspquinoa var. melanospermum, is known from South America, but no equivalent closely related to Ch.Template:Nbspnutalliae has been reported from Mexico so far.^[22]

Studies regarding the genetic diversity of quinoa suggest that it may have passed through at least three bottleneck genetic events, with a possible fourth expected:

The first occurred when the species was created, as its two diploid ancestors underwent a hybridization followed by chromosome doubling, this new species was genetically isolated from its parent species, and thus lost a great deal of genetic diversity. As stated above, these ancestors were possibly C. subglabrum (AA) and C. suecicum (BB) and therefore not the Andean diploid pseudo cereal Chenopodium pallidicaule (cañahua).^[23]
A second bottleneck may have occurred when quinoa was domesticated from its wild tetraploid ancestor, C. hircinum. It might have been domesticated twice: once in the high Andes and a second time in the Chilean and Argentinean lowlands.
A third bottleneck can be considered "political", and has lasted more than 400 years, from the Spanish conquest of the new continent until the present time.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". During this phase quinoa has been replaced with maize, marginalized from production processes possibly due to its social and religious roles for the indigenous populations of South America, but also because it is difficult to process (dehusk) compared with maize.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
In the 21st century, a fourth bottleneck event may occur, as traditional farmers migrate from rural zones to urban centers, which exposes quinoa to the risk of further genetic erosion. Better breeding may also result in loss of genetic diversity, as breeders would be expected to reduce unwanted alleles to produce uniform cultivars, but cross-breeding between local landraces has and will likely produce high-diversity cultivars.^[22]

Etymology

The genus name Chenopodium is composed of two words coming from the Greek χήν,-νός, goose and πόδῖον, podion "little foot", or "goose foot", because of the resemblance of the leaves with the trace of a goose's foot.Template:Sfn

The specific epithet quinoa is a borrowing from the Spanish quinua or quinoa, itself derived from Quechua kinuwa.

The Incas nicknamed quinoa chisiya mama, which in Quechua means "mother of all grains".Template:Sfn

Distribution

Chenopodium quinoa is believed to have been domesticated in the Peruvian Andes from wild or weed populations of the same species.^[24] There are non-cultivated quinoa plants (Chenopodium quinoa var. melanospermum) that grow in the area it is cultivated; these may either be related to wild predecessors, or they could be descendants of cultivated plants.^[25]

File:Landscape with Chenopodium quinoa Cachilaya Bolivia Lake Titicaca.jpg

Chenopodium quinoa near Cachilaya, Lake Titicaca, Bolivia

Cultivation

Over the last 5,000Template:Nbspyears the biogeography of Ch. quinoa has changed greatly, mainly by human influence, convenience and preference. It has changed not only in the area of distribution, but also in regards to the climate this plant was originally adapted to, in contrast to the climates on which it is able to successfully grow in now. In a process started by a number of pre-Inca South American indigenous cultures, people in Chile have been adapting quinoa to salinity and other forms of stress over the last 3,000Template:Nbspyears.^[22] Quinoa is also cultivated, since an early date, near the coast of northern Chile, where it was grown by the Chinchorro culture.Template:Sfn Ch. quinoa was brought to the lowlands of south-central Chile at an early date from the Andean highlands.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Varieties in the lowlands of south-central Chile derive directly from ancestral cultivars which then evolved in parallel to those of the highlands.Template:Sfn It has been suggested that the introduction of Ch. quinoa occurred before highland varieties with floury perisperm emerged.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn There are wide discrepancies in the suggested dates of introduction, one study suggests c. 1000 BC as the introduction date while another suggests 600–1100 AD.Template:Sfn In colonial times the plant is known to have been cultivated as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago and the shores of Nahuel Huapi Lake.Template:Sfn The cuisine of Chiloé included bread made of quinoa until at least the mid-19th century.Template:Sfn

In Chile it had almost disappeared by the early 1940s; as of 2015 the crop is mostly grown in three areas by only some 300 smallholder farmers. Each of these areas is different: indigenous small-scale growers near the border with Bolivia who grow many types of Bolivian forms, a few farmers in the central region who exclusively grow a white-seeded variety and generally market their crops through a well-known cooperative, and in the south by women in home gardens in Mapuche reserves.^[22]

When Amaranthaceae became abundant in Lake Pacucha, Peru, the lake was fresh, and the lack of Amaranthaceae taxa strongly indicates droughts which turned the lake into a saltmarsh. Based on the pollen associated with soil manipulation, this is an area of the Andes where domestication of C.Template:Nbspquinoa became popular, although it was not the only one. It was domesticated in various geographical zones. With this, morphological adaptations began to happen until having five ecotypes today. Quinoa's genetic diversity illustrates that it was and is a vital crop.Template:Sfn

File:Calca Peru- Quinoa seller at mercado II.jpg

Quinoa seller at market in Calca, Peru

Andean agronomists and nutrition scientists began researching quinoa in the early twentieth century, and it became the subject of much interest among researchers involved in neglected and underutilized crop studies in the 1970s.^[26]

In 2004, the international community became increasingly interested in quinoa and it entered a boom and bust economic cycle that would last for over ten years. Between 2004 and 2011, quinoa became a more interesting commodity and global excitement for it increased. At this point, Bolivia and Peru were the only major producers of quinoa. In 2013, there was an extreme increase in imports of quinoa by the United States, Canada and various European countries. In 2016, growth began to slow. Imports were still increasing but at a slower rate and quinoa prices declined as other countries began producing it.^[12] By 2015, over 75 countries were producing quinoa, as opposed to only eight countries in the 1980s.^[27]

Particularly for the high variety of Chilean landraces, in addition to how the plant has adapted to different latitudes, this crop is now potentially cultivable almost anywhere in the world.^[22]

Climate requirements

The plant's growth is highly variable due to the number of different subspecies, varieties and landraces (domesticated plants or animals adapted to the environment in which they originated). However, it is generally undemanding and altitude-hardy; it is grown from coastal regions to over Template:Cvt in the Andes near the equator, with most of the cultivars being grown between Template:Cvt and Template:Cvt. Depending on the variety, optimal growing conditions are in cool climates with temperatures that vary between Template:Cvt during the night to near Template:Cvt during the day. Some cultivars can withstand lower temperatures without damage. Light frosts normally do not affect the plants at any stage of development, except during flowering. Midsummer frosts during flowering, a frequent occurrence in the Andes, lead to sterilization of the pollen. Rainfall requirements are highly variable between the different cultivars, ranging from Template:Cvt during the growing season. Growth is optimal with well-distributed rainfall during early growth and no rain during seed maturation and harvesting.^[13]

United States

Quinoa has been cultivated in the United States, primarily in the high elevation San Luis Valley of Colorado where it was introduced in 1983.^[28] In this high-altitude desert valley, maximum summer temperatures rarely exceed Template:Cvt and night temperatures are about Template:Cvt. In the 2010s, experimental production was attempted in the Palouse region of Eastern Washington,^[29] and farmers in Western Washington began producing the crop. The Washington State University Skagit River Valley research facility near Mount Vernon grew thousands of its own experimental varieties.^[30] The Puget Sound region's climate is similar to that of coastal Chile where the crop has been grown for centuries.^[31] Due to the short growing season, North American cultivation requires short-maturity varieties, typically of Bolivian origin. Quinoa is planted in Idaho where a variety developed and bred specifically for the high-altitude Snake River Plain is the largest planted variety in North America.^[32]

Europe

Several countries within Europe have successfully grown quinoa on a commercial scale.^[33]^[34]

Sowing

Quinoa requires a significant amount of precipitation in order to germinate, therefore the traditional sowing date in Peru was between September and November. To increase the chance that more crops survive it would be advantageous to split up the sowing date among the plants. Traditionally quinoa was sowed by broadcast, in rows or grooves, or by broadcast and then making rows. Soil preparation should occur before sowing, and weeding should come soon after sowing the seeds.^[35]

Rotation is used in its Andean native range. Rotation is common with potato, cereals and legumes including Lupinus mutabilis.^[36]^[37] Traditionally, quinoa rotation happens in plots called aynoqas. These are made up of different sized plots in different zones, and each family unit would own plots in different areas. The aynoqas allowed for better crop yield, agricultural and ecological sustainability, and food security within communities.^[35]

Soil

Quinoa plants do best in sandy, well-drained soils with a low nutrient content, moderate salinity, and a soil pH of 6 toTemplate:Nbsp8.5. The seedbed must be well prepared and drained to avoid waterlogging.^[38]

Quinoa has gained attention for its adaptability to contrasting environments such as saline soils, nutrient-poor soils and drought stressed marginal agroecosystems.^[39]

Genetics

The genome of quinoa was sequenced in 2017.^[40]^[41] Through traditional selective breeding and, potentially, genetic engineering, the plant is being modified to have higher crop yield, improved tolerance to heat and biotic stress, and greater sweetness through saponin inhibition.^[40]

Harvesting

Traditionally, quinoa grain is harvested by hand, and only rarely by machine, because the extreme variability of the maturity period of most quinoa cultivars complicates mechanization. Harvest needs to be precisely timed to avoid high seed losses from shattering, and different panicles on the same plant mature at different times.^[42]^[43] The crop yield in the Andean region (often around 3 t/ha up to 5 t/ha) is comparable to wheat yields. In the United States, varieties have been selected for uniformity of maturity and are mechanically harvested using conventional small grain combines.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Processing

The plants are allowed to stand until the stalks and seeds have dried out and the grain has reached a moisture content below 10%. Handling involves threshing the seedheads from the chaff and winnowing the seed to remove the husk. Before storage, the seeds need to be dried in order to avoid germination.^[13] This was traditionally done manually, which is labour-intensive.^[22]

Production

Template:Table alignment

Quinoa production
2023, tonnesScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
Script error: No such module "flag".	70,479
Script error: No such module "flag".	41,380
Script error: No such module "flag".	378
World	112,251
Source: FAOSTAT of the United NationsScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".^[44]

In 2023, world production of quinoa was 112,251 tonnes, led by Peru with 62% of the total and Bolivia with 37% (table).

Price

Since the early 21st century when quinoa became more commonly consumed in North America, Europe, and Australasia where it was not typically grown, the crop value increased.^[45] Between 2006 and 2013, quinoa crop prices tripled.^[10]^[11] In 2011, the average price was US$3,115 per tonne with some varieties selling as high as $8,000 per tonne.^[45] This compares with wheat prices of about US$340 per tonne, making wheat about 10% of the value of quinoa. The resulting effect on traditional production regions in Peru and Bolivia also influenced new commercial quinoa production elsewhere in the world, such as the United States.^[46]Template:Rp^[47] By 2013, quinoa was being cultivated in some 70 countries.^[9] As a result of expanding production outside the Andean highlands native for quinoa, the price plummeted starting in early 2015 and remained low for years.^[48] From 2018 to 2019, quinoa production in Peru declined by 22%.^[44] Some refer to this as the "quinoa bust" because of the devastation the price fall caused for farmers and industry.^[48]

Effects of rising demand on growers

File:Peru Chenopodium quinoa.jpg

Farmer field school on crop husbandry and quinoa production near Puno, Peru

Rising quinoa prices over the period of 2006 to 2017 may have reduced the affordability of quinoa to traditional consumers.^[11]^[49]^[46]Template:Rp However, a 2016 study using Peru's Encuesta Nacional de Hogares found that rising quinoa prices during 2004–2013 led to net economic benefits for producers,^[50] and other commentary indicated similar conclusions,^[51] including for women specifically.^[52] It has also been suggested that as quinoa producers rise above subsistence-level income, they switch their own consumption to Western processed foods which are often less healthy than a traditional, quinoa-based diet, whether because quinoa is held to be worth too much to keep for oneself and one's family, or because processed foods have higher status despite their poorer nutritional value.^[11]^[49]^[46]Template:Rp Efforts are being made in some areas to distribute quinoa more widely and ensure that farming and poorer populations have access to it and have an understanding of its nutritional importance, including use in free school breakfasts and government provisions distributed to pregnant and nursing women in need.^[49]

In terms of wider social consequences, research on traditional producers in Bolivia has emphasised a complex picture. The degree to which individual producers benefit from the global quinoa boom depends on its mode of production, for example through producer associations and co-operatives such as the Asociación Nacional de Productores de Quinua (founded in the 1970s), contracting through vertically integrated private firms, or wage labor.^[53] State regulation and enforcement may promote a shift to cash-cropping among some farmers and a shift toward subsistence production among others, while enabling many urban refugees to return to working the land, outcomes with complex and varied social effects.^[54]^[55]

The growth of quinoa consumption outside of its indigenous region has raised concerns over food security of the indigenous original consumers, unsustainably intensive farming of the crop, expansion of farming into otherwise marginal agricultural lands with concurrent loss of the natural environment, threatening both the sustainability of producer agriculture and the biodiversity of quinoa.^[46]^[56]^[52] Studies have found that smallholder traditional farming of quinoa, specifically in the Andean region of Peru has significantly less of an environmental impact in carbon produced, than the modern industrial quinoa production.^[57]

World demand for quinoa is sometimes presented in the media particularly as being caused by rising veganism,^[11] but one academic has commented that despite the drawbacks of quinoa, meat production in most cases is still less sustainable than quinoa.^[46]Template:Rp

Monoculture and climate change impacts

File:Quinoa diversity, Uyuni, Bolivia.JPG

A red quinoa field in Uyuni, Bolivia

Because of the increasing demand for quinoa, some fields in the Andean regions of Bolivia and Peru have become quinoa monocultures.^[58]^[59] Particularly in the Uyuni salt flats, soil degradation has occurred due to mechanized production and decreased vegetation cover after clearing for quinoa fields.^[58] This degradation has led to poorer quinoa yields and lower environmental health in the region.^[58]

