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   |produced = 1936–1940<ref name="Flying Empires"/>
   |produced = 1936–1940<ref name="Flying Empires"/>
   |number_built = 42<ref name="Flying Empires"/>
   |number_built = 42<ref name="Flying Empires"/>
  |unit cost = £48,830<ref name="Flying Empires"/>
   |developed_from = <!-- the aircraft which formed the basis for the topic type -->
   |developed_from = <!-- the aircraft which formed the basis for the topic type -->
   |variants = [[Short Mayo Composite]]
   |variants = [[Short Mayo Composite]]
}}
}}


The '''Short Empire''' was a medium-range four-engined [[monoplane]] [[flying boat]], designed and developed by [[Short Brothers]] during the 1930s to meet the requirements of the growing commercial airline sector, with a particular emphasis upon its usefulness upon the core routes that served the [[United Kingdom]]. It was developed and manufactured in parallel with the [[Short Sunderland]] maritime patrol bomber, which went on to serve in the [[World War II|Second World War]]; a further derivative that was later developed was the [[Piggyback (transportation)|piggy-back]] [[Short Mayo Composite]].
The '''Short Empire''' was a four-engined [[monoplane]] transport [[flying boat]], designed and developed by [[Short Brothers]] during the 1930s to meet the requirements of the [[British Empire]], specifically to provide air service from the UK to South Africa, Singapore and Australia in stages. It was developed in parallel with the [[Short Sunderland]] maritime patrol bomber, which served in the [[World War II|Second World War]] along with the [[Piggyback (transportation)|piggy-back]] [[Short Mayo Composite]].


The development of the Short Empire had been heavily influenced by its primary customer, [[Imperial Airways]], which had originally developed the requirements to which it was initially ordered and designed. Imperial Airways, and its successor, the [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] (BOAC), along with [[Qantas]] and [[Tasman Empire Airways Limited|TEAL]], operated the type in commercial service. Upon entering service, the Empire routinely flew between the British mainland and [[Australia]] and the various British colonies in [[Africa]] and [[Asia]], typically carrying a combination of passenger and mail cargoes; Empires were also used on various other routes, such as between [[Bermuda]] and [[New York City]].
[[Imperial Airways]], as the primary customer, developed the requirements to which it was ordered and designed. Imperial Airways, and its successor, the [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] (BOAC), along with [[Qantas]] and [[Tasman Empire Airways Limited|TEAL]], operated the type in commercial service. The Empire routinely flew between the British mainland and [[Australia]] and the various British colonies in [[Africa]] and [[Asia]], typically carrying a combination of passengers and mail. The Empires were also used between [[Bermuda]] and [[New York City]].


The Empire also saw military service during the Second World War. The [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF), [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF), [[Royal New Zealand Air Force]] (RNZAF), and briefly the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] (RCAF) used the type to conduct various military operations, particularly as an airborne platform for anti-submarine patrols and for general transport duties.
The Empire saw commercial and military service during the Second World War, for anti-submarine patrols and as a transport. The [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF), [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF), and [[Royal New Zealand Air Force]] (RNZAF) used the type.


==Development==
==Development==
===Origins===
===Origins===
During the 1930s, global demand for air travel was consistently and rapidly growing. Thus, keen to grow its share of this emerging market, British airline [[Imperial Airways]] was keen to expand and sought the latest technology to do so. In particular, Imperial Airways' technical adviser, Major Robert Hobart Mayo developed a specification for a new type of aircraft to serve both passenger and freight requirements throughout the world.<ref name = "norris 3">Norris 1966, p. 3.</ref> This specification sought an aircraft that would be capable of carrying up to 24 passengers in spacious comfort along with adequate room for [[airmail]] or freight while simultaneously being capable of a [[cruising speed]] of {{convert|170|mph|km/h}} and a range of at least {{convert|700|mi|km}}; the capacity for an extended range of {{convert|2000|mi|km}} to serve the North [[Atlantic]] route was also stipulated.<ref name = "norris 3"/> At the time, it was not considered possible to construct a land-based aeroplane of such size and weight which would have acceptable landing/take-off performance; thus it was determined that a flying boat would be required.<ref name = "norris 3"/>
During the 1930s, demand for air travel was rapidly growing. The British national flag airline [[Imperial Airways]] sought to fully expand air service across the British Empire. Imperial Airways' technical adviser, planned a specification for a new type of aircraft to serve passenger and freight requirements throughout the world.<ref name = "norris 3">Norris 1966, p. 3.</ref> This required an aircraft to carry 24 passengers in comfort, as well as [[airmail]] or freight while having a [[cruising speed]] of {{cvt|170|mph}}, a normal range of at least {{cvt|700|mi|km}} and the capability for an extended range of {{cvt|2000|mi|km}} to cross the North [[Atlantic]].<ref name = "norris 3"/> At the time, and for various reasons, including technical and operational, it was determined that a flying boat would be required.<ref name = "norris 3"/>


Early on, it was apparent that Short Brothers, who had previously developed and produced several satisfactory large flying boats for Imperial Airways and the [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF), would be a frontrunner to fulfil the requirement.<ref name = "norris 3"/> However, Shorts was hesitant to build such an aircraft straight from the drawing board without the production of a preceding prototype, and thus requested to be allowed to build such an aircraft; this was rejected by Imperial Airways, who stated that such a delay was not permissible.<ref name = "norris 3"/> In 1935, Imperial Airways announced the placement of an order for 28 flying boats of an as-of-yet undesigned type, weighing 18 tonnes each; the order was reportedly hailed as being "one of the world's boldest experiments in aviation", while sceptics referred to the decision as being a gamble.<ref name = "norris 3"/>
Short Brothers had previously developed successful large flying boats for Imperial Airways and the [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF), and was the frontrunner to fulfil the requirement.<ref name = "norris 3"/> Shorts was reluctant to build straight from the drawing board without a prototype, however this was rejected by Imperial Airways, which was desperate to replace obsolete types then in service that were unable to provide the full service needed.<ref name = "norris 3"/> In 1935, Imperial Airways announced an order for 28 flying boats of an as-of-yet undesigned type, weighing 18 tonnes each. The order was claimed by the British press as being "one of the world's boldest experiments in aviation".<ref name = "norris 3"/>