Signs of desertification of the landscape is amplified by the effects of climate change on quinoa fields and the salt flats. Drier and hotter weather negatively affects quinoa production, while also increasing pest populations attacking quinoa^[58]^[60] and reducing the nutrient quality of the soil.^[61]

Quinoa became a grain of growing interest partially due to its ability to withstand many different climate conditions. Its native Andean region is prone to dry and wet spells, and to cold and hot temperatures.^[60] Research shows that quinoa prefers warmer temperatures and alternating irrigation.^[62] The randomness of weather conditions due to climate change has hindered development of quinoa crops.^[60]

The quinoa boom and bust cycle led to a periodic increased demand for quinoa which originally resulted in increased production in its native area. However, when other countries recognized the economic benefit of producing quinoa, its cultivation in Europe and the United States increased.^[12] Some studies indicate that it may be more productive to grow quinoa in the United States, particularly in Washington State, and in China rather than in its native regions.^[61]

Chemistry

File:Quinoa size.jpg

Quinoa seed shown with scale in millimeters

In their natural state, the seeds have a coating that contains bitter-tasting saponins, making them unpalatable.^[13]^[40] Most of the grain sold commercially has been processed to remove this coating. This bitterness has beneficial effects during cultivation, as it deters birds and, therefore, the plant requires minimal protection.^[38] The genetic control of bitterness involves quantitative inheritance.^[40] Although lowering the saponin content through selective breeding to produce sweeter, more palatable varieties is complicated by ≈10% cross-pollination,^[63] it is a major goal of quinoa breeding programs, which may include genetic engineering.^[40]

The toxicity category rating of the saponins in quinoa treats them as mild eye and respiratory irritants and as a low gastrointestinal irritant.^[64]^[65] In South America, these saponins have many uses, including as a detergent for clothing and washing, and as a folk medicine antiseptic for skin injuries.^[64]

Additionally, the leaves and stems of all species of the genus Chenopodium and related genera of the family Amaranthaceae, including quinoa, contain high levels of oxalic acid.^[66]

Uses

Template:Nutritional value

File:Quinoa cuit.JPG

Quinoa is typically cooked by boiling it in water or broth until the grains become tender

The increasing demand for quinoa is partially due to the attention it received as a food that may help alleviate food insecurity in some world regions.^[67] Quinoa is high in protein, which makes it a possible alternative to meat for vegetarians and vegans, and for people who are lactose intolerant. It also has high concentrations of dietary minerals. Quinoa does not contain gluten.^[68] Some of these qualities may have improved the market to economically privileged people in North America, possibly increasing the price of quinoa.^[67]

Quinoa is an important food for the Indigenous people of the Andean Altiplano, especially the Aymara and Quechua communities.^[60] Historically, it was consumed as a subsistence food, which was devalued by the Spanish when they colonized the region.^[69]

For the Indigenous communities, growing quinoa represented food security and well-being, and it was involved in almost every meal of the day.^[54]^[70]

Nutrition

Template:Nutritional value Raw, uncooked quinoa is 13% water, 64% carbohydrates, 14% protein, and 6% fat. Nutritional evaluations indicate that a Template:Cvt serving of raw quinoa seeds has a food energy of Template:Cvt and is a rich source (20% or higher of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins, including 46%Template:NbspDV for folate, and for several dietary minerals such as magnesium (55%Template:NbspDV), manganese (95%Template:NbspDV), phosphorus (65%Template:NbspDV), and zinc (33%Template:NbspDV).

After boiling, which is the typical preparation for eating the seeds, many nutritional evaluations change. Although a Template:Cvt serving of cooked quinoa increases to 72% water, most nutritional evaluations are reduced, such as, 21% carbohydrates, 4% protein, and 2% fat,^[64] and the food energy of cooked quinoa is reduced to Template:Cvt. Although similarly reduced, cooked quinoa remains a rich source of the dietary minerals manganese (30%Template:NbspDV) and phosphorus (22%Template:NbspDV). However, cooked quinoa is reduced to being a moderate source (10–19%Template:NbspDV) of dietary fiber and folate (11%), as well as of the dietary minerals iron (11%), magnesium (18%), and zinc (11%).

Quinoa is gluten-free.^[5] Because quinoa has a high concentration of protein and is a good source of many micronutrients, has versatility in preparation, and a potential for increased yields in controlled environments,^[71] it has been selected as an experimental crop in NASA's Controlled Ecological Life Support System for long-duration human occupied space flights.^[72]

In culture

United Nations recognition

The United Nations General Assembly declared 2013 as the "Template:Visible anchor",^[73]^[74]^[75] in recognition of the ancestral practices of the Andean people, who have preserved it as a food for present and future generations, through knowledge and practices of living in harmony with nature. The objective was to draw the world's attention to the role that quinoa could play in providing food security, nutrition and poverty eradication in support of achieving Millennium Development Goals. Some academic commentary emphasized that quinoa production could have ecological and social drawbacks in its native regions, and that these problems needed to be tackled.^[46]

Kosher certification

Quinoa is used in the Jewish community as a substitute for the leavened grains that are forbidden during the Passover holiday.^[76] Several kosher certification organizations refuse to certify it as being kosher for Passover, citing reasons including its resemblance to prohibited grains or fear of cross-contamination of the product from nearby fields of prohibited grain or during packaging.^[77] However, in December 2013 the Orthodox Union, the world's largest kosher certification agency, announced it would begin certifying quinoa as kosher for Passover.^[78]

Gallery

Developing black quinoa seed

Developing black quinoa seed
Quinoa flower

Quinoa flower
Quinoa seeds

Quinoa seeds
White, red, and black quinoa mix

White, red, and black quinoa mix

References

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Bibliography

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Quinoa: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 04:32, 30 October 2025