A design team led by Arthur Gouge set about designing what would become the Empire. It was quickly determined that, in order to have sufficient clearance between the tips of the [[propeller]]s and the water, the wing would need to be in a high mounted position; initially to be housed in a hump above the fuselage for sufficient height, the fuselage depth was instead increased, providing more internal volume than required but enabling a lighter and stronger integration of the [[cantilever]] wing with the fuselage.<ref name = "norris 3"/> Shorts' own convention for wide planing bottomed hulls for its flying boats was overturned as the 18-tonne weight would generate excessive drag with such a configuration; following a series of water tank experiments, a new type of planing bottom with a reduced [[Beam (nautical)|beam]] deemed suitable.<ref name = "norris 3"/> The basic aerodynamic design was derived from the smaller [[Short Scion Senior]] floatplane, which served in all but name as a half-scale prototype for the Empire and for its sibling, the military-orientated [[Short Sunderland]].<ref name = "norris 3 4">Norris 1966, pp. 3–4.</ref>
A design team led by Arthur Gouge created the Empire. To have adequate clearance between the [[propeller]]s and the water, the wing needed to be as high as feasible and was initially to be attached to a hump above the fuselage as on the [[Martin M-130]], but the fuselage height was instead increased, providing more internal volume than required but enabling a lighter and stronger integration of the [[cantilever]] wing to the fuselage.<ref name = "norris 3"/>


At the time of development, the British aircraft industry had never attempted to construct an aeroplane of this size and complexity before; accordingly, many new techniques were devised to overcome problems encountered, particularly during its construction process.<ref name = "norris 4">Norris 1966, p. 4.</ref> Shorts had to develop its own machinery to produce the necessary T-shaped [[Hiduminium]] [[alloy]] lengths that comprised the main [[Spar (aeronautics)|spar]].<ref name = "norris 4"/> A specialised and patented [[Flap (aeronautics)|flap]] arrangement, known as [[Gouge flap]]s after their creator, was employed on the Empire to increase wing area with only a small increase in drag and without heavy disrupting airflow over the top of the [[airfoil|aerofoil]]; in operation, the lift coefficient of the wing could be increased by 30 percent, reducing the landing speed by 12 per cent, without employing any [[Trim tab|trimming]] to adjust.<ref name = "norris 3"/>
Following water tank experiments, a simplified-vee planing bottom with a much higher length to [[Beam (nautical)|beam]] ratio than was common at the time was chosen.<ref name = "norris 3"/> The aerodynamic and hydrodynamic properties were tested on the smaller [[Short Scion Senior]] floatplane, which served as a half-scale prototype for the Empire and its sibling, the military's [[Short Sunderland]].<ref name = "norris 3 4">Norris 1966, pp. 3–4.</ref>
 
Shorts developed its own machinery to produce the necessary T-shaped [[Hiduminium]] [[alloy]] lengths that comprised the main [[Spar (aeronautics)|spar]].<ref name = "norris 4">Norris 1966, p. 4.</ref> A specialised and patented [[Flap (aeronautics)|flap]], known as [[Gouge flap]]s after its creator, caused only a small increase in drag, while the wing's lift coefficient was increased by 30 percent, the landing speed reduced by 12 per cent, and no [[Trim tab|trim]] changes were needed.<ref name = "norris 3"/>


===Initial production===
===Initial production===
[[File:Airplane. Captain Wilcockson Signs Autograph BAnQ P48S1P01041.jpg|thumb|Captain Arthur Wilcockson, who was in charge of the notable flight of the flying boat ''Caledonia'' from Ireland to Canada, signs an [[autograph]], 8 July 1937]]
On 4 July 1936, the first Empire built, registered G-ADHL, named ''Canopus'', made its first flight with Shorts' chief test pilot, [[John Lankester Parker]] at the controls.<ref name = "norris 6 7">Norris 1966, pp. 6–7.</ref> Early flights were relatively trouble-free, and Parker was satisfied with its performance and handling.<ref name = "norris 6 7">Norris 1966, pp. 6–7.</ref> On 17 September 1936, G-ADHL first flew for Imperial Airways, with the final proving flight to [[Marseille]], France took place on 22 October 1936.<ref name = "norris 7">Norris 1966, p. 7.</ref> The first series of the Short Empires, the ''S.23'', could carry five crew, 17 passengers, and {{cvt|4480|lb}} of cargo at a maximum speed of {{cvt|174|kn|km/h mph}} and was powered by four {{cvt|920|hp}} [[Bristol Pegasus]] Xc [[radial engine]]s.<ref>THE AEROPLANE 28 October 1936</ref>
On 4 July 1936, the first Empire flying boat to be built, G-ADHL, named ''Canopus'', conducted its [[maiden flight]], flown by Shorts' chief test pilot, [[John Lankester Parker]].<ref name = "norris 6 7">Norris 1966, pp. 6–7.</ref> Early flights of the type were relatively trouble-free, Parker declaring his satisfaction with the aircraft's performance; the new styling of the planing bottom used also quickly proved its value.<ref name = "norris 6 7">Norris 1966, pp. 6–7.</ref> On 17 September 1936, G-ADHL first flew on behalf of Imperial Airways, piloted by Major H G Brackley, Imperial Airways' air superintendent; the final delivery and proving flight of the aircraft to [[Marseille]], France took place on 22 October 1936.<ref name = "norris 7">Norris 1966, p. 7.</ref> The first series of the Short Empires, the ''S.23'', could carry five crew, 17 passengers, and 4,480&nbsp;lb (2,035&nbsp;kg) of cargo at a maximum speed of 174 knots (320&nbsp;km/h) and was powered by four {{Convert|920|hp|kW}} [[Bristol Pegasus]] Xc [[radial engine]]s.<ref>THE AEROPLANE 28 October 1936</ref>


The second Empire and the first of the long-range models to be produced, G-ADHM, named ''Caledonia'', performed her first flight on 15 September 1936 and was delivered to Imperial Airways on 4 December 1936.<ref name = "norris 7"/> From September 1936 onwards, the Empire was produced at a rate of one aircraft per month; typically, each aircraft's delivery date occurred only a few days after having performed its maiden flight, the hand-over sometimes happened immediately following the first flight.<ref name = "norris 7"/> The Empire was officially known as the C-class by Imperial Airways and each aircraft operated by them was given a name beginning with a C.
The second Empire and the first of the long-range models, registered G-ADHM, named ''Caledonia'', made its first flight on 15 September 1936 and was delivered to Imperial Airways on 4 December 1936.<ref name = "norris 7"/> From September 1936 onwards, one aircraft was produced per month and typically each aircraft's delivery occurring right after its first flight.<ref name = "norris 7"/> The Empire was officially known as the C-class by Imperial Airways and each aircraft operated by them was given a name beginning with the letter C.