Contents

Description

Taxonomy

Etymology

Distribution

Cultivation

Climate requirements

United States

Europe

Sowing

Soil

Genetics

Harvesting

Processing

Production

Price

Effects of rising demand on growers

Monoculture and climate change impacts

Chemistry

Uses

Nutrition

In culture

United Nations recognition

Kosher certification

Gallery

See also

References

Bibliography

Navigation menu

@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 {{Use American English|date=November 2024}}
 {{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=3}}
 {{use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
 {{speciesbox
 |name = Quinoa
@@ Line 23: / Line 23: @@
 |range_map_caption = Natural distribution in red, Cultivation in green
 }}
-'''Quinoa''' ('''''Chenopodium quinoa'''''; {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|iː|n|.|w|ɑː|,_|k|i|ˈ|n|oʊ|.|ə}},<ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|quinoa}}</ref><ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|quinoa}}</ref><ref>{{cite American Heritage Dictionary|quinoa}}</ref> from [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] ''{{lang|qu|kinwa}}'' or ''{{lang|qu|kinuwa}}'')<ref>{{Ref Laime}}</ref> is a flowering plant in the [[Amaranthaceae|amaranth family]]. It is a herbaceous [[annual plant]] grown as a [[crop]] primarily for its edible [[seed]]s; the seeds are high in [[protein]], [[dietary fiber]], [[B vitamins]] and [[mineral (nutrient)|dietary mineral]]s especially potassium and magnesium in amounts greater than in many grains.<ref name="FAOquinoaancientcrop" >{{Cite tech report |title=Quinoa: An ancient crop to contribute to world food security |author-last1=Bojanic |author-first1=Alan |others=Rojas, Wilfredo (Coordinator), (PROINPA), Alandia, Gabriela, Irigoyen, Jimena, Blajos, Jorge (Technical team), Santivañez, Tania (FAO) |url=https://www.fao.org/docrep/017/aq287e/aq287e.pdf |department=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |publisher=FAO |publication-place=[[Quito]] |publication-date=July 2011 |access-date=22 May 2018}}</ref> Quinoa is not a [[Poaceae|grass]] but rather a [[pseudocereal]] [[botany|botanically related]] to [[spinach]] and [[amaranth]] (''Amaranthus'' spp.), and originated in the [[Andes|Andean region]] of northwestern South America.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fuentes |first1=F. F. |last2=Martinez |first2=E. A. |last3=Hinrichsen |first3=P. V. |last4=Jellen |first4=E. N. |last5=Maughan |first5=P. J. |date=2009-04-01 |title=Assessment of genetic diversity patterns in Chilean quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'' Willd.) germplasm using multiplex fluorescent microsatellite markers |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-008-9604-3 |journal=Conservation Genetics |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=369–377 |doi=10.1007/s10592-008-9604-3 |bibcode=2009ConG...10..369F |issn=1572-9737 |hdl=10533/128026 |s2cid=39564604|url-access=subscription |hdl-access=free }}</ref> It was first used to feed livestock 5,200{{ndash}}7,000 years ago, and for human consumption 3,000{{ndash}}4,000 years ago in the [[Lake Titicaca]] basin of Peru and Bolivia.<ref name="Quinoa: Production, Consumption and Social Value in Historical Context">{{cite report |url=http://lasa.international.pitt.edu/members/congress-papers/lasa2009/files/KolataAlanL.pdf |year=2009 |title=Quinoa: Production, Consumption and Social Value in Historical Context |last=Kolata |first=Alan L. |department=Department of Anthropology |publisher=The University of Chicago}}</ref>
+'''Quinoa''' ('''''Chenopodium quinoa'''''; {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|iː|n|.|w|ɑː|,_|k|i|ˈ|n|oʊ|.|ə}},<ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|quinoa}}</ref><ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|quinoa}}</ref><ref>{{cite American Heritage Dictionary|quinoa}}</ref> from [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] ''{{lang|qu|kinwa}}'' or ''{{lang|qu|kinuwa}}'')<ref>{{Ref Laime}}</ref> is a flowering plant in the [[Amaranthaceae|amaranth family]]. It is a herbaceous [[annual plant]] grown as a [[crop]] primarily for its edible [[seed]]s; the seeds are high in [[protein]], [[dietary fiber]], [[B vitamins]] and [[mineral (nutrient)|dietary mineral]]s especially potassium and magnesium in amounts greater than in many grains.<ref name="FAOquinoaancientcrop" >{{Cite tech report |title=Quinoa: An ancient crop to contribute to world food security |author-last1=Bojanic |author-first1=Alan |others=Rojas, Wilfredo (Coordinator), (PROINPA), Alandia, Gabriela, Irigoyen, Jimena, Blajos, Jorge (Technical team), Santivañez, Tania (FAO) |url=https://www.fao.org/docrep/017/aq287e/aq287e.pdf |department=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |publisher=FAO |publication-place=[[Quito]] |publication-date=July 2011 |access-date=22 May 2018}}</ref> Quinoa is not a [[Poaceae|grass]] but rather a [[pseudocereal]] [[botany|botanically related]] to [[spinach]] and [[amaranth]] (''Amaranthus'' spp.), and originated in the [[Andes|Andean region]] of northwestern South America.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fuentes |first1=F. F. |last2=Martinez |first2=E. A. |last3=Hinrichsen |first3=P. V. |last4=Jellen |first4=E. N. |last5=Maughan |first5=P. J. |date=2009-04-01 |title=Assessment of genetic diversity patterns in Chilean quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'' Willd.) germplasm using multiplex fluorescent microsatellite markers |journal=Conservation Genetics |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=369–377 |doi=10.1007/s10592-008-9604-3 |bibcode=2009ConG...10..369F |issn=1572-9737 |hdl=10533/128026 |s2cid=39564604|hdl-access=free }}</ref> It was first used to feed livestock 5,200{{ndash}}7,000 years ago, and for human consumption 3,000{{ndash}}4,000 years ago in the [[Lake Titicaca]] basin of Bolivia and Peru.<ref name="Quinoa: Production, Consumption and Social Value in Historical Context">{{cite report |url=http://lasa.international.pitt.edu/members/congress-papers/lasa2009/files/KolataAlanL.pdf |year=2009 |title=Quinoa: Production, Consumption and Social Value in Historical Context |last=Kolata |first=Alan L. |department=Department of Anthropology |publisher=The University of Chicago}}</ref>
-The plant thrives at high elevations and produces seeds that are rich in protein.<ref name=leonard>{{cite book |last=Leonard |first=Jonathan Norton |author-link= |date=1970 |title=Recipes, Latin American cooking |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J8SLxAEACAAJ |location= |publisher=Time-Life International (Nederlands) |page=21 |isbn=9780809400638}}</ref> Almost all production in the Andean region is done by small farms and associations. Its cultivation has spread to more than 70 countries, including Kenya, India, the United States, and European countries.<ref name=FAO2013>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/quinoa-2013/what-is-quinoa/distribution-and-production/en/ |title=Distribution and production |access-date=25 June 2019 |department=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |publisher=United Nations |year=2013}}</ref> As a result of increased consumption in North America, Europe, and [[Australasia]], quinoa crop prices tripled between 2006 and 2014, entering a boom and bust cycle.<ref name="amrc">{{cite web |title=Quinoa |series=Grains & oilseeds |url=https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/grains-oilseeds/quinoa |department=Agricultural Marketing Resource Center |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture |access-date=12 December 2024 |date=April 2022}}</ref><ref name="The Guardian">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jan/16/vegans-stomach-unpalatable-truth-quinoa |title=Can vegans stomach the unpalatable truth about quinoa? |newspaper=The Guardian |date=16 January 2013 |location=London, UK |first=Joanna |last=Blythman |access-date=17 Jan 2013}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Andrango |first1=Graciela |last2=Johnson |first2=Amy |last3=Bellemare |first3=Marc F. |date=2020 |title=Quinoa Production and Growth Potential in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27098579 |journal=Choices |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=1–10 |issn=0886-5558 |jstor=27098579}}</ref>
+The plant thrives at high elevations and produces seeds that are rich in protein.<ref name=leonard>{{cite book |last=Leonard |first=Jonathan Norton |date=1970 |title=Recipes, Latin American cooking |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J8SLxAEACAAJ |location= |publisher=Time-Life International (Nederlands) |page=21 |isbn=978-0-8094-0063-8}}</ref> Almost all production in the Andean region is done by small farms and associations. Its cultivation has spread to more than 70 countries, including Kenya, India, the United States, and European countries.<ref name=FAO2013>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/quinoa-2013/what-is-quinoa/distribution-and-production/en/ |title=Distribution and production |access-date=25 June 2019 |department=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |publisher=United Nations |year=2013 |archive-date=26 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626155833/http://www.fao.org/quinoa-2013/what-is-quinoa/distribution-and-production/en/ }}</ref> As a result of increased consumption in North America, Europe, and [[Australasia]], quinoa crop prices tripled between 2006 and 2014, entering a boom and bust cycle.<ref name="amrc">{{cite web |title=Quinoa |series=Grains & oilseeds |url=https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/grains-oilseeds/quinoa |department=Agricultural Marketing Resource Center |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture |access-date=12 December 2024 |date=April 2022}}</ref><ref name="The Guardian">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jan/16/vegans-stomach-unpalatable-truth-quinoa |title=Can vegans stomach the unpalatable truth about quinoa? |newspaper=The Guardian |date=16 January 2013 |location=London, UK |first=Joanna |last=Blythman |access-date=17 Jan 2013}}</ref><ref name="Andrango-2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Andrango |first1=Graciela |last2=Johnson |first2=Amy |last3=Bellemare |first3=Marc F. |date=2020 |title=Quinoa Production and Growth Potential in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru |journal=Choices |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=1–10 |issn=0886-5558 |jstor=27098579}}</ref>
 The quinoa [[monoculture]] that arose from increased production, combined with [[climate change]] effects in the native Andean region, created challenges for production and yield, and led to [[environmental degradation]].
@@ Line 32: / Line 32: @@
 [[File:QuinoaGrains.jpg|thumb|Quinoa seeds]]''Chenopodium quinoa'' is a [[dicotyledon]]ous [[annual plant]], usually about {{cvt|1|–|2|m|ft|0}} high. It has broad, generally powdery, hairy, lobed leaves, normally arranged [[Alternate leaf|alternately]]. The woody central [[plant stem|stem]] is branched or unbranched depending on the variety and may be green, red or purple. The flowering [[panicle]]s arise from the top of the plant or from [[leaf axils]] along the stem. Each panicle has a central axis from which a secondary axis emerges either with flowers (amaranthiform) or bearing a tertiary axis carrying the flowers (glomeruliform).<ref name="Lost crops"/> These are small, incomplete, sessile flowers of the same colour as the sepals, and both pistillate and perfect forms occur. Pistillate flowers are generally located at the proximal end of the glomeruli and the perfect ones at the distal end of it. A perfect flower has five sepals, five anthers and a superior ovary, from which two to three stigmatic branches emerge.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bertero |first1=Daniel |last2=Medan |first2=Diego |last3=Hall |first3=A. J. |date=1996-09-01 |title=Changes in apical morphology during floral initiation and reproductive development in quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'' Willd.) |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=317–324 |doi=10.1006/anbo.1996.0126 |doi-access=free|bibcode=1996AnBot..78..317B }}</ref>
-The green [[Ovary (plants)|hypogynous]] flowers have a simple [[Petal|perianth]] and are generally [[Self-Fertilization|self-fertilizing]],<ref name="Lost crops">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_iT0rAAAAYAAJ/page/n161 |page=149 |title=The Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-known plants of the Andes with promise for worldwide cultivation |publisher=U.S. National Research Council |department=Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, National Academies |year=1989 |isbn=9780309042642}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Reinhard |last1=Lieberei |first2=Christoph |last2=Reissdorff |first3=Wolfgang |last3=Franke|publisher=Georg Thieme Verlag |title=Nutzpflanzenkunde |year=2007 |isbn=978-3135304076}}</ref> though cross-pollination occurs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=R. |title=Amaranth, Quinoa, Ragi, Tef, and Niger |year=1986 |publisher=University of Minnesota}}</ref> In the natural environment, [[betalain]]s serve to attract animals to generate a greater rate of pollination and ensure, or improve, seed dissemination.<ref>{{cite book |title=Colour Additives for Foods and Beverages |date=4 February 2015 |edition=1st |url=https://www.elsevier.com/books/colour-additives-for-foods-and-beverages/scotter/978-1-78242-011-8 |publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-1-78242-011-8 }}</ref> The fruits (seeds) are about {{cvt|2|mm|in|frac=16}} in diameter and of various colors — from white to red or black, depending on the [[cultivar]].<ref name="Oxford">{{cite book |title=The New Oxford Book of Food Plants |author1=Vaughn, J.G. |author2=Geissler, C.A. |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199549467 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UdKxFcen8zgC}}</ref>
+The green [[Ovary (plants)|hypogynous]] flowers have a simple [[Petal|perianth]] and are generally [[Self-Fertilization|self-fertilizing]],<ref name="Lost crops">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_iT0rAAAAYAAJ/page/n161 |page=149 |title=The Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-known plants of the Andes with promise for worldwide cultivation |publisher=U.S. National Research Council |department=Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, National Academies |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-309-04264-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Reinhard |last1=Lieberei |first2=Christoph |last2=Reissdorff |first3=Wolfgang |last3=Franke|publisher=Georg Thieme Verlag |title=Nutzpflanzenkunde |year=2007 |isbn=978-3-13-530407-6}}</ref> though cross-pollination occurs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=R. |title=Amaranth, Quinoa, Ragi, Tef, and Niger |year=1986 |publisher=University of Minnesota}}</ref> In the natural environment, [[betalain]]s serve to attract animals to generate a greater rate of pollination and ensure, or improve, seed dissemination.<ref>{{cite book |title=Colour Additives for Foods and Beverages |date=4 February 2015 |edition=1st |url=https://www.elsevier.com/books/colour-additives-for-foods-and-beverages/scotter/978-1-78242-011-8 |publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-1-78242-011-8 }}</ref> The fruits (seeds) are about {{cvt|2|mm|in|frac=16}} in diameter and of various colors — from white to red or black, depending on the [[cultivar]].<ref name="Oxford">{{cite book |title=The New Oxford Book of Food Plants |author1=Vaughn, J.G. |author2=Geissler, C.A. |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954946-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UdKxFcen8zgC}}</ref>
 In regards to the "newly" developed salinity resistance of ''C.{{nbsp}}quinoa'', some studies have concluded that accumulation of organic osmolytes plays a dual role for the species. They provide osmotic adjustment, in addition to protection against oxidative stress of the photosynthetic structures in developing leaves. Studies also suggested that reduction in stomatal density in reaction to salinity levels represents an essential instrument of defence to optimize water use efficiency under the given conditions to which it may be exposed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shabala |first1=Lana |last2=Mackay |first2=Alex |last3=Tian |first3=Yu |last4=Jacobsen |first4=Sven-Erik |last5=Zhou |first5=Daowei |last6=Shabala |first6=Sergey |date=September 2012 |title=Oxidative stress protection and stomatal patterning as components of salinity tolerance mechanism in quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'') |journal=Physiologia Plantarum |volume=146 |issue=1 |pages=26–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1399-3054.2012.01599.x |pmid=22324972|bibcode=2012PPlan.146...26S }}</ref>
@@ Line 39: / Line 39: @@
 The species ''Chenopodium quinoa'' was first described by [[Carl Ludwig Willdenow]] (1765–1812),{{sfn|Linné|Willdenow|1797|p=1301}} a German botanist who studied plants from South America, brought back by explorers [[Alexander von Humboldt]] and [[Aimé Bonpland]].
-Quinoa is an [[allotetraploid]] plant, containing two full sets of [[chromosome]]s from two different species which hybridised with each other at one time. According to a 1979 study, its presumed ancestor is either ''[[Chenopodium berlandieri]]'', from North America, or the Andean species ''Ch. hircinum'', although more recent studies, in 2011, even suggest Old World relatives. On the other hand, morphological features relate ''Ch.{{nbsp}}quinoa'' of the Andes and [[Chenopodium nuttalliae|''Ch. nuttalliae'']] of Mexico. Some studies have suggested that both species may have been derived from the same wild type. A weedy quinoa, ''Ch.{{nbsp}}quinoa'' var. ''melanospermum'', is known from South America, but no equivalent closely related to ''Ch.{{nbsp}}nutalliae'' has been reported from Mexico so far.<ref name="Bazile2014" />
+Quinoa is an [[allotetraploid]] plant, containing two full sets of [[chromosome]]s from two different species which hybridised with each other at one time. According to a 1979 study, its presumed ancestor is either ''[[Chenopodium berlandieri]]'', from North America, or the Andean species ''Ch. hircinum''. On the other hand, morphological features relate ''Ch.{{nbsp}}quinoa'' of the Andes and [[Chenopodium nuttalliae|''Ch. nuttalliae'']] of Mexico. More recent studies indicate that Andean and Mexican quinoas were independently domesticated and that both derive from wild North American ''C. berlandieri'', carrying the genome formula AABB, and are likely derived from a hybridization several million years ago between AA and BB diploids closely related to the modern ''C. subglabrum'' and ''C. suecicum'', respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Maughan |first1=Peter J. |last2=Jarvis |first2=David E. |last3=de la Cruz-Torres |first3=Eulogio |last4=Jaggi |first4=Kate E. |last5=Warner |first5=Heather C. |last6=Marcheschi |first6=Ashley K. |last7=Bertero |first7=H. Daniel |last8=Gomez-Pando |first8=Luz |last9=Fuentes |first9=Francisco |last10=Mayta-Anco |first10=Mayela E. |last11=Curti |first11=Ramiro |last12=Rey |first12=Elodie |last13=Tester |first13=Mark |last14=Jellen |first14=Eric N. |date=2024-05-29 |title=North American pitseed goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri) is a genetic resource to improve Andean quinoa (C. quinoa) |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=12345 |doi=10.1038/s41598-024-63106-8 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=11137100 |pmid=38811833 |bibcode=2024NatSR..1412345M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Young |first1=Lauren A. |last2=Maughan |first2=Peter Jeffrey |last3=Jarvis |first3=David E. |last4=Hunt |first4=Spencer P. |last5=Warner |first5=Heather C. |last6=Durrant |first6=Kristin K. |last7=Kohlert |first7=Tyler |last8=Curti |first8=Ramiro N. |last9=Bertero |first9=Daniel |last10=Filippi |first10=Gabrielle A. |last11=Pospíšilíková |first11=Tereza |last12=Krak |first12=Karol |last13=Mandák |first13=Bohumil |last14=Jellen |first14=Eric N. |date=2023 |title=A chromosome-scale reference of Chenopodium watsonii helps elucidate relationships within the North American A-genome Chenopodium species and with quinoa |journal=The Plant Genome |language=en |volume=16 |issue=3 |article-number=e20349 |doi=10.1002/tpg2.20349 |pmid=37195017 |issn=1940-3372|doi-access=free }}</ref> Quinoa's wild South American ancestor, ''C. hircinum'', may have been translocated from North to South America via zoochory. A feral-weedy quinoa, ''Ch.{{nbsp}}quinoa'' var. ''melanospermum'', is known from South America, but no equivalent closely related to ''Ch.{{nbsp}}nutalliae'' has been reported from Mexico so far.<ref name="Bazile2014" />
 Studies regarding the genetic diversity of quinoa suggest that it may have passed through at least three bottleneck genetic events, with a possible fourth expected:
-*The first occurred when the species was created, as its two [[diploid]] ancestors underwent a hybridization followed by chromosome doubling, this new species was genetically isolated from its parent species, and thus lost a great deal of genetic diversity. These ancestors are still not known, but are ''not'' the higher altitude crop species ''[[Chenopodium pallidicaule]]'' (cañahua), a diploid.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mangelson |first1=Hayley |last2=Jarvis |first2=David E. |last3=Mollinedo |first3=Patricia |last4=Rollano-Penaloza |first4=Oscar M. |last5=Palma-Encinas |first5=Valeria D. |last6=Gomez-Pando |first6=Luz Rayda |last7=Jellen |first7=Eric N. |last8=Maughan |first8=Peter J. |year=2019 |title=The genome of ''Chenopodium pallidicaule'': An emerging Andean super grain |journal=Applications in Plant Sciences |volume=7 |issue=11 |pages=e11300 |doi=10.1002/aps3.11300 |pmc=6858295 |pmid=31832282|bibcode=2019AppPS...7E1300M }}</ref>
+*The first occurred when the species was created, as its two [[diploid]] ancestors underwent a hybridization followed by chromosome doubling, this new species was genetically isolated from its parent species, and thus lost a great deal of genetic diversity. As stated above, these ancestors were possibly ''C. subglabrum'' (AA) and ''C. suecicum'' (BB) and therefore not the Andean diploid pseudo cereal ''[[Chenopodium pallidicaule]]'' (cañahua).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mangelson |first1=Hayley |last2=Jarvis |first2=David E. |last3=Mollinedo |first3=Patricia |last4=Rollano-Penaloza |first4=Oscar M. |last5=Palma-Encinas |first5=Valeria D. |last6=Gomez-Pando |first6=Luz Rayda |last7=Jellen |first7=Eric N. |last8=Maughan |first8=Peter J. |year=2019 |title=The genome of ''Chenopodium pallidicaule'': An emerging Andean super grain |journal=Applications in Plant Sciences |volume=7 |issue=11 |article-number=e11300 |doi=10.1002/aps3.11300 |pmc=6858295 |pmid=31832282|bibcode=2019AppPS...7E1300M }}</ref>
-*A second bottleneck may have occurred when quinoa was domesticated from its unknown but possible wild [[tetraploid]] form. It might have been domesticated twice: once in the high Andes and a second time in the Chilean and Argentinean lowlands.
+*A second bottleneck may have occurred when quinoa was domesticated from its wild [[tetraploid]] ancestor, ''C. hircinum''. It might have been domesticated twice: once in the high Andes and a second time in the Chilean and Argentinean lowlands.
-*A third bottleneck can be considered "political", and has lasted more than 400&nbsp;years, from the Spanish conquest of the new continent until the present time. During this phase quinoa has been replaced with [[maize]], marginalized from production processes possibly due to its important medicinal, social and religious roles for the indigenous populations of South America, but also because it is very difficult to process (dehusk) compared with maize.
+*A third bottleneck can be considered "political", and has lasted more than 400&nbsp;years, from the Spanish conquest of the new continent until the present time.{{citation needed|date=August 2025}} During this phase quinoa has been replaced with [[maize]], marginalized from production processes possibly due to its social and religious roles for the indigenous populations of South America, but also because it is difficult to process (dehusk) compared with maize.{{citation needed|date=August 2025}}
 *In the 21st century, a fourth bottleneck event may occur, as traditional farmers migrate from rural zones to urban centers, which exposes quinoa to the risk of further [[genetic erosion]]. Better breeding may also result in loss of genetic diversity, as breeders would be expected to reduce unwanted alleles to produce uniform cultivars, but cross-breeding between local landraces has and will likely produce high-diversity cultivars.<ref name="Bazile2014" />
@@ Line 55: / Line 55: @@
 == Distribution ==
-''Chenopodium quinoa'' is believed to have been domesticated in the Peruvian Andes from wild or weed populations of the same species.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pickersgill, Barbara |author-link=Barbara Pickersgill |date=31 August 2007 |title=Domestication of plants in the Americas: Insights from Mendelian and molecular genetics |url=http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/mcm193v1 |url-status=dead |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=925–940 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcm193 |pmc=2759216 |pmid=17766847 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021154818/http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/mcm193v1 |archive-date=21 October 2007}}</ref> There are non-cultivated quinoa plants (''Chenopodium quinoa'' var. ''melanospermum'') that grow in the area it is cultivated; these may either be related to wild predecessors, or they could be descendants of cultivated plants.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Heiser CB Jr, Nelson DC |date=September 1974 |title=On the origin of the cultivated Chenopods (''Chenopodium'') |journal=Genetics |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=503–505 |doi=10.1093/genetics/78.1.503 |pmc=1213209 |pmid=4442716}}</ref>
+''Chenopodium quinoa'' is believed to have been domesticated in the Peruvian Andes from wild or weed populations of the same species.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pickersgill, Barbara |author-link=Barbara Pickersgill |date=31 August 2007 |title=Domestication of plants in the Americas: Insights from Mendelian and molecular genetics |url=http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/mcm193v1 |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=925–940 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcm193 |pmc=2759216 |pmid=17766847 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021154818/http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/mcm193v1 |archive-date=21 October 2007}}</ref> There are non-cultivated quinoa plants (''Chenopodium quinoa'' var. ''melanospermum'') that grow in the area it is cultivated; these may either be related to wild predecessors, or they could be descendants of cultivated plants.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Heiser CB Jr, Nelson DC |date=September 1974 |title=On the origin of the cultivated Chenopods (''Chenopodium'') |journal=Genetics |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=503–505 |doi=10.1093/genetics/78.1.503 |pmc=1213209 |pmid=4442716}}</ref>[[File:Landscape with Chenopodium quinoa Cachilaya Bolivia Lake Titicaca.jpg|thumb|''Chenopodium quinoa'' near Cachilaya, [[Lake Titicaca]], Bolivia]]
-[[File:Red quinoa.png|thumb|Red quinoa, cooked]]
-[[File:Landscape with Chenopodium quinoa Cachilaya Bolivia Lake Titicaca.jpg|thumb|''Chenopodium quinoa'' near Cachilaya, [[Lake Titicaca]], Bolivia]]
 ==Cultivation==
@@ Line 67: / Line 64: @@
 When Amaranthaceae became abundant in [[Lake Pacucha]], Peru, the lake was fresh, and the lack of Amaranthaceae taxa strongly indicates droughts which turned the lake into a [[Salt marsh|saltmarsh]]. Based on the pollen associated with soil manipulation, this is an area of the Andes where domestication of ''C.{{nbsp}}quinoa'' became popular, although it was not the only one. It was domesticated in various geographical zones. With this, morphological adaptations began to happen until having five [[ecotype]]s today. Quinoa's genetic diversity illustrates that it was and is a vital crop.{{sfn|Murphy|Matanguihan|2015|p=14}}[[File:Calca Peru- Quinoa seller at mercado II.jpg|thumb|Quinoa seller at market in [[Calca, Peru]]]]Andean agronomists and nutrition scientists began researching quinoa in the early twentieth century, and it became the subject of much interest among researchers involved in [[neglected and underutilized crop]] studies in the 1970s.<ref name="McDonell">{{cite book |last1=Wilk |first1=Richard |url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/critical-approaches-to-superfoods-9781350123878/ |title=Critical Approaches to Superfoods |last2=McDonell |first2=Emma |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-350-12387-8 |publication-place=London |page= |oclc=1204141540}}</ref>
-In 2004, the international community became increasingly interested in quinoa and it entered a boom and bust economic cycle that would last for over ten years. Between 2004 and 2011, quinoa became a more interesting commodity and global excitement for it increased. At this point, Bolivia and Peru were the only major producers of quinoa. In 2013, there was an extreme increase in imports of quinoa by the United States, Canada and various European countries. In 2016, growth began to slow. Imports were still increasing but at a slower rate and quinoa prices declined as other countries began producing it.<ref name=":2" /> By 2015, over 75 countries were producing quinoa, as opposed to only eight countries in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bazile |first1=Didier |last2=Jacobsen |first2=Sven-Erik |last3=Verniau |first3=Alexis |date=2016-05-09 |title=The Global Expansion of Quinoa: Trends and Limits |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |language=English |volume=7 |page=622 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2016.00622 |issn=1664-462X |pmc=4860459 |pmid=27242826 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2016FrPS....7..622B }}</ref>
+In 2004, the international community became increasingly interested in quinoa and it entered a boom and bust economic cycle that would last for over ten years. Between 2004 and 2011, quinoa became a more interesting commodity and global excitement for it increased. At this point, Bolivia and Peru were the only major producers of quinoa. In 2013, there was an extreme increase in imports of quinoa by the United States, Canada and various European countries. In 2016, growth began to slow. Imports were still increasing but at a slower rate and quinoa prices declined as other countries began producing it.<ref name="Andrango-2020" /> By 2015, over 75 countries were producing quinoa, as opposed to only eight countries in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bazile |first1=Didier |last2=Jacobsen |first2=Sven-Erik |last3=Verniau |first3=Alexis |date=2016-05-09 |title=The Global Expansion of Quinoa: Trends and Limits |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |language=English |volume=7 |page=622 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2016.00622 |issn=1664-462X |pmc=4860459 |pmid=27242826 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2016FrPS....7..622B }}</ref>
 Particularly for the high variety of Chilean landraces, in addition to how the plant has adapted to different latitudes, this crop is now potentially cultivable almost anywhere in the world.<ref name="Bazile2014" />
@@ Line 75: / Line 72: @@
 ==== United States ====