On 26 February 1938, the final three Empires of the initial order placed by Imperial Airways – ''[[Coorong, South Australia|Coorong]]'', ''[[Coogee, New South Wales|Coogee]]'' and ''[[Corio, Victoria|Corio]]'' – were diverted from the Imperial Airways order and were delivered instead to the Anglo-Australian [[Qantas Empire Airways]].<ref name = "norris 7 10">Norris 1966, pp. 7–10.</ref> In late 1937, due to Imperial Airways' satisfaction with its operational experience with the aircraft of the initial batch, the company placed a follow-on order for another 11 Empires; combined with the original order of 28 this had the distinction of being the largest single order to have ever been placed for a British civil aircraft at that time.<ref name = "norris 10 11">Norris 1966, pp. 10–11.</ref> While the first three aircraft of the additional order were of the typical S.23 class, intended for Qantas Empire Airways, the rest were manufactured to a differing design, designated as the ''S.30''.<ref name = "norris 11">Norris 1966, p. 11.</ref> A total of 42 Empires were built, all at Short's [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] factory.
On 26 February 1938, the final three Empires of the initial order placed by Imperial Airways – ''[[Coorong, South Australia|Coorong]]'', ''[[Coogee, New South Wales|Coogee]]'' and ''[[Corio, Victoria|Corio]]'' were diverted from Imperial Airways and delivered to the Anglo-Australian [[Qantas Empire Airways]].<ref name = "norris 7 10">Norris 1966, pp. 7–10.</ref> In late 1937, Imperial Airways placed a follow-on order for another 11 Empires. When combined with the original order of 28, this had the distinction of being the largest order by a single customer placed for a British civil aircraft at that time.<ref name = "norris 10 11">Norris 1966, pp. 10–11.</ref> While the first three aircraft of the additional order were of the typical S.23 class, intended for Qantas Empire Airways, the rest had a number of detail changes and were designated the ''S.30''.<ref name = "norris 11">Norris 1966, p. 11.</ref> Short's [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] factory produced all 43 Empires built.


===Further development===
===Further development===
The ''S.30'' series was outfitted with four [[Bristol Perseus|Bristol Perseus XIIc]] [[sleeve valve]] engines in the place of the Pegasus engines; the Perseus engines were more efficient but provided a lower power output of {{Convert|890|hp|kW}}, but the decrease in developed thrust was effectively compensated for via the adoption of smaller diameter nacelles which had resulted in a substantial reduction in drag.<ref name = "norris 11"/> It also had a strengthened airframe and used heavier gauge sheeting on the fuselage and wings; while these changes allowed the takeoff weight to be increased to {{Convert|46000|lb|kg}} with a corresponding range of {{Convert|1500|mi|km}}, the S.30 had broadly the same performance as the preceding S.23 flying boats.<ref name = "norris 11"/>
The ''S.30'' series was fitted with four [[Bristol Perseus|Bristol Perseus XIIc]] [[sleeve valve]] engines in the place of the Pegasus engines. the {{cvt|890|hp}} Perseus engines were each {{cvt|85|lbs}} lighter and 17.3% more fuel efficient, but developed less power.<ref name = "norris 11"/> The airframe was strengthened, mainly by using heavier gauge sheeting on the fuselage and wings. The maximum takeoff weight increased to {{cvt|46000|lb}} with a corresponding range of {{cvt|1500|mi}}, the S.30 had a similar performance to the preceding S.23s.<ref name = "norris 11"/>


The first of the S.30 flying boats to be laid out and completed was G-AFCT, named ''Champion''.<ref name="norris 11" /> In December 1938, the second S.30 aircraft G-AFCU, named ''Cabot'' became the first aircraft of the series to conduct the first successful takeoff. The last three aircraft of this order – ''Captain Cook'', ''Clare'' and ''Aotearoa'' – were renamed and re-registered for use by [[Tasman Empire Airways Limited|TEAL]].<ref name = "norris 11"/> In 1939, a final S.30 flying boat, G-AFKZ, was ordered and delivered to Imperial Airways in late March 1940.<ref name = "norris 11"/>
The first of the S.30 flying boats was registered G-AFCT and named ''Champion''.<ref name="norris 11" /> In December 1938, the second S.30 aircraft registered G-AFCU, named ''Cabot'' became the first of the revised series to fly. The last three aircraft of this order, initially named ''Captain Cook'', ''Clare'' and ''Aotearoa'', were renamed and re-registered for use by [[Tasman Empire Airways Limited|TEAL]].<ref name = "norris 11"/> In 1939, a final S.30 flying boat, registered G-AFKZ and named ''Cathay'', was delivered to Imperial Airways in late March 1940.<ref name = "norris 11"/>


A total of four flying S.30 series flying boats – ''Cabot'', ''Caribou'', ''Clyde'' and ''Connemara'' – were equipped with in-flight refuelling equipment and extra fuel tanks in order that they could be used to provide a regular transatlantic airmail service. The concept was for the aircraft to take off at lower weights and, once airborne, take on extra fuel to reach an all up weight of {{Convert|53000|lb|kg}}, giving the aircraft a range of over {{Convert|2500|mi|km}}. The extra fuel reduced the payload to {{Convert|4270|lb|kg}} against the {{Convert|6250|lb|kg}} of the standard aeroplane. The refuelling was performed by three converted [[Handley Page H.P.54 Harrow|Handley Page Harrow]] bombers, one operating out of Ireland and two out of [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]].
Four flying S.30 series flying boats, ''Cabot'', ''Caribou'', ''Clyde'' and ''Connemara'', were equipped with in-flight refuelling equipment and extra fuel tanks to provide scheduled transatlantic airmail service. The aircraft was to take off light and, once airborne, take on extra fuel to reach an all up weight of {{cvt|53000|lb}}, giving the aircraft a range of over {{cvt|2500|mi}}. The extra fuel reduced payload to {{cvt|4270|lb}} against the {{cvt|6250|lb}} of the standard aeroplane. The refuelling was performed by three converted [[Handley Page H.P.54 Harrow|Handley Page Harrow]] bombers, one operating out of Ireland and two out of [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]].


In 1939, Imperial Airways placed a further follow-on order for a modified model of the S.30, designated as the ''S.33''.<ref name = "norris 11"/> This series had the same basic construction as its immediate predecessors, the new Pegasus XI engine, a development of the powerplant used by the original S.23 series, was adopted instead. Out of these three final aircraft, only two – ''Clifton'' and ''Cleopatra'' – would be completed and delivered to the newly formed [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] (BOAC).<ref name = "norris 11"/>
In 1939, Imperial Airways placed a further follow-on order for a modified S.30, designated the ''S.33''.<ref name = "norris 11"/> This series had the same construction as its predecessors, but the new Pegasus XI engine, a development of the powerplant used by the original S.23 series, was used. Out of these three final aircraft, only two, named ''Clifton'' and ''Cleopatra'', would be completed and delivered to the newly renamed [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] (BOAC).<ref name = "norris 11"/>


A substantial larger development of the Empire flying boat, effectively a new aircraft, was the ''[[Short S.26|S.26]]'', designated as the G-class.<ref name = "norris 13">Norris 1966, p. 13.</ref> The aircraft had similar appearance to the standard Empire, but was in fact roughly about 15 percent larger in all dimensions, as well as differing in its use of the more powerful [[Bristol Hercules]] [[radial engine]]. It adopted an improved hull design, featuring a wing span of {{Convert|134|ft|m|0}} and a length of {{Convert|101|ft|m|0}}. It was intended to be used for year-round services on the north Atlantic route.<ref name = "norris 13"/> Only a small number were built, and these were quickly impressed into military service during the Second World War.<ref name = "norris 13 14">Norris 1966, pp. 13–14.</ref>
the ''[[Short S.26|S.26]]'', designated as the G-class by BOAC, was a substantially larger development of the Empire flying boat, and an entirely new aircraft, albeit of similar configuration.<ref name = "norris 13">Norris 1966, p. 13.</ref> It was roughly 15 percent larger, as well as using the much more powerful [[Bristol Hercules]] [[radial engine]] and a further improved hull design. It was intended to be used on the north Atlantic route.<ref name = "norris 13"/> The three that were built were immediately impressed into military service during the Second World War.<ref name = "norris 13 14">Norris 1966, pp. 13–14.</ref>


==Design==
==Design==
[[File:IWM-ATP8906B Short Empire ADHM 205127435.jpg|thumb|Short S.23 Empire G-ADHM, named ''Caledonia'', on its beaching gear at [[RAF Felixstowe|Felixstowe]], [[Suffolk]], England, September 1936]]
[[File:IWM-ATP8906B Short Empire ADHM 205127435.jpg|thumb|Short S.23 Empire G-ADHM, ''Caledonia'', on its beaching gear at [[RAF Felixstowe|Felixstowe]], [[Suffolk]], England, September 1936]]
The Short Empire flying boat was a relatively clean-looking high-wing [[monoplane]], initially powered by an arrangement of four wing-mounted [[Bristol Pegasus|Bristol Pegasus Xc]] [[radial engine]]s which drove [[de Havilland Propellers|de Havilland]]-built [[Variable-pitch propeller (aeronautics)|variable-pitch propeller]]s.<ref name = "norris 4 6">Norris 1966, pp. 4–6.</ref> The engines were each enclosed within NACA cowls and mounted ahead of the leading edge of the wings. This allowed portions of the leading edge adjacent to the engines to be hinged forwards and used as platforms from which to maintain the engines.<ref>Pegram, page 182.</ref>
The Short Empire flying boat was a clean high-wing [[monoplane]], initially powered by four wing-mounted [[Bristol Pegasus|Bristol Pegasus Xc]] [[radial engine]]s which drove [[de Havilland Propellers|de Havilland]]-built [[Variable-pitch propeller (aeronautics)|variable-pitch propeller]]s.<ref name = "norris 4 6">Norris 1966, pp. 4–6.</ref> The engines were each enclosed within NACA cowls and mounted ahead of the leading edge of the wings. This allowed portions of the leading edge adjacent to the engines to be hinged forward to be used as platforms to maintain the engines.<ref>Pegram, page 182.</ref>


The Pegasus Xc engines could each produce {{Convert|910|hp|kW}} on takeoff, decreasing to {{Convert|740|hp|kW}} at an altitude of 3,500&nbsp;ft.<ref name = "norris 6"/> Alternative engines were installed upon various models of the aircraft, of both greater and lower power outputs depending upon the model's role and purpose. Initial production aircraft were designed for a {{convert|40500|lb|kg|abbr=on}} gross weight; however, by 1939, many aircraft had been strengthened for an increased gross weight of {{convert|53000|lb|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref>"The Greatest Short." ''Flight'', 20 July 1939. p. ''e''.</ref> Overall, its useful load included {{convert|600|impgal|USgal L}} of fuel (weighing {{convert|4560|lb|kg|abbr=on}}), {{convert|44|impgal|USgal L|abbr=on}} of oil, assorted onboard equipment (weighing {{convert|3340|lb|kg|abbr=on}}), along with the payload itself and a crew complement of five (weighing {{convert|8200|lb|kg}}).<ref name = "norris 4"/> The S.23 series achieved a top speed of {{convert|200|mph}} at an altitude of {{convert|5500|ft|m}} along with a cruising speed of {{convert|165|mph}} and a minimum flying speed of {{convert|73|mph}}.<ref name = "norris 7"/>
The Pegasus Xc engines each produced {{cvt|910|hp}} on takeoff, decreasing to {{cvt|740|hp}} at an altitude of {{cvt|3500|ft}}.<ref name = "norris 6"/> Alternative engines were installed with both greater and reduced power outputs. Initial aircraft had a {{cvt|40500|lb|kg}} gross weight, however, by 1939, many aircraft had been strengthened, for an increased gross weight of {{cvt|53000|lb}}.<ref>"The Greatest Short." ''Flight'', 20 July 1939. p. ''e''.</ref> Its useful load included {{cvt|600|impgal|L USgal}} of fuel (weighing {{cvt|4560|lb}}), {{cvt|44|impgal|L USgal}} of oil, assorted equipment (weighing {{cvt|3340|lb}}), along with the payload and five crew (weighing {{cvt|8200|lb}}).<ref name = "norris 4"/> The S.23 series achieved a top speed of {{cvt|200|mph}} at an altitude of {{cvt|5500|ft}} along with a cruising speed of {{cvt|165|mph}} and a minimum flying speed of {{cvt|73|mph}}.<ref name = "norris 7"/>