-Quinoa has been cultivated in the United States, primarily in the high elevation [[San Luis Valley]] of [[Colorado]] where it was introduced in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.localfoodshift.pub/growing-quinoa-in-colorado-an-interview-with-paul-new-white-mountain-farm/ |date=February 19, 2016 |title=Growing Quinoa in Colorado: An interview with Paul New, White Mountain Farm |last=LeFrancois-Hanson |first=Zoe |website=Local Food Shift |access-date=8 February 2017 |archive-date=8 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180908172701/http://www.localfoodshift.pub/growing-quinoa-in-colorado-an-interview-with-paul-new-white-mountain-farm/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> In this high-altitude desert valley, maximum summer temperatures rarely exceed {{cvt|30|°C|°F}} and night temperatures are about {{cvt|7|°C|°F}}. In the 2010s, experimental production was attempted in the [[Palouse]] region of Eastern Washington,<ref>{{cite news |title=Quinoa seed of change for Palouse farmers |date=May 3, 2014 |author=Kara Mcmurray |newspaper=[[The Spokesman-Review]] |location=Spokane |url=https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2014/may/03/quinoa-seed-of-change-for-palouse-farmers/}}</ref> and farmers in [[Western Washington]] began producing the crop. The [[Washington State University]] [[Skagit River|Skagit River Valley]] research facility near [[Mount Vernon, Washington|Mount Vernon]] grew thousands of its own experimental varieties.<ref>{{cite news |title=Growing quinoa in Skagit County |author=Julia-Grace Sanders |date=October 23, 2018 |newspaper=[[Skagit Valley Herald]] |location=Burlington, Washington |url=https://www.goskagit.com/news/local_news/growing-quinoa-in-skagit-county/article_3f38b215-a2b3-5c43-8099-f249d058c848.html}}</ref> The Puget Sound region's climate is similar to that of coastal Chile where the crop has been grown for centuries.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The Seattle Times |title=Quinoa comes to the Northwest |date=August 2, 2016 |author=Rebekah Denn |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/pacific-nw-magazine/quinoa-comes-to-the-northwest/}}</ref> Due to the short growing season, North American cultivation requires short-maturity varieties, typically of [[Bolivia]]n origin. Quinoa is planted in [[Idaho]] where a variety developed and bred specifically for the high-altitude [[Snake River Plain]] is the largest planted variety in North America.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.capitalpress.com/ag_sectors/grains/western-innovator-processor-pioneers-quinoa-production/article_1c832fe8-dbef-11e9-91af-9f5a171f25ed.html |title=Western Innovator: Processor pioneers quinoa production |author=Dianna Troyer |work=Capital Press |access-date=2020-02-15 |date=3 October 2019}}</ref>
+Quinoa has been cultivated in the United States, primarily in the high elevation [[San Luis Valley]] of [[Colorado]] where it was introduced in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.localfoodshift.pub/growing-quinoa-in-colorado-an-interview-with-paul-new-white-mountain-farm/ |date=February 19, 2016 |title=Growing Quinoa in Colorado: An interview with Paul New, White Mountain Farm |last=LeFrancois-Hanson |first=Zoe |website=Local Food Shift |access-date=8 February 2017 |archive-date=8 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180908172701/http://www.localfoodshift.pub/growing-quinoa-in-colorado-an-interview-with-paul-new-white-mountain-farm/ }}</ref> In this high-altitude desert valley, maximum summer temperatures rarely exceed {{cvt|30|°C|°F}} and night temperatures are about {{cvt|7|°C|°F}}. In the 2010s, experimental production was attempted in the [[Palouse]] region of Eastern Washington,<ref>{{cite news |title=Quinoa seed of change for Palouse farmers |date=May 3, 2014 |author=Kara Mcmurray |newspaper=[[The Spokesman-Review]] |location=Spokane |url=https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2014/may/03/quinoa-seed-of-change-for-palouse-farmers/}}</ref> and farmers in [[Western Washington]] began producing the crop. The [[Washington State University]] [[Skagit River|Skagit River Valley]] research facility near [[Mount Vernon, Washington|Mount Vernon]] grew thousands of its own experimental varieties.<ref>{{cite news |title=Growing quinoa in Skagit County |author=Julia-Grace Sanders |date=October 23, 2018 |newspaper=[[Skagit Valley Herald]] |location=Burlington, Washington |url=https://www.goskagit.com/news/local_news/growing-quinoa-in-skagit-county/article_3f38b215-a2b3-5c43-8099-f249d058c848.html}}</ref> The Puget Sound region's climate is similar to that of coastal Chile where the crop has been grown for centuries.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The Seattle Times |title=Quinoa comes to the Northwest |date=August 2, 2016 |author=Rebekah Denn |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/pacific-nw-magazine/quinoa-comes-to-the-northwest/}}</ref> Due to the short growing season, North American cultivation requires short-maturity varieties, typically of [[Bolivia]]n origin. Quinoa is planted in [[Idaho]] where a variety developed and bred specifically for the high-altitude [[Snake River Plain]] is the largest planted variety in North America.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.capitalpress.com/ag_sectors/grains/western-innovator-processor-pioneers-quinoa-production/article_1c832fe8-dbef-11e9-91af-9f5a171f25ed.html |title=Western Innovator: Processor pioneers quinoa production |author=Dianna Troyer |work=Capital Press |access-date=2020-02-15 |date=3 October 2019}}</ref>
 ==== Europe ====
-Several countries within Europe have successfully grown quinoa on a commercial scale.<ref>{{Cite web |title=European Quinoa Group |url=http://www.quinoaeurope.eu/ |website=www.quinoaeurope.eu |access-date=2015-12-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320224734/http://www.quinoaeurope.eu/ |archive-date=20 March 2018}}</ref> Southern England, Holland and Denmark all have significant production.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jacobsen |first=Sven-Erik |date=2003-01-05 |title=The Worldwide Potential for Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoaWilld.) |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1081/FRI-120018883 |journal=Food Reviews International |volume=19 |issue=1–2 |pages=167–177 |doi=10.1081/FRI-120018883 |issn=8755-9129|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
+Several countries within Europe have successfully grown quinoa on a commercial scale.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The European market potential for quinoa |url=https://www.cbi.eu/market-information/grains-pulses-oilseeds/quinoa/market-potential |access-date=July 13, 2025 |website=CBI.eu |agency=[[Center for the Promotion of Imports]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240415201844/https://www.cbi.eu/market-information/grains-pulses-oilseeds/quinoa/market-potential |date=November 18, 2020 |archive-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=European Quinoa Group |url=http://www.quinoaeurope.eu/ |website=QuinoaEurope.eu |access-date=2015-12-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320224734/http://www.quinoaeurope.eu/ |archive-date=20 March 2018}}</ref>
 === Sowing ===
-Quinoa requires a significant amount of precipitation in order to germinate, therefore the traditional sowing date in [[Peru]] was between September and November. To increase the chance that more crops survive it would be advantageous to split up the sowing date among the plants. Traditionally quinoa was sowed by broadcast, in rows or grooves, or by broadcast and then making rows. Soil preparation should occur before sowing, and weeding should come soon after sowing the seeds.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Aguilar |first1=Pablo Cesar |last2=Jacobsen |first2=Sven-Erik |date=2003-01-05 |title=Cultivation of Quinoa on the Peruvian Altiplano |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1081/FRI-120018866 |journal=Food Reviews International |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1–2 |pages=31–41 |doi=10.1081/FRI-120018866 |issn=8755-9129|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
+Quinoa requires a significant amount of precipitation in order to germinate, therefore the traditional sowing date in [[Peru]] was between September and November. To increase the chance that more crops survive it would be advantageous to split up the sowing date among the plants. Traditionally quinoa was sowed by broadcast, in rows or grooves, or by broadcast and then making rows. Soil preparation should occur before sowing, and weeding should come soon after sowing the seeds.<ref name="Aguilar-2003">{{Cite journal |last1=Aguilar |first1=Pablo Cesar |last2=Jacobsen |first2=Sven-Erik |date=2003-01-05 |title=Cultivation of Quinoa on the Peruvian Altiplano |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1081/FRI-120018866 |journal=Food Reviews International |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1–2 |pages=31–41 |doi=10.1081/FRI-120018866 |issn=8755-9129|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
-[[Crop rotation|Rotation]] is used in its Andean native range. Rotation is common with [[potato]], [[cereal]]s and [[legume]]s including ''[[Lupinus mutabilis]]''.<ref name="Zhang-et-al-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Heng |last2=Li |first2=Yuanyuan |last3=Zhu |first3=Jian-Kang |date=2018-11-26 |title=Developing naturally stress-resistant crops for a sustainable agriculture |journal=[[Nature Plants]] |volume=4 |issue=12 |pages=989–996 |bibcode=2018NatPl...4..989Z |doi=10.1038/s41477-018-0309-4 |pmid=30478360 |s2cid=53770458}}</ref><ref name="Rasmussen-et-al-2003">{{cite journal |last1=Rasmussen |first1=Claus |last2=Lagnaoui |first2=Aziz |last3=Esbjerg |first3=Peter |date=2003-01-05 |title=Advances in the Knowledge of Quinoa Pests |url=http://orgprints.org/28718/7/28718.pdf |journal=Food Reviews International |volume=19 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–75 |doi=10.1081/fri-120018868 |s2cid=55311455}}</ref> Traditionally, quinoa rotation happens in plots called aynoqas. These are made up of different sized plots in different zones, and each family unit would own plots in different areas. The aynoqas allowed for better crop yield, agricultural and ecological sustainability, and food security within communities.<ref name=":1" />
+[[Crop rotation|Rotation]] is used in its Andean native range. Rotation is common with [[potato]], [[cereal]]s and [[legume]]s including ''[[Lupinus mutabilis]]''.<ref name="Zhang-et-al-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Heng |last2=Li |first2=Yuanyuan |last3=Zhu |first3=Jian-Kang |date=2018-11-26 |title=Developing naturally stress-resistant crops for a sustainable agriculture |journal=[[Nature Plants]] |volume=4 |issue=12 |pages=989–996 |bibcode=2018NatPl...4..989Z |doi=10.1038/s41477-018-0309-4 |pmid=30478360 |s2cid=53770458}}</ref><ref name="Rasmussen-et-al-2003">{{cite journal |last1=Rasmussen |first1=Claus |last2=Lagnaoui |first2=Aziz |last3=Esbjerg |first3=Peter |date=2003-01-05 |title=Advances in the Knowledge of Quinoa Pests |url=https://orgprints.org/28718/7/28718.pdf |journal=Food Reviews International |volume=19 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–75 |doi=10.1081/fri-120018868 |s2cid=55311455}}</ref> Traditionally, quinoa rotation happens in plots called aynoqas. These are made up of different sized plots in different zones, and each family unit would own plots in different areas. The aynoqas allowed for better crop yield, agricultural and ecological sustainability, and food security within communities.<ref name="Aguilar-2003" />
 ===Soil===
-Quinoa plants do best in sandy, well-drained soils with a low nutrient content, moderate salinity, and a [[soil pH]] of 6 to{{nbsp}}8.5. The [[seedbed]] must be well prepared and drained to avoid waterlogging.<ref name="AlternativeFieldCropsManual">{{cite book |title=Alternative Field Crops Manual |date=January 20, 2000 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Extension and University of Minnesota |article=Quinoa |article-url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/NEWCROP/AFCM/quinoa.html}}</ref>
+Quinoa plants do best in sandy, well-drained soils with a low nutrient content, moderate salinity, and a [[soil pH]] of 6 to{{nbsp}}8.5. The [[seedbed]] must be well prepared and drained to avoid waterlogging.<ref name="AlternativeFieldCropsManual">{{cite book |title=Alternative Field Crops Manual |date=January 20, 2000 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Extension and University of Minnesota |article=Quinoa |article-url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/NEWCROP/AFCM/quinoa.html}}</ref>
 Quinoa has gained attention for its adaptability to contrasting environments such as saline soils, nutrient-poor soils and drought stressed marginal agroecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hinojosa |first1=Leonardo |last2=González |first2=Juan |last3=Barrios-Masias |first3=Felipe |last4=Fuentes |first4=Francisco |last5=Murphy |first5=Kevin |last6=Hinojosa |first6=Leonardo |last7=González |first7=Juan A. |last8=Barrios-Masias |first8=Felipe H. |last9=Fuentes |first9=Francisco |date=November 2018 |title=Quinoa Abiotic Stress Responses: A Review |journal=Plants |volume=7 |issue=4 |page=106 |doi=10.3390/plants7040106 |pmid=30501077 |pmc=6313892 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018Plnts...7..106H }}</ref>
@@ Line 101: / Line 98: @@
 ==Production==
-{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:13em; text-align:center;"
+{{Table alignment}}
-! colspan="2" |Quinoa production – 2023
-|-
+{| class="wikitable floatright col2right"
-! style="background:#ddf; width:75%;" | {{small|Country}}
-! style="background:#ddf; width:25%;" | {{small|Tonnes}}
+|+ Quinoa production <br />{{small|2023, tonnes}}<br/>
 |-
 | {{PER}} || 70,479
@@ Line 115: / Line 112: @@
 | '''World''' || '''112,251'''
 |-
-| colspan="2" |{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]<ref name="faostat">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |title=Quinoa production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists) |date=2025 |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT) |access-date=29 January 2025}}</ref>}}
+| colspan="2" |{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]]<br> of the [[United Nations]]}}<ref name="faostat">{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |title=Quinoa production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists) |date=2025 |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT) |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref>
 |}
@@ Line 121: / Line 118: @@
 ===Price===
-Since the early 21st century when quinoa became more commonly consumed in North America, Europe, and [[Australasia]] where it was not typically grown, the crop value increased.<ref name="Collyns">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/14/quinoa-andes-bolivia-peru-crop |title=Quinoa brings riches to the Andes |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=17 Jan 2013 |location=London |first=Dan |last=Collyns |date=14 January 2013}}</ref> Between 2006 and 2013, quinoa crop prices tripled.<ref name="amrc" /><ref name="The Guardian" /> In 2011, the average price was US$3,115 per tonne with some varieties selling as high as $8,000 per tonne.<ref name="Collyns" /> This compares with [[wheat]] prices of about US$340 per tonne, making wheat about 10% of the value of quinoa. The resulting effect on traditional production regions in Peru and Bolivia also influenced new commercial quinoa production elsewhere in the world, such as the United States.<ref name="Ernest Small 2013" />{{rp|176}}<ref>{{cite web |author1=Alastair Bland |title=Quinoa Craze Inspires North America To Start Growing Its Own |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/11/29/166155875/quinoa-craze-inspires-north-america-to-start-growing-its-own |publisher=NPR |access-date=28 July 2018 |date=29 November 2012}}</ref> By 2013, quinoa was being cultivated in some 70 countries.<ref name="FAO2013" /> As a result of expanding production outside the Andean highlands native for quinoa, the price plummeted starting in early 2015 and remained low for years.<ref name="nacla">{{Cite web |title=The Quinoa Boom Goes Bust in the Andes |author=Emma McDonell |work=NACLA |url=https://nacla.org/news/2018/03/12/quinoa-boom-goes-bust-andes |access-date=2021-01-14 |publisher=North American Congress on Latin America |date=12 March 2018}}</ref> From 2018 to 2019, quinoa production in Peru declined by 22%.<ref name="faostat" /> Some refer to this as the "quinoa bust" because of the devastation the price fall caused for farmers and industry.<ref name="nacla" />
+Since the early 21st century when quinoa became more commonly consumed in North America, Europe, and [[Australasia]] where it was not typically grown, the crop value increased.<ref name="Collyns">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/14/quinoa-andes-bolivia-peru-crop |title=Quinoa brings riches to the Andes |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=17 Jan 2013 |location=London |first=Dan |last=Collyns |date=14 January 2013}}</ref> Between 2006 and 2013, quinoa crop prices tripled.<ref name="amrc" /><ref name="The Guardian" /> In 2011, the average price was US$3,115 per tonne with some varieties selling as high as $8,000 per tonne.<ref name="Collyns" /> This compares with [[wheat]] prices of about US$340 per tonne, making wheat about 10% of the value of quinoa. The resulting effect on traditional production regions in Peru and Bolivia also influenced new commercial quinoa production elsewhere in the world, such as the United States.<ref name="Ernest Small 2013" />{{rp|176}}<ref>{{cite web |author1=Alastair Bland |title=Quinoa Craze Inspires North America To Start Growing Its Own |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/11/29/166155875/quinoa-craze-inspires-north-america-to-start-growing-its-own |publisher=NPR |access-date=28 July 2018 |date=29 November 2012}}</ref> By 2013, quinoa was being cultivated in some 70 countries.<ref name="FAO2013" /> As a result of expanding production outside the Andean highlands native for quinoa, the price plummeted starting in early 2015 and remained low for years.<ref name="nacla">{{Cite web |title=The Quinoa Boom Goes Bust in the Andes |author=Emma McDonell |work=NACLA |url=https://nacla.org/news/2018/03/12/quinoa-boom-goes-bust-andes |access-date=2021-01-14 |publisher=North American Congress on Latin America |date=12 March 2018 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116075807/https://nacla.org/news/2018/03/12/quinoa-boom-goes-bust-andes }}</ref> From 2018 to 2019, quinoa production in Peru declined by 22%.<ref name="faostat" /> Some refer to this as the "quinoa bust" because of the devastation the price fall caused for farmers and industry.<ref name="nacla" />