The wings had a flush-[[rivet]]ed [[Alclad]] covering and featured both Frise-type [[aileron]]s and the internally-developed [[Gouge flap]]s, the latter of which were actuated by an electric [[motor]] connected via a [[gear]]ing system and [[screw jacks]], allowing the flaps to be lowered in 60 seconds and raised within 90 seconds.<ref name = "norris 4"/> Large cylindrical 325-gallon fuel tanks were accommodated within the wings, set in between the inner and outer engines, and were fitted as standard; on long-range variants of the aircraft, additional fuel tanks were present in the wings, up to a total of three containing 280 gallons, 325 gallons, and 175 gallons in each wing. Elements of the [[leading edge]] of the wing, set upon either side of the engine nacelles, could be folded down to act as servicing platforms for both the engines and the [[Float (nautical)|float]]s, the latter of which were carried upon tandem struts fixed onto the main spar and featured [[shock absorber]]s in order to eliminate undue torsional loads being transmitted to the wings by the sudden impact of waves while travelling at speed.<ref name = "norris 4"/>
The wings had a flush-[[rivet]]ed [[Alclad]] covering with Frise-type [[aileron]]s and the internally-developed [[Gouge flap]]s, the latter of which were actuated by an electric [[motor]] connected via a [[gear]]ing system and [[screw jacks]], allowing the flaps to be lowered in 60 seconds and raised in 90 seconds.<ref name = "norris 4"/> Large cylindrical 325-gallon fuel tanks were in the wings, between the inner and outer engines. On long-range variants of the aircraft, additional fuel tanks were added in the wings, up to three containing 280 gallons, 325 gallons, and 175 gallons in each wing. Sections of the wing [[leading edge]] alongside the nacelles folded down to be engine servicing platforms. Tip [[Float (nautical)|float]]s were carried on struts attached to the main spar and featured [[shock absorber]]s to reduce impact forces being transmitted to the wings.<ref name = "norris 4"/>


The hull, which had adopted a radically new shape, employed mainly traditional construction methods at Shorts. The structure used a combination of Z-shaped [[longeron|stringers]] and I-shaped [[girder]]s to form triangular sections that ran along the [[Chine (aeronautics)|chine]]s located at the point where the fuselage sides met with the planing underside.<ref name = "norris 5">Norris 1966, p. 5.</ref> As a measure to simplify manufacturing and to increase the available internal volume, only a simple curvature sweeping the sides of the hull into the chines was employed; on previous Shorts-built flying boats, a more complex S-shaped curvature and a sudden reduction in beam just above the chines had been employed instead.<ref name = "norris 5"/>
The hull used the same steps as earlier designs, but had a much finer beam to length ratio, and employed Shorts' traditional construction methods. The structure used a combination of Z-shaped [[longeron|stringers]] and I-shaped [[girder]]s to form triangular sections that ran along the [[Chine (aeronautics)|chine]]s where the fuselage sides meet the planing bottom.<ref name = "norris 5">Norris 1966, p. 5.</ref> To simplify manufacturing and to maximize usable internal volume, only a simple single curvature on the hull was employed that didn't require the use of a press for most of the airframe. On previous Shorts' flying boats, a more complex S-shaped curvature and a sudden reduction in beam just above the chines had been employed instead.<ref name = "norris 5"/>


[[File:StateLibQld 1 190231 Seaplane S.23, Coriolanus, moored at Pinkenba on the Brisbane River, 1939.jpg|thumb|left|S.23 Empire G-AETV, named ''Coriolanus'', moored at [[Pinkenba]] on the [[Brisbane]] River, 1939]]
[[File:StateLibQld 1 190231 Seaplane S.23, Coriolanus, moored at Pinkenba on the Brisbane River, 1939.jpg|thumb|left|S.23 Empire G-AETV, named ''Coriolanus'', moored at [[Pinkenba]] on the [[Brisbane]] River, 1939]]
The {{convert|17|ft|m|abbr=on}} deep hull accommodated a total of two decks, the upper deck forming a lengthy compartment divided into sections to accommodate {{convert|3000|lb|kg|abbr=on}} of freight and mail along with a storage space and a ship's clerk's office. This office contained controls such as electrical [[Fuse (electrical)|fuseboxes]] and circuit switches, [[Ventilation (architecture)|ventilation]] controls, and [[Petcock|fuelcock]]s.<ref name = "norris 5"/> The lower deck contained a large marine compartment containing an [[anchor]], a pair of [[drogue]]s, a [[Bollard#Maritime bollards|mooring bollard]]{{Broken anchor|date=2025-05-30|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=Bollard#Maritime bollards|reason= The anchor (Maritime bollards) [[Special:Diff/919814798|has been deleted]].|diff_id=919814798}}, and a [[boat hook]], along with a step ladder to the cockpit; aft of the mooring compartment was the forward passenger saloon, followed by a central corridor flanked by the [[toilet]]s and [[Galley (kitchen)|galley]], a mid-ship cabin, a spacious promenade cabin, and finally an aft-cabin.<ref name = "norris 5 6">Norris 1966, pp. 5–6.</ref> The cabins could be alternatively outfitted with comfortable seating or bunks for sleeper services. Near the rear of the aircraft, a further compartment for the purpose of containing freight and mail was present which extended into the after fuselage.<ref name = "norris 5 6"/>
The {{cvt|17|ft}} deep hull accommodated two decks, the upper deck forming a lengthy compartment divided into sections to accommodate {{cvt|3000|lb}} of freight and mail along with a storage space and a ship's clerk's office. This office contained controls such as electrical [[Fuse (electrical)|fuseboxes]] and circuit switches, [[Ventilation (architecture)|ventilation]] controls, and [[Petcock|fuelcocks]].<ref name = "norris 5"/> The lower deck contained a large marine compartment containing an [[anchor]], a pair of [[drogue]]s, a [[Mooring bollard#Maritime use|mooring bollard]] and a [[boat hook]], along with a ladder to the cockpit. The forward passenger saloon was aft of the mooring compartment and was followed by a central corridor flanked by the [[toilet]]s and [[Galley (kitchen)|galley]], a mid-ship cabin, a spacious promenade cabin, and finally an aft-cabin, each stepped to a different height.<ref name = "norris 5 6">Norris 1966, pp. 5–6.</ref> The cabins could be fitted with seating or sleeper bunks. Near the rear of the aircraft, an additional freight and mail compartment extended into the rear fuselage.<ref name = "norris 5 6"/>


The flying crew was seated in a spacious [[cockpit]], also referred to as the [[Bridge (nautical)|bridge]]; the captain and co-pilot were seated side-by-side while the radio operator sat behind the captain, facing rearwards.<ref name = "norris 5"/> The flight deck was relatively well equipped for the era, including features such as an [[autopilot]]; the flying instrumentation included a [[Hughes Aircraft Company|Hughes]] turn indicator, [[compass]], and [[variometer]], a [[Sperry Corporation]] [[artificial horizon]] and [[heading indicator]], a [[Paul Kollsman|Kollsman]] sensitive [[altimeter]], a [[Marconi Company|Marconi]] [[radio direction finder]], a [[Smiths Group|Smiths]] [[Clock|chronometer]], and an [[attitude indicator]].<ref name = "norris 6">Norris 1966, p. 6.</ref> The radio operator was furnished with Marconi shock-proof [[radio]] sets for receiving and transmitting across the [[radio spectrum]]; the retractable [[loop antenna]] could be repositioned for visual or aural homing.<ref name = "norris 6"/>
The flying crew was seated in a spacious [[Bridge (nautical)|bridge]] with the captain and co-pilot seated side-by-side while the radio operator sat behind the captain, facing the  rear.<ref name = "norris 5"/> The flight deck was well equipped and included an [[autopilot]] while flying instrumentation included a [[Hughes Aircraft Company|Hughes]] turn indicator, [[compass]], and [[variometer]], a [[Sperry Corporation|Sperry]] [[artificial horizon]] and [[heading indicator]], a [[Paul Kollsman|Kollsman]] sensitive [[altimeter]], a [[Marconi Company|Marconi]] [[radio direction finder]], a [[Smiths Group|Smiths]] [[Clock|chronometer]], and an [[attitude indicator]].<ref name = "norris 6">Norris 1966, p. 6.</ref> The radio operator had Marconi shock-proof [[radio]] sets for transmitting and receiving while the retractable direction-finding [[loop antenna]] could be rotated for visual or aural homing.<ref name = "norris 6"/>


While designed as civil aircraft, examples of the type would not only see military service but be specifically refitted for this purpose. In 1941, two Empire flying boats – ''Clio'' and ''Cordelia'' returned to Shorts' Belfast facility, where they were modified with the addition of [[Gun turret#Aircraft|gun turret]]s in dorsal and rear positions and [[List of World War II British naval radar#ASV II|air to surface vessel]] (ASV) radar equipment installed on the top and sides of the fuselage.<ref name = "norris 14"/> They were used by Coastal Command. More extensive military use was made of the Empire's sibling design, the [[Short Sunderland]].
While designed as civil aircraft, examples of the type would not only see military service but were specifically refitted for this purpose. In 1941, two Empire flying boats – ''Clio'' and ''Cordelia'' were modified at Shorts' Belfast facility with [[Gun turret#Aircraft|gun turret]]s in dorsal and tail positions, bomb racks extending out of slots cut in the fuselage sides as on the Sunderland, and [[List of World War II British naval radar#ASV II|air to surface vessel]] (ASV) radar equipment installed on the top and sides of the fuselage.<ref name = "norris 14"/> They were used by Coastal Command. More extensive military use was made of the Empire's military counterpart, the [[Short Sunderland]].


==Operational history==
==Operational history==

Latest revision as of 22:19, 28 September 2025

Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Use British English Template:Infobox aircraft

The Short Empire was a four-engined monoplane transport flying boat, designed and developed by Short Brothers during the 1930s to meet the requirements of the British Empire, specifically to provide air service from the UK to South Africa, Singapore and Australia in stages. It was developed in parallel with the Short Sunderland maritime patrol bomber, which served in the Second World War along with the piggy-back Short Mayo Composite.

Imperial Airways, as the primary customer, developed the requirements to which it was ordered and designed. Imperial Airways, and its successor, the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), along with Qantas and TEAL, operated the type in commercial service. The Empire routinely flew between the British mainland and Australia and the various British colonies in Africa and Asia, typically carrying a combination of passengers and mail. The Empires were also used between Bermuda and New York City.

The Empire saw commercial and military service during the Second World War, for anti-submarine patrols and as a transport. The Royal Air Force (RAF), Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), and Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) used the type.

Development

Origins

During the 1930s, demand for air travel was rapidly growing. The British national flag airline Imperial Airways sought to fully expand air service across the British Empire. Imperial Airways' technical adviser, planned a specification for a new type of aircraft to serve passenger and freight requirements throughout the world.[1] This required an aircraft to carry 24 passengers in comfort, as well as airmail or freight while having a cruising speed of Template:Cvt, a normal range of at least Template:Cvt and the capability for an extended range of Template:Cvt to cross the North Atlantic.[1] At the time, and for various reasons, including technical and operational, it was determined that a flying boat would be required.[1]

Short Brothers had previously developed successful large flying boats for Imperial Airways and the Royal Air Force (RAF), and was the frontrunner to fulfil the requirement.[1] Shorts was reluctant to build straight from the drawing board without a prototype, however this was rejected by Imperial Airways, which was desperate to replace obsolete types then in service that were unable to provide the full service needed.[1] In 1935, Imperial Airways announced an order for 28 flying boats of an as-of-yet undesigned type, weighing 18 tonnes each. The order was claimed by the British press as being "one of the world's boldest experiments in aviation".[1]

A design team led by Arthur Gouge created the Empire. To have adequate clearance between the propellers and the water, the wing needed to be as high as feasible and was initially to be attached to a hump above the fuselage as on the Martin M-130, but the fuselage height was instead increased, providing more internal volume than required but enabling a lighter and stronger integration of the cantilever wing to the fuselage.[1]

Following water tank experiments, a simplified-vee planing bottom with a much higher length to beam ratio than was common at the time was chosen.[1] The aerodynamic and hydrodynamic properties were tested on the smaller Short Scion Senior floatplane, which served as a half-scale prototype for the Empire and its sibling, the military's Short Sunderland.[2]

Shorts developed its own machinery to produce the necessary T-shaped Hiduminium alloy lengths that comprised the main spar.[3] A specialised and patented flap, known as Gouge flaps after its creator, caused only a small increase in drag, while the wing's lift coefficient was increased by 30 percent, the landing speed reduced by 12 per cent, and no trim changes were needed.[1]

Initial production

On 4 July 1936, the first Empire built, registered G-ADHL, named Canopus, made its first flight with Shorts' chief test pilot, John Lankester Parker at the controls.[4] Early flights were relatively trouble-free, and Parker was satisfied with its performance and handling.[4] On 17 September 1936, G-ADHL first flew for Imperial Airways, with the final proving flight to Marseille, France took place on 22 October 1936.[5] The first series of the Short Empires, the S.23, could carry five crew, 17 passengers, and Template:Cvt of cargo at a maximum speed of Template:Cvt and was powered by four Template:Cvt Bristol Pegasus Xc radial engines.[6]

The second Empire and the first of the long-range models, registered G-ADHM, named Caledonia, made its first flight on 15 September 1936 and was delivered to Imperial Airways on 4 December 1936.[5] From September 1936 onwards, one aircraft was produced per month and typically each aircraft's delivery occurring right after its first flight.[5] The Empire was officially known as the C-class by Imperial Airways and each aircraft operated by them was given a name beginning with the letter C.

On 26 February 1938, the final three Empires of the initial order placed by Imperial Airways – Coorong, Coogee and Corio were diverted from Imperial Airways and delivered to the Anglo-Australian Qantas Empire Airways.[7] In late 1937, Imperial Airways placed a follow-on order for another 11 Empires. When combined with the original order of 28, this had the distinction of being the largest order by a single customer placed for a British civil aircraft at that time.[8] While the first three aircraft of the additional order were of the typical S.23 class, intended for Qantas Empire Airways, the rest had a number of detail changes and were designated the S.30.[9] Short's Rochester factory produced all 43 Empires built.