 ===Effects of rising demand on growers===
-[[File:Peru Chenopodium quinoa.jpg|thumb|[[Farmer field school]] on crop husbandry and quinoa production, near [[Puno]], Peru]]
+[[File:Peru Chenopodium quinoa.jpg|thumb|[[Farmer field school]] on crop husbandry and quinoa production near [[Puno]], Peru]]
-Rising quinoa prices over the period of 2006 to 2017 may have reduced the affordability of quinoa to traditional consumers.<ref name="The Guardian" /><ref name="complicated">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.motherjones.com/tom-philpott/2013/01/quinoa-good-evil-or-just-really-complicated |title=Quinoa: Good, Evil, or Just Really Complicated? |author=Tom Philpott |magazine=Mother Jones |access-date=2013-11-24}}</ref><ref name="Ernest Small 2013" />{{rp|176–77}} However, a 2016 study using Peru's Encuesta Nacional de Hogares found that rising quinoa prices during 2004–2013 led to net economic benefits for producers,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bellemare |first1=Marc F. |last2=Fajardo-Gonzalez |first2=Johanna |last3=Gitter |first3=Seth R. |date=2018-12-01 |title=Foods and fads: The welfare impacts of rising quinoa prices in Peru |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X18302419 |journal=World Development |volume=112 |pages=163–179 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.07.012 |s2cid=155556494 |issn=0305-750X}}</ref> and other commentary indicated similar conclusions,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2013/07/16/202737139/is-our-love-of-quinoa-hurting-or-helping-farmers-who-grow-it |title=Your Love Of Quinoa Is Good News For Andean Farmers |author=Allison Aubrey |date=2013-06-07 |work=NPR |access-date=2013-08-01}}
+Rising quinoa prices over the period of 2006 to 2017 may have reduced the affordability of quinoa to traditional consumers.<ref name="The Guardian" /><ref name="complicated">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.motherjones.com/tom-philpott/2013/01/quinoa-good-evil-or-just-really-complicated |title=Quinoa: Good, Evil, or Just Really Complicated? |author=Tom Philpott |magazine=Mother Jones |access-date=2013-11-24}}</ref><ref name="Ernest Small 2013" />{{rp|176–77}} However, a 2016 study using Peru's Encuesta Nacional de Hogares found that rising quinoa prices during 2004–2013 led to net economic benefits for producers,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bellemare |first1=Marc F. |last2=Fajardo-Gonzalez |first2=Johanna |last3=Gitter |first3=Seth R. |date=2018-12-01 |title=Foods and fads: The welfare impacts of rising quinoa prices in Peru |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X18302419 |journal=World Development |volume=112 |pages=163–179 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.07.012 |s2cid=155556494 |issn=0305-750X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and other commentary indicated similar conclusions,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2013/07/16/202737139/is-our-love-of-quinoa-hurting-or-helping-farmers-who-grow-it |title=Your Love Of Quinoa Is Good News For Andean Farmers |author=Allison Aubrey |date=2013-06-07 |work=NPR |access-date=2013-08-01}}
 </ref> including for women specifically.<ref name="Alexander Kasterine-2016">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2016/jul/17/quinoa-threat-food-security-improving-peruvian-farmers-lives-superfood |title=Quinoa isn't a threat to food security. It's improving Peruvian farmers' lives |newspaper=The Guardian |author=Alexander Kasterine |date=17 July 2016 |access-date=28 July 2018}}</ref> It has also been suggested that as quinoa producers rise above [[Subsistence|subsistence-level income]], they switch their own consumption to [[Processed foods|Western processed foods]] which are often less healthy than a traditional, quinoa-based diet, whether because quinoa is held to be worth too much to keep for oneself and one's family, or because processed foods have higher status despite their poorer [[nutritional value]].<ref name="The Guardian" /><ref name="complicated" /><ref name="Ernest Small 2013" />{{rp|176–77}} Efforts are being made in some areas to distribute quinoa more widely and ensure that farming and poorer populations have access to it and have an understanding of its nutritional importance, including use in free [[School Breakfast Program|school breakfasts]] and [[government provision]]s distributed to pregnant and nursing women in need.<ref name="complicated" />
 In terms of wider social consequences, research on traditional producers in Bolivia has emphasised a complex picture. The degree to which individual producers benefit from the global quinoa boom depends on its [[mode of production]], for example through producer associations and co-operatives such as the Asociación Nacional de Productores de Quinua (founded in the 1970s), contracting through vertically integrated private firms, or wage labor.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Andrew |last=Ofstehage |title=The construction of an alternative quinoa economy: balancing solidarity, household needs, and profit in San Agustín, Bolivia |journal=Agriculture and Human Values |date=2012 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=441–454 |doi=10.1007/s10460-012-9371-0 |s2cid=154918412 |url=https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/record/uuid:efbd39e1-0203-4c99-9ef0-7a1c900fd92d}}</ref> State regulation and enforcement may promote a shift to [[Cash crop|cash-cropping]] among some farmers and a shift toward [[Subsistence agriculture|subsistence production]] among others, while enabling many [[urban refugees]] to return to [[working the land]], outcomes with complex and varied social effects.<ref name="kerss">{{Cite journal |last=Kerssen |first=Tanya M. |date=2015-03-04 |title=Food sovereignty and the quinoa boom: challenges to sustainable re-peasantisation in the southern Altiplano of Bolivia |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01436597.2015.1002992 |journal=Third World Quarterly |language=en |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=489–507 |doi=10.1080/01436597.2015.1002992 |issn=0143-6597|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/14/quinoa-andes-bolivia-peru-crop |title=Quinoa brings riches to the Andes |author=Dan Collyns |date=14 January 2013 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=5 September 2013}}</ref>
-The growth of quinoa consumption outside of its indigenous region has raised concerns over [[food security]] of the indigenous original consumers, unsustainably [[intensive farming]] of the crop, expansion of farming into otherwise marginal agricultural lands with concurrent loss of the natural environment, threatening both the sustainability of producer agriculture and the biodiversity of quinoa.<ref name="Ernest Small 2013">{{cite journal |first=Ernest |last=Small |date=2013 |title=Quinoa – is the United Nations' featured crop of 2013 bad for biodiversity? |journal=Biodiversity |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=169–179 |doi=10.1080/14888386.2013.835551 |bibcode=2013Biodi..14..169S |s2cid=128872124}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=S.-E. |last=Jacobsen |title=The Situation for Quinoa and Its Production in Southern Bolivia: From Economic Success to Environmental Disaster |journal=Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science |volume=197 |issue=5 |date=2011 |pages=390–99 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-037X.2011.00475.x|bibcode=2011JAgCS.197..390J }}</ref><ref name="Alexander Kasterine-2016" /> Studies have found that smallholder traditional farming of quinoa, specifically in the Andean region of Peru has significantly less of an environmental impact in carbon produced, than the modern industrial quinoa production.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gamboa |first1=Cindybell |last2=Bojacá |first2=Carlos Ricardo |last3=Schrevens |first3=Eddie |last4=Maertens |first4=Miet |date=2020-08-10 |title=Sustainability of smallholder quinoa production in the Peruvian Andes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652620317042 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=264 |pages=121657 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121657 |bibcode=2020JCPro.26421657G |hdl=20.500.12010/27477 |issn=0959-6526|url-access=subscription |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
+The growth of quinoa consumption outside of its indigenous region has raised concerns over [[food security]] of the indigenous original consumers, unsustainably [[intensive farming]] of the crop, expansion of farming into otherwise marginal agricultural lands with concurrent loss of the natural environment, threatening both the sustainability of producer agriculture and the biodiversity of quinoa.<ref name="Ernest Small 2013">{{cite journal |first=Ernest |last=Small |date=2013 |title=Quinoa – is the United Nations' featured crop of 2013 bad for biodiversity? |journal=Biodiversity |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=169–179 |doi=10.1080/14888386.2013.835551 |bibcode=2013Biodi..14..169S |s2cid=128872124}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=S.-E. |last=Jacobsen |title=The Situation for Quinoa and Its Production in Southern Bolivia: From Economic Success to Environmental Disaster |journal=Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science |volume=197 |issue=5 |date=2011 |pages=390–99 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-037X.2011.00475.x|bibcode=2011JAgCS.197..390J }}</ref><ref name="Alexander Kasterine-2016" /> Studies have found that smallholder traditional farming of quinoa, specifically in the Andean region of Peru has significantly less of an environmental impact in carbon produced, than the modern industrial quinoa production.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gamboa |first1=Cindybell |last2=Bojacá |first2=Carlos Ricardo |last3=Schrevens |first3=Eddie |last4=Maertens |first4=Miet |date=2020-08-10 |title=Sustainability of smallholder quinoa production in the Peruvian Andes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652620317042 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=264 |article-number=121657 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121657 |bibcode=2020JCPro.26421657G |hdl=20.500.12010/27477 |issn=0959-6526|url-access=subscription |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
 World demand for quinoa is sometimes presented in the media particularly as being caused by rising [[veganism]],<ref name="The Guardian" /> but one academic has commented that despite the drawbacks of quinoa, meat production in most cases is still less sustainable than quinoa.<ref name="Ernest Small 2013" />{{rp|177}}
 ===Monoculture and climate change impacts ===
-[[File:Quinoa diversity, Uyuni, Bolivia.JPG|thumb|Red quinoa field in [[Uyuni]], Bolivia]]
+[[File:Quinoa diversity, Uyuni, Bolivia.JPG|thumb|A red quinoa field in [[Uyuni]], Bolivia]]
-Because of the increasing demand for quinoa, some fields in the Andean regions of Bolivia and Peru have become quinoa monocultures.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Jacobsen |first=S.-E. |date=2011 |title=The Situation for Quinoa and Its Production in Southern Bolivia: From Economic Success to Environmental Disaster |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-037X.2011.00475.x |journal=Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science |language=en |volume=197 |issue=5 |pages=390–399 |bibcode=2011JAgCS.197..390J |doi=10.1111/j.1439-037X.2011.00475.x |issn=1439-037X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=EstradaEtAl2023>{{Cite journal |last1=Estrada |first1=Richard |last2=Cosme |first2=Roberto |last3=Porras |first3=Tatiana |last4=Reynoso |first4=Auristela |last5=Calderon |first5=Constatino |last6=Arbizu |first6=Carlos I. |last7=Arone |first7=Gregorio J. |date=2023-07-28 |title=Changes in Bulk and Rhizosphere Soil Microbial Diversity Communities of Native Quinoa Due to the Monocropping in the Peruvian Central Andes |journal=Microorganisms |language=en |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=1926 |doi=10.3390/microorganisms11081926 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-2607 |pmc=10458079 |pmid=37630486}}</ref> Particularly in the Uyuni salt flats, soil degradation has occurred due to mechanized production and decreased vegetation cover after clearing for quinoa fields.<ref name=":3" /> This degradation has led to poorer quinoa yields and lower environmental health in the region.<ref name=":3" />
+Because of the increasing demand for quinoa, some fields in the Andean regions of Bolivia and Peru have become quinoa monocultures.<ref name="Jacobsen-2011">{{Cite journal |last=Jacobsen |first=S.-E. |date=2011 |title=The Situation for Quinoa and Its Production in Southern Bolivia: From Economic Success to Environmental Disaster |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-037X.2011.00475.x |journal=Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science |language=en |volume=197 |issue=5 |pages=390–399 |bibcode=2011JAgCS.197..390J |doi=10.1111/j.1439-037X.2011.00475.x |issn=1439-037X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=EstradaEtAl2023>{{Cite journal |last1=Estrada |first1=Richard |last2=Cosme |first2=Roberto |last3=Porras |first3=Tatiana |last4=Reynoso |first4=Auristela |last5=Calderon |first5=Constatino |last6=Arbizu |first6=Carlos I. |last7=Arone |first7=Gregorio J. |date=2023-07-28 |title=Changes in Bulk and Rhizosphere Soil Microbial Diversity Communities of Native Quinoa Due to the Monocropping in the Peruvian Central Andes |journal=Microorganisms |language=en |volume=11 |issue=8 |page=1926 |doi=10.3390/microorganisms11081926 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-2607 |pmc=10458079 |pmid=37630486}}</ref> Particularly in the Uyuni salt flats, soil degradation has occurred due to mechanized production and decreased vegetation cover after clearing for quinoa fields.<ref name="Jacobsen-2011" /> This degradation has led to poorer quinoa yields and lower environmental health in the region.<ref name="Jacobsen-2011" />
+Signs of [[desertification]] of the landscape is amplified by the effects of climate change on quinoa fields and the salt flats. Drier and hotter weather negatively affects quinoa production, while also increasing pest populations attacking quinoa<ref name="Jacobsen-2011" /><ref name="Robinson-2021">{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Andy |title=Gold, oil, and avocados: a recent history of Latin America in sixteen commodities |date=2021 |publisher=Melville House |isbn=978-1-61219-935-1 |location=Brooklyn |pages=176–186 |language=English}}</ref> and reducing the nutrient quality of the soil.<ref name="Taaime-2023">{{Cite journal |last1=Taaime |first1=Nawal |last2=Rafik |first2=Sifeddine |last3=El Mejahed |first3=Khalil |last4=Oukarroum |first4=Abdallah |last5=Choukr-Allah |first5=Redouane |last6=Bouabid |first6=Rachid |last7=El Gharous |first7=Mohamed |date=2023-07-05 |title=Worldwide development of agronomic management practices for quinoa cultivation: a systematic review |journal=Frontiers in Agronomy |language=English |volume=5 |article-number=1215441 |doi=10.3389/fagro.2023.1215441 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023FrAgr...515441T |issn=2673-3218}}</ref>