Further development

The S.30 series was fitted with four Bristol Perseus XIIc sleeve valve engines in the place of the Pegasus engines. the Template:Cvt Perseus engines were each Template:Cvt lighter and 17.3% more fuel efficient, but developed less power.[9] The airframe was strengthened, mainly by using heavier gauge sheeting on the fuselage and wings. The maximum takeoff weight increased to Template:Cvt with a corresponding range of Template:Cvt, the S.30 had a similar performance to the preceding S.23s.[9]

The first of the S.30 flying boats was registered G-AFCT and named Champion.[9] In December 1938, the second S.30 aircraft registered G-AFCU, named Cabot became the first of the revised series to fly. The last three aircraft of this order, initially named Captain Cook, Clare and Aotearoa, were renamed and re-registered for use by TEAL.[9] In 1939, a final S.30 flying boat, registered G-AFKZ and named Cathay, was delivered to Imperial Airways in late March 1940.[9]

Four flying S.30 series flying boats, Cabot, Caribou, Clyde and Connemara, were equipped with in-flight refuelling equipment and extra fuel tanks to provide scheduled transatlantic airmail service. The aircraft was to take off light and, once airborne, take on extra fuel to reach an all up weight of Template:Cvt, giving the aircraft a range of over Template:Cvt. The extra fuel reduced payload to Template:Cvt against the Template:Cvt of the standard aeroplane. The refuelling was performed by three converted Handley Page Harrow bombers, one operating out of Ireland and two out of Newfoundland.

In 1939, Imperial Airways placed a further follow-on order for a modified S.30, designated the S.33.[9] This series had the same construction as its predecessors, but the new Pegasus XI engine, a development of the powerplant used by the original S.23 series, was used. Out of these three final aircraft, only two, named Clifton and Cleopatra, would be completed and delivered to the newly renamed British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC).[9]

the S.26, designated as the G-class by BOAC, was a substantially larger development of the Empire flying boat, and an entirely new aircraft, albeit of similar configuration.[10] It was roughly 15 percent larger, as well as using the much more powerful Bristol Hercules radial engine and a further improved hull design. It was intended to be used on the north Atlantic route.[10] The three that were built were immediately impressed into military service during the Second World War.[11]

Design

File:IWM-ATP8906B Short Empire ADHM 205127435.jpg
Short S.23 Empire G-ADHM, Caledonia, on its beaching gear at Felixstowe, Suffolk, England, September 1936

The Short Empire flying boat was a clean high-wing monoplane, initially powered by four wing-mounted Bristol Pegasus Xc radial engines which drove de Havilland-built variable-pitch propellers.[12] The engines were each enclosed within NACA cowls and mounted ahead of the leading edge of the wings. This allowed portions of the leading edge adjacent to the engines to be hinged forward to be used as platforms to maintain the engines.[13]

The Pegasus Xc engines each produced Template:Cvt on takeoff, decreasing to Template:Cvt at an altitude of Template:Cvt.[14] Alternative engines were installed with both greater and reduced power outputs. Initial aircraft had a Template:Cvt gross weight, however, by 1939, many aircraft had been strengthened, for an increased gross weight of Template:Cvt.[15] Its useful load included Template:Cvt of fuel (weighing Template:Cvt), Template:Cvt of oil, assorted equipment (weighing Template:Cvt), along with the payload and five crew (weighing Template:Cvt).[3] The S.23 series achieved a top speed of Template:Cvt at an altitude of Template:Cvt along with a cruising speed of Template:Cvt and a minimum flying speed of Template:Cvt.[5]

The wings had a flush-riveted Alclad covering with Frise-type ailerons and the internally-developed Gouge flaps, the latter of which were actuated by an electric motor connected via a gearing system and screw jacks, allowing the flaps to be lowered in 60 seconds and raised in 90 seconds.[3] Large cylindrical 325-gallon fuel tanks were in the wings, between the inner and outer engines. On long-range variants of the aircraft, additional fuel tanks were added in the wings, up to three containing 280 gallons, 325 gallons, and 175 gallons in each wing. Sections of the wing leading edge alongside the nacelles folded down to be engine servicing platforms. Tip floats were carried on struts attached to the main spar and featured shock absorbers to reduce impact forces being transmitted to the wings.[3]

The hull used the same steps as earlier designs, but had a much finer beam to length ratio, and employed Shorts' traditional construction methods. The structure used a combination of Z-shaped stringers and I-shaped girders to form triangular sections that ran along the chines where the fuselage sides meet the planing bottom.[16] To simplify manufacturing and to maximize usable internal volume, only a simple single curvature on the hull was employed that didn't require the use of a press for most of the airframe. On previous Shorts' flying boats, a more complex S-shaped curvature and a sudden reduction in beam just above the chines had been employed instead.[16]

File:StateLibQld 1 190231 Seaplane S.23, Coriolanus, moored at Pinkenba on the Brisbane River, 1939.jpg
S.23 Empire G-AETV, named Coriolanus, moored at Pinkenba on the Brisbane River, 1939

The Template:Cvt deep hull accommodated two decks, the upper deck forming a lengthy compartment divided into sections to accommodate Template:Cvt of freight and mail along with a storage space and a ship's clerk's office. This office contained controls such as electrical fuseboxes and circuit switches, ventilation controls, and fuelcocks.[16] The lower deck contained a large marine compartment containing an anchor, a pair of drogues, a mooring bollard and a boat hook, along with a ladder to the cockpit. The forward passenger saloon was aft of the mooring compartment and was followed by a central corridor flanked by the toilets and galley, a mid-ship cabin, a spacious promenade cabin, and finally an aft-cabin, each stepped to a different height.[17] The cabins could be fitted with seating or sleeper bunks. Near the rear of the aircraft, an additional freight and mail compartment extended into the rear fuselage.[17]

The flying crew was seated in a spacious bridge with the captain and co-pilot seated side-by-side while the radio operator sat behind the captain, facing the rear.[16] The flight deck was well equipped and included an autopilot while flying instrumentation included a Hughes turn indicator, compass, and variometer, a Sperry artificial horizon and heading indicator, a Kollsman sensitive altimeter, a Marconi radio direction finder, a Smiths chronometer, and an attitude indicator.[14] The radio operator had Marconi shock-proof radio sets for transmitting and receiving while the retractable direction-finding loop antenna could be rotated for visual or aural homing.[14]

While designed as civil aircraft, examples of the type would not only see military service but were specifically refitted for this purpose. In 1941, two Empire flying boats – Clio and Cordelia were modified at Shorts' Belfast facility with gun turrets in dorsal and tail positions, bomb racks extending out of slots cut in the fuselage sides as on the Sunderland, and air to surface vessel (ASV) radar equipment installed on the top and sides of the fuselage.[18] They were used by Coastal Command. More extensive military use was made of the Empire's military counterpart, the Short Sunderland.