-Signs of [[desertification]] of the landscape is amplified by the effects of climate change on quinoa fields and the salt flats. Drier and hotter weather negatively affects quinoa production, while also increasing pest populations attacking quinoa<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Andy |title=Gold, oil, and avocados: a recent history of Latin America in sixteen commodities |date=2021 |publisher=Melville House |isbn=978-1-61219-935-1 |location=Brooklyn |pages=176–186 |language=English}}</ref> and reducing the nutrient quality of the soil.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Taaime |first1=Nawal |last2=Rafik |first2=Sifeddine |last3=El Mejahed |first3=Khalil |last4=Oukarroum |first4=Abdallah |last5=Choukr-Allah |first5=Redouane |last6=Bouabid |first6=Rachid |last7=El Gharous |first7=Mohamed |date=2023-07-05 |title=Worldwide development of agronomic management practices for quinoa cultivation: a systematic review |journal=Frontiers in Agronomy |language=English |volume=5 |doi=10.3389/fagro.2023.1215441 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023FrAgr...515441T |issn=2673-3218}}</ref>
+Quinoa became a grain of growing interest partially due to its ability to withstand many different climate conditions. Its native Andean region is prone to dry and wet spells, and to cold and hot temperatures.<ref name="Robinson-2021" /> Research shows that quinoa prefers warmer temperatures and alternating irrigation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=A. |last2=Akhtar |first2=S. S. |last3=Amjad |first3=M. |last4=Iqbal |first4=S. |last5=Jacobsen |first5=S.-E. |date=2016 |title=Growth and Physiological Responses of Quinoa to Drought and Temperature Stress |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jac.12167 |journal=Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science |language=en |volume=202 |issue=6 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1111/jac.12167 |bibcode=2016JAgCS.202..445Y |issn=1439-037X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The randomness of weather conditions due to climate change has hindered development of quinoa crops.<ref name="Robinson-2021" />
-Quinoa became a grain of growing interest partially due to its ability to withstand many different climate conditions. Its native Andean region is prone to dry and wet spells, and to cold and hot temperatures.<ref name=":4" /> Research shows that quinoa prefers warmer temperatures and alternating irrigation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=A. |last2=Akhtar |first2=S. S. |last3=Amjad |first3=M. |last4=Iqbal |first4=S. |last5=Jacobsen |first5=S.-E. |date=2016 |title=Growth and Physiological Responses of Quinoa to Drought and Temperature Stress |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jac.12167 |journal=Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science |language=en |volume=202 |issue=6 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1111/jac.12167 |bibcode=2016JAgCS.202..445Y |issn=1439-037X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The randomness of weather conditions due to climate change has hindered development of quinoa crops.<ref name=":4" />
+The quinoa boom and bust cycle led to a periodic increased demand for quinoa which originally resulted in increased production in its native area. However, when other countries recognized the economic benefit of producing quinoa, its cultivation in Europe and the United States increased.<ref name="Andrango-2020" /> Some studies indicate that it may be more productive to grow quinoa in the United States, particularly in [[Washington (state)|Washington State]], and in China rather than in its native regions.<ref name="Taaime-2023" />
-The quinoa boom and bust cycle led to a periodic increased demand for quinoa which originally resulted in increased production in its native area. However, when other countries recognized the economic benefit of producing quinoa, its cultivation in Europe and the United States increased.<ref name=":2" /> Some studies indicate that it may be more productive to grow quinoa in the United States, particularly in [[Washington (state)|Washington State]], and in China rather than in its native regions.<ref name=":5" />
+== Chemistry ==
+[[File:Quinoa size.jpg|thumb|Quinoa seed shown with scale in millimeters]]
+In their natural state, the seeds have a coating that contains bitter-tasting [[saponin]]s, making them [[unpalatable]].<ref name="Lost crops" /><ref name="jarvis" /> Most of the grain sold commercially has been processed to remove this coating. This bitterness has beneficial effects during cultivation, as it deters birds and, therefore, the plant requires minimal protection.<ref name="AlternativeFieldCropsManual" /> The genetic control of bitterness involves quantitative [[heredity|inheritance]].<ref name="jarvis" /> Although lowering the saponin content through [[selective breeding]] to produce sweeter, more palatable varieties is complicated by ≈10% [[cross-pollination]],<ref name="Quinoa saponin">{{cite journal |last1=Masterbroek |first1=H.D. |last2=Limburg |first2=H. |last3=Gilles |first3=T. |last4=Marvin |first4=H.J. |year=2000 |title=Occurrence of sapogenins in leaves and seeds of quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'' Willd.) |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=152–156 |bibcode=2000JSFA...80..152M |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(20000101)80:1<152::AID-JSFA503>3.0.CO;2-P}}</ref> it is a major goal of quinoa [[breeding program]]s, which may include [[genetic engineering]].<ref name="jarvis" />
+The [[toxicity category rating]] of the saponins in quinoa treats them as mild eye and respiratory irritants and as a low gastrointestinal irritant.<ref name="johnson">{{cite web |date=1993 |title=Quinoa |url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1993/v2-222.html#Table%201 |access-date=21 May 2013 |publisher=Department of Horticulture, Purdue University; obtained from Johnson, D.L. and S.M. Ward. 1993. Quinoa. p. 219-221. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York |vauthors=Johnson DL, Ward SM}}</ref><ref name="Biopesticides">{{cite web |year=2009 |title=Biopesticides Registration Action Document: Saponins of ''Chenopodium quinoa'' |url=http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/chem_search/reg_actions/registration/decision_PC-097094_28-Dec-07.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506234755/http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/chem_search/reg_actions/registration/decision_PC-097094_28-Dec-07.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2013 |publisher=Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref> In South America, these saponins have many uses, including as a detergent for clothing and washing, and as a [[folk medicine]] [[antiseptic]] for skin injuries.<ref name="johnson" />
+Additionally, the leaves and stems of all species of the genus ''[[Chenopodium]]'' and related genera of the family [[Amaranthaceae]], including quinoa, contain high levels of [[oxalic acid]].<ref name="oxalic acid quinoa leaves">{{cite journal |last1=Siener |first1=Roswitha |last2=Honow |first2=Ruth |last3=Seidler |first3=Ana |last4=Voss |first4=Susanne |last5=Hesse |first5=Albrecht |year=2006 |title=Oxalate contents of species of the Polygonaceae, Amaranthaceae, and Chenopodiaceae families |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=220–224 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.05.059}}</ref>
+== Uses ==
 {{nutritional value
 | name = Quinoa, uncooked
@@ Line 175: / Line 181: @@
 | vitE_mg = 2.4
 | source_usda = 1
-| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168874/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
+| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/168874/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
 }}
+[[File:Quinoa cuit.JPG|left|thumb|Quinoa is typically cooked by boiling it in water or broth until the grains become tender]]
+The increasing demand for quinoa is partially due to the attention it received as a food that may help alleviate [[Food security|food insecurity]] in some world regions.<ref name="Li-2023">{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Fabiana |date=2023-08-08 |title=Materiality and the politics of seeds in the global expansion of quinoa |journal=Food, Culture & Society |language=en |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=867–885 |doi=10.1080/15528014.2022.2152608 |issn=1552-8014 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Quinoa is high in [[protein (nutrient)|protein]], which makes it a possible alternative to meat for vegetarians and vegans, and for people who are [[Lactose intolerance|lactose intolerant]]. It also has high concentrations of [[mineral (nutrient)|dietary minerals]]. Quinoa does not contain [[gluten]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vega-Gálvez |first1=Antonio |last2=Miranda |first2=Margarita |last3=Vergara |first3=Judith |last4=Uribe |first4=Elsa |last5=Puente |first5=Luis |last6=Martínez |first6=Enrique A |date=2010 |title=Nutrition facts and functional potential of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa willd.), an ancient Andean grain: a review |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jsfa.4158 |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |language=en |volume=90 |issue=15 |pages=2541–2547 |bibcode=2010JSFA...90.2541V |doi=10.1002/jsfa.4158 |pmid=20814881|url-access=subscription |hdl=10533/142976 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Some of these qualities may have improved the market to economically privileged people in North America, possibly increasing the price of quinoa.<ref name="Li-2023" />
-== Chemistry ==
+Quinoa is an important food for the Indigenous people of the Andean [[Altiplano]], especially the [[Aymara people|Aymara]] and [[Quechua people|Quechua]] communities.<ref name="Robinson-2021" /> Historically, it was consumed as a subsistence food, which was devalued by the Spanish when they colonized the region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Skarbø |first=Kristine |date=2015 |title=From Lost Crop to Lucrative Commodity: Conservation Implications of the Quinoa Renaissance |journal=Human Organization |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=86–99 |doi=10.17730/humo.74.1.09276v70638x8q01 |issn=0018-7259 |jstor=44127054}}</ref>
-In their natural state, the seeds have a coating that contains bitter-tasting [[saponin]]s, making them [[unpalatable]].<ref name="Lost crops" /><ref name="jarvis" /> Most of the grain sold commercially has been processed to remove this coating. This bitterness has beneficial effects during cultivation, as it deters birds and, therefore, the plant requires minimal protection.<ref name="AlternativeFieldCropsManual" /> The genetic control of bitterness involves quantitative [[heredity|inheritance]].<ref name="jarvis" /> Although lowering the saponin content through [[selective breeding]] to produce sweeter, more palatable varieties is complicated by ≈10% [[cross-pollination]],<ref name="Quinoa saponin">{{cite journal |last1=Masterbroek |first1=H.D. |last2=Limburg |first2=H. |last3=Gilles |first3=T. |last4=Marvin |first4=H.J. |year=2000 |title=Occurrence of sapogenins in leaves and seeds of quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'' Willd.) |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=152–156 |bibcode=2000JSFA...80..152M |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(20000101)80:1<152::AID-JSFA503>3.0.CO;2-P}}</ref> it is a major goal of quinoa [[breeding program]]s, which may include [[genetic engineering]].<ref name="jarvis" />
-The [[toxicity category rating]] of the saponins in quinoa treats them as mild eye and respiratory irritants and as a low gastrointestinal irritant.<ref name="johnson">{{cite web |date=1993 |title=Quinoa |url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1993/v2-222.html#Table%201 |access-date=21 May 2013 |publisher=Department of Horticulture, Purdue University; obtained from Johnson, D.L. and S.M. Ward. 1993. Quinoa. p. 219-221. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York |vauthors=Johnson DL, Ward SM}}</ref><ref name="Biopesticides">{{cite web |year=2009 |title=Biopesticides Registration Action Document: Saponins of ''Chenopodium quinoa'' |url=http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/chem_search/reg_actions/registration/decision_PC-097094_28-Dec-07.pdf |publisher=Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref> In South America, these saponins have many uses, including as a detergent for clothing and washing, and as a [[folk medicine]] [[antiseptic]] for skin injuries.<ref name="johnson" />
-Additionally, the leaves and stems of all species of the genus ''[[Chenopodium]]'' and related genera of the family [[Amaranthaceae]], including quinoa, contain high levels of [[oxalic acid]].<ref name="oxalic acid quinoa leaves">{{cite journal |last1=Siener |first1=Roswitha |last2=Honow |first2=Ruth |last3=Seidler |first3=Ana |last4=Voss |first4=Susanne |last5=Hesse |first5=Albrecht |year=2006 |title=Oxalate contents of species of the Polygonaceae, Amaranthaceae, and Chenopodiaceae families |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=220–224 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.05.059}}</ref>
-== Uses ==
-The increasing demand for quinoa is partially due to the attention it received as a food that may help alleviate [[Food security|food insecurity]] in some world regions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Fabiana |date=2023-08-08 |title=Materiality and the politics of seeds in the global expansion of quinoa |journal=Food, Culture & Society |language=en |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=867–885 |doi=10.1080/15528014.2022.2152608 |issn=1552-8014 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Quinoa is high in [[protein (nutrient)|protein]], which makes it a possible alternative to meat for vegetarians and vegans, and for people who are [[Lactose intolerance|lactose intolerant]]. It also has high concentrations of [[mineral (nutrient)|dietary minerals]]. Quinoa does not contain [[gluten]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vega-Gálvez |first1=Antonio |last2=Miranda |first2=Margarita |last3=Vergara |first3=Judith |last4=Uribe |first4=Elsa |last5=Puente |first5=Luis |last6=Martínez |first6=Enrique A |date=2010 |title=Nutrition facts and functional potential of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa willd.), an ancient Andean grain: a review |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jsfa.4158 |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |language=en |volume=90 |issue=15 |pages=2541–2547 |bibcode=2010JSFA...90.2541V |doi=10.1002/jsfa.4158 |pmid=20814881|url-access=subscription |hdl=10533/142976 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Some of these qualities may have improved the market to economically privileged people in North America, possibly increasing the price of quinoa.<ref name=":0" />
-Quinoa is an important food for the Indigenous people of the Andean [[Altiplano]], especially the [[Aymara people|Aymara]] and [[Quechua people|Quechua]] communities.<ref name=":4" /> Historically, it was consumed as a subsistence food, which was devalued by the Spanish when they colonized the region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Skarbø |first=Kristine |date=2015 |title=From Lost Crop to Lucrative Commodity: Conservation Implications of the Quinoa Renaissance |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44127054 |journal=Human Organization |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=86–99 |doi=10.17730/humo.74.1.09276v70638x8q01 |issn=0018-7259 |jstor=44127054|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The Spanish noticed that quinoa was consumed everyday and as a part of special ceremonies, so they decided it could grant power to people and threatened their conquest. Because of this they targeted it for extinction and significantly reduced the range where quinoa was grown.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Andrews |first=Deborah |date=2017 |title=Race, Status, and Biodiversity: The Social Climbing of Quinoa |url=https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cuag.12084 |journal=Culture, Agriculture, Food and Environment |language=en |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |doi=10.1111/cuag.12084 |issn=2153-9553|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
 For the Indigenous communities, growing quinoa represented food security and well-being, and it was involved in almost every meal of the day.<ref name="kerss" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Guiliani |first1=Alessandra |last2=Hintermann |first2=Felix |last3=Rojas |first3=Wilfredo |last4=Padulosi |first4=Stefano |date=December 2012 |title=Biodiversity of andean grains: Balancing market potential and sustainable livelihoods |journal=Bioversity International and the Bern University of Applied Sciences, School of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences (HAFL)}}</ref>
@@ Line 223: / Line 221: @@
 | vitE_mg = 0.63
 | source_usda = 1
-| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168917/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
+| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/168917/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
 }}
-Raw, uncooked quinoa is 13% water, 64% [[carbohydrates]], 14% [[protein]], and 6% [[fat]]. Nutritional evaluations indicate that a {{cvt|100|g|oz|abbr=off|frac=2|adj=on}} serving of raw quinoa seeds has a [[food energy]] of {{cvt|1,539|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} and is a rich source (20% or higher of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of protein, [[dietary fiber]], several [[B vitamins]], including 46%{{nbsp}}DV for [[folate]], and for several [[dietary minerals]] such as [[Magnesium in biological systems|magnesium]] (55%{{nbsp}}DV), [[manganese]] (95%{{nbsp}}DV), [[phosphorus]] (65%{{nbsp}}DV), and [[zinc]] (33%{{nbsp}}DV).
+Raw, uncooked quinoa is 13% water, 64% [[carbohydrates]], 14% [[protein (nutrient)|protein]], and 6% [[fat]]. Nutritional evaluations indicate that a {{cvt|100|g|oz|abbr=off|frac=2|adj=on}} serving of raw quinoa seeds has a [[food energy]] of {{cvt|1,539|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} and is a rich source (20% or higher of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of protein, [[dietary fiber]], several [[B vitamins]], including 46%{{nbsp}}DV for [[folate]], and for several [[dietary minerals]] such as [[Magnesium in biological systems|magnesium]] (55%{{nbsp}}DV), [[Manganese in biology|manganese]] (95%{{nbsp}}DV), [[phosphorus in biology|phosphorus]] (65%{{nbsp}}DV), and [[zinc in biology|zinc]] (33%{{nbsp}}DV).
-After boiling, which is the typical preparation for eating the seeds, many nutritional evaluations change. Although a {{cvt|100|g|oz|frac=2}} serving of cooked quinoa increases to 72% water, most nutritional evaluations are reduced, such as, 21% carbohydrates, 4% protein, and 2% fat,<ref name="johnson" /> and the food energy of cooked quinoa is reduced to {{cvt|503|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}}. Although similarly reduced, cooked quinoa remains a rich source of the dietary minerals manganese (30%{{nbsp}}DV) and phosphorus (22%{{nbsp}}DV). However, cooked quinoa is reduced to being just a moderate source (10–19%{{nbsp}}DV) of dietary fiber and folate (11%), as well as of the dietary minerals iron (11%), magnesium (18%), and zinc (11%).
+After boiling, which is the typical preparation for eating the seeds, many nutritional evaluations change. Although a {{cvt|100|g|oz|frac=2}} serving of cooked quinoa increases to 72% water, most nutritional evaluations are reduced, such as, 21% carbohydrates, 4% protein, and 2% fat,<ref name="johnson" /> and the food energy of cooked quinoa is reduced to {{cvt|503|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}}. Although similarly reduced, cooked quinoa remains a rich source of the dietary minerals manganese (30%{{nbsp}}DV) and phosphorus (22%{{nbsp}}DV). However, cooked quinoa is reduced to being a moderate source (10–19%{{nbsp}}DV) of dietary fiber and folate (11%), as well as of the dietary minerals iron (11%), magnesium (18%), and zinc (11%).
-Quinoa is [[gluten-free]].<ref name="FAOquinoaancientcrop" /> Because quinoa has a high concentration of [[protein (nutrient)|protein]] and is a good source of many [[micronutrient]]s, has versatility in preparation, and a potential for increased yields in controlled environments,<ref name="AbugochJames2009">{{cite journal |last=Abugoch |first=James L. E. |year=2009 |title=Quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'' Willd.): Composition, chemistry, nutritional, and functional properties |journal=Advances in Food and Nutrition Research |type=review |volume=58 |pages=1–31 |doi=10.1016/S1043-4526(09)58001-1 |isbn=9780123744418 |pmid=19878856}}</ref> it has been selected as an experimental crop in [[NASA]]'s [[Controlled Ecological Life Support System]] for long-duration human occupied [[space flight]]s.<ref name="NASA">{{cite web |author1=Greg Schlick |author2=David L. Bubenheim |date=November 1993 |title=Quinoa: An Emerging "New" Crop with Potential for CELSS |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19940015664_1994015664.pdf |work=NASA Technical Paper 3422 |publisher=NASA}}</ref>
+Quinoa is [[gluten-free]].<ref name="FAOquinoaancientcrop" /> Because quinoa has a high concentration of [[protein (nutrient)|protein]] and is a good source of many [[micronutrient]]s, has versatility in preparation, and a potential for increased yields in controlled environments,<ref name="AbugochJames2009">{{cite journal |last=Abugoch |first=James L. E. |year=2009 |title=Quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'' Willd.): Composition, chemistry, nutritional, and functional properties |journal=Advances in Food and Nutrition Research |type=review |volume=58 |pages=1–31 |doi=10.1016/S1043-4526(09)58001-1 |isbn=978-0-12-374441-8 |pmid=19878856}}</ref> it has been selected as an experimental crop in [[NASA]]'s [[Controlled Ecological Life Support System]] for long-duration human occupied [[space flight]]s.<ref name="NASA">{{cite web |author1=Greg Schlick |author2=David L. Bubenheim |date=November 1993 |title=Quinoa: An Emerging "New" Crop with Potential for CELSS |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19940015664_1994015664.pdf |work=NASA Technical Paper 3422 |publisher=NASA}}</ref>
 == In culture ==
 ===United Nations recognition===
-[[File:Official Logo for the International Year of Quinoa.jpg|150px|right|Logo of the International Year of Quinoa, 2013]]
+The [[United Nations General Assembly]] declared 2013 as the "{{visible anchor|International Year of Quinoa}}",<ref name="UN Resolution 66/221. International Year of Quinoa, 2013">{{cite book |url=http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N11/472/08/PDF/N1147208.pdf?OpenElement |format=PDF |title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly |author=United Nations |year=2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530160211/http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N11/472/08/PDF/N1147208.pdf?OpenElement |archive-date=2013-05-30}}</ref><ref name="International Year of Quinoa, 2013">{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/quinoa-2013/ |title=International Year of Quinoa |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2013 |archive-date=6 December 2018 |access-date=5 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206003642/http://www.fao.org/quinoa-2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/events/observances/years.shtml |title=International Years |publisher=United Nations |access-date=9 June 2012}}</ref> in recognition of the ancestral practices of the [[Andean]] people, who have preserved it as a food for present and future generations, through knowledge and practices of living in harmony with nature. The objective was to draw the world's attention to the role that quinoa could play in providing [[food security]], [[nutrition]] and [[poverty]] eradication in support of achieving [[Millennium Development Goals]]. Some academic commentary emphasized that quinoa production could have ecological and social drawbacks in its native regions, and that these problems needed to be tackled.<ref name="Ernest Small 2013" />
-The [[United Nations General Assembly]] declared 2013 as the "{{visible anchor|International Year of Quinoa}}",<ref name="UN Resolution 66/221. International Year of Quinoa, 2013">{{cite book |url=http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N11/472/08/PDF/N1147208.pdf?OpenElement |format=PDF |title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly |author=United Nations |year=2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530160211/http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N11/472/08/PDF/N1147208.pdf?OpenElement |archive-date=2013-05-30}}</ref><ref name="International Year of Quinoa, 2013">{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/quinoa-2013/ |title=International Year of Quinoa |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/events/observances/years.shtml |title=International Years |publisher=United Nations |access-date=9 June 2012}}</ref> in recognition of the ancestral practices of the [[Andean]] people, who have preserved it as a food for present and future generations, through knowledge and practices of living in harmony with nature. The objective was to draw the world's attention to the role that quinoa could play in providing [[food security]], [[nutrition]] and [[poverty]] eradication in support of achieving [[Millennium Development Goals]]. Some academic commentary emphasized that quinoa production could have ecological and social drawbacks in its native regions, and that these problems needed to be tackled.<ref name="Ernest Small 2013" />
 ===Kosher certification===
-Quinoa is used in the Jewish community as a substitute for the [[Chametz|leavened grains]] that are forbidden during the [[Passover]] holiday.<ref>{{Cite web |title=04. Prohibited Species – Peninei Halakha |url=https://ph.yhb.org.il/en/04-09-04/ |access-date=2024-04-04 |language=en-US}}</ref> Several [[kosher]] certification organizations refuse to certify it as being kosher for Passover, citing reasons including its resemblance to prohibited grains or fear of cross-contamination of the product from nearby fields of prohibited grain or during packaging.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://life.nationalpost.com/2013/03/25/jews-divided-by-great-passover-debate-is-quinoa-kosher/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130411105834/http://life.nationalpost.com/2013/03/25/jews-divided-by-great-passover-debate-is-quinoa-kosher/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 11, 2013 |title=Jews divided by great Passover debate: Is quinoa kosher? |author=Hopper, Tristin |date=March 25, 2013 |work=[[National Post]] |access-date=2013-11-24}}</ref> However, in December 2013 the [[Orthodox Union]], the world's largest [[kosher certification agency]], announced it would begin certifying quinoa as kosher for Passover.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.forward.com/the-jew-and-the-carrot/189844/quinoa-ruled-kosher-for-passover/ |author=Nemes, Hody |date=December 23, 2013 |title=Quinoa Ruled Kosher for Passover |publisher=Forward |access-date=2014-02-07 |archive-date=26 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326000801/http://blogs.forward.com/the-jew-and-the-carrot/189844/quinoa-ruled-kosher-for-passover/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>
+Quinoa is used in the Jewish community as a substitute for the [[Chametz|leavened grains]] that are forbidden during the [[Passover]] holiday.<ref>{{Cite web |title=04. Prohibited Species – Peninei Halakha |date=4 March 2011 |url=https://ph.yhb.org.il/en/04-09-04/ |access-date=2024-04-04 |language=en-US}}</ref> Several [[kosher]] certification organizations refuse to certify it as being kosher for Passover, citing reasons including its resemblance to prohibited grains or fear of cross-contamination of the product from nearby fields of prohibited grain or during packaging.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nationalpost.com/holy-post/jews-divided-by-great-passover-debate-is-quinoa-kosher |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130411105834/http://life.nationalpost.com/2013/03/25/jews-divided-by-great-passover-debate-is-quinoa-kosher/ |archive-date=April 11, 2013 |title=Jews divided by great Passover debate: Is quinoa kosher? |author=Hopper, Tristin |date=March 25, 2013 |work=[[National Post]] |url-status=live |access-date=2013-11-24}}</ref> However, in December 2013 the [[Orthodox Union]], the world's largest [[kosher certification agency]], announced it would begin certifying quinoa as kosher for Passover.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.forward.com/the-jew-and-the-carrot/189844/quinoa-ruled-kosher-for-passover/ |author=Nemes, Hody |date=December 23, 2013 |title=Quinoa Ruled Kosher for Passover |publisher=Forward |access-date=2014-02-07 |archive-date=26 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326000801/http://blogs.forward.com/the-jew-and-the-carrot/189844/quinoa-ruled-kosher-for-passover/ }}</ref>
 == Gallery ==
 <gallery>
-File:Quinoa size.jpg|alt=Profile of Quinoa Seed on Millimeter Ruler|Quinoa size in millimeters
+File:Dev black seed in quinoa flower.JPG|Developing black quinoa seed
-File:Dev_black_seed_in_quinoa_flower.JPG|Developing black quinoa seed
+File:Quinoa flower.JPG|Quinoa flower
 File:Quinoa.jpg|Quinoa seeds
-File:Chenopodium quinoa before flowering.jpg|Quinoa plant before flowering
-File:Quinoa_flower.JPG|Quinoa flower
-File:Camino a Puno Golpeando quinoa.JPG|Threshing quinoa in Peru
-File:Chenopodium quinoa0.jpg|Quinoa plant in Bolivia
 File:White, red, and black quinoa.jpg|White, red, and black quinoa mix
 </gallery>
@@ Line 260: / Line 253: @@
 ==References==
 {{reflist}}
-==Further reading==
-*{{cite journal |last=Bixio |first=Jacques-Alexandre |date=1839 |title=Journal d'agriculture pratique et de jardinage |trans-title=Journal of Practical Agriculture and Gardening |location=Paris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s1ZTAAAAcAAJ |journal=Journal d'agriculture pratique |language=fr |publisher=Maison Rustique |volume=3 |issue=19 |page=42}}
-*{{cite magazine |last=Bunney |first=Sarah |date=1984-11-15 |title=When goosefoots stepped into the New World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=siZ1j_5wdqwC |magazine=[[New Scientist]] |publisher=[[RELX|Reed Business Information]] |volume=104 |issue=1430 |page=24 |issn=0028-6664}}
-*{{cite magazine |last=Goeze |first=Edmund |date=1886 |title=Hamburger Garten- und Blumenzeitung |trans-title=Hamburg's garden and flower newspaper |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=erMCAAAAYAAJ |magazine=Neue allgemeine deutsche Garten- und Blumenzeitung |language=de |edition=42 |publisher=Robert Kittler |publication-place=Hamburg |pages=260–62}}
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-*{{cite journal |last1=Pulvento |first1=C |last2=Riccardi |first2=M |last3=Lavini |first3=A |last4=d'Andria |first4=R |last5=Iafelice |first5=G |last6=Marconi |first6=E |title=Field trial evaluation of two ''Chenopodium quinoa'' genotypes grown under rain-fed conditions in a typical Mediterranean environment in south Italy |journal=Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science |volume=196 |issue=6 |pages=407–411 |year=2010 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-037X.2010.00431.x|bibcode=2010JAgCS.196..407P }}
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-*{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/20/world/americas/20bolivia.html |title=Quinoa's global success creates quandary at home |last1=Romero |first1=Simon |author1-link=Simon Romero |last2=Shahriari |first2=Sara |date=March 19, 2011 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=July 22, 2012}}
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-*{{cite journal |last1=Geerts |first1=S. |last2=Raes |first2=D. |last3=Garcia |first3=M. |last4=Mendoza |first4=J. |last5=Huanca |first5=R. |year=2008 |title=Indicators to quantify the flexible phenology of quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'' <small>Willd.</small>) in response to drought stress |journal=Field Crop. Res. |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=150–156 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2008.04.008 |url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/199413|url-access=subscription }}
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-*Linda J. Seligmann. ''Quinoa: Food Politics and Agrarian Life in the Andean Highlands.'' Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2023. 222 pages. {{ISBN|0252044797}}
 ==Bibliography==
 <!-- The entries in the bibliography are in alphabetical order. Comments show names of named references -->
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 {{refend}}

Quinoa: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 04:32, 30 October 2025

Description

Taxonomy

Etymology

Distribution

Cultivation

Climate requirements

United States

Europe

Sowing

Soil

Genetics

Harvesting

Processing

Production

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Effects of rising demand on growers

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Chemistry

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In culture

United Nations recognition

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