Operational history

File:StateLibQld 1 154471 Flying boat, Challenger on her moorings in the Townsville Harbour, Queensland.jpg
Empire flying boat, G-ADVD, named Challenger, at her moorings in the Townsville Harbour, Queensland, December 1938

On 8 February 1937, one of the Empire flying boats, Castor, conducted the first regular flight, flying from Calshot, Hampshire, England to Alexandria, Egypt.[19] This flight, which covered a distance of roughly Script error: No such module "convert". non-stop, showed that Britain could move military material to its overseas bases by air.[20] On 18 February 1937, Caledonia, the first of the Empires built, flew the same Calshot-Alexandria route; it was able to traverse the route non-stop at an average speed of 170 mph.[19]

On 5 July 1937, the first crossing of the Atlantic by an Empire flying boat was conducted.[19] On an experimental basis, Caledonia, piloted by Captain W N Cummings, flew a Script error: No such module "convert". route from Foynes on the River Shannon, Ireland west to Botwood on the Bay of Exploits, Newfoundland. On the same day, an American Sikorsky S-42 flying boat flew the opposite direction.[19] Caledonia took just over 15 hours (including a period spend searching for a landing spot), flying at an altitude of Script error: No such module "convert". to cover Script error: No such module "convert".—an average speed of about Script error: No such module "convert".. On its return flight, conducted on 22 July 1937, Caledonia flew the same route in the opposite direction in a time of 12 hours; in comparison to the competing Sikorsky S-42, the Empire was able to traverse the overall route faster.[19]

Several more survey flights of the Atlantic were made by Caledonia and Cambria. In August 1937, Cambria conducted the east–west flight in 14 hrs 24 min. In 1937, Cavalier was shipped to Bermuda and, after reassembly, started a service between there and New York City on 25 May 1937.[21]

The Short Empire was designed to operate along the Imperial Airways routes to South Africa and Australia, where no leg was much over Script error: No such module "convert".. After the design of the Empire had been finalised and production had commenced, it was recognised that, with some pressure from the United States, it would be desirable to offer a similar service across the Atlantic. The range of the S.23 was less than that of the equivalent American-built counterpart in the form of the Sikorsky S-42, and as such it could not provide a true transatlantic service. Two boats (Caledonia and Cambria) were lightened and furnished with long-range tanks; both aircraft were used in experimental in-flight refuelling trials in order for them to conduct the journey; these modifications came at the cost of being able to carry fewer passengers and less cargo.

File:ZK-AMA on water.jpg
The first TEAL aircraft, ZK-AMA, named Aotearoa, at Auckland, New Zealand

In an attempt to manage the Atlantic crossing, an alternative 'piggy-back' approach was trialled. This concept had been strongly advocated for by Imperial Airways' technical adviser, Major Robert Hobart Mayo, as a means of significantly increasing both range and payload, and had been well received by both the airline and the British Air Ministry, the latter of which placed an order with Shorts.[22] Using the S.21 design (based on the S.23) as the carrier, a smaller four-engined floatplane, the Short S.20, was mounted upon its back; the most obvious difference between the S.21 and regular S.23 aeroplanes was the additional superstructure to carry the floatplane.[23] Only a single example was built of the S.21 carrier aircraft, named Maia, and of the S.20, named Mercury. Together, they were known as the Short Mayo Composite.[24][23]

On 21 July 1938, a successful mid-air launch of Mercury was executed off the west coast of Ireland while carrying a 600 lb payload of mixed cargo and mail; it arrived at Montreal, Canada, Script error: No such module "convert". 22 hrs 22 min later, having achieved an average speed of Script error: No such module "convert"..[23] In further flights, the Empire-Mercury combination went on to set a number of long-distance records; one such flight was conducted on 6 October 1938, flying from Dundee, Scotland to Orange River, South Africa, covering Script error: No such module "convert". in 42 hrs 5 min.[25] However, in spite of the demonstrated merits and workability of the concept, the outbreak of the Second World War resulted in the effective termination of all development work. During wartime, there was interest in the concept using alternative land-based aircraft to deliver Hawker Hurricane fighter aircraft for aerial protection over the mid-Atlantic.[10]

After Italy entered the Second World War in June 1940, it became impossible for mail to be safely flown between Britain and Egypt (and thus onto Australia) via the Mediterranean. Accordingly, a new "Horseshoe Route" was established that ran from Auckland/Sydney via Cairo (following the old "Eastern Route") to Durban, South Africa, and thence by sea to Britain. This was restricted after the loss of Singapore in February 1942 to being between Durban and Calcutta, India.

Wartime experience in operating the type at overload weights resulted in the realisation that the Empires could take off at considerably higher weights than the conservative maxima provided by Shorts and, although the last Empire crossings to America were made in 1940 (by Clare and Clyde), many more flights were made on the long, demanding and vital over-water Lisbon-Bathurst flights.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Variants

File:VH-ABBcrop.jpg
Qantas Short C Class Empire flying boat VH-ABB Coolangatta, ca. 1940

42 "C Class" Short Empire flying boats were built, including 31 S.23s, nine S.30s and two S.33s.[26]

  • S.23 Mk I : powered by four Script error: No such module "convert". Bristol Pegasus Xc poppet valve radial engines. 27 built.[26]
  • S.23 Mk II Bermuda : powered by four Script error: No such module "convert". Bristol Pegasus Xc poppet valve radial engines. 2 built.[26]
  • S.23 Mk III Atlantic : powered by four Script error: No such module "convert". Bristol Pegasus Xc poppet valve radial engines. two built.[26]
  • S.23M : two converted from impressed S.23 Mk I, with an ASV radar, armed with two Boulton Paul gun turrets and depth charges.
  • S.30 Mk I : powered by four Script error: No such module "convert". Bristol Perseus XIIc sleeve valve radial engines. One built.[26]
  • S.30 Mk I (Cathay) : powered by four Script error: No such module "convert". Bristol Pegasus Xc poppet valve radial engines. One built.[26]
  • S.30 Mk II New Zealand : powered by four Script error: No such module "convert". Bristol Perseus XIIc sleeve valve radial engines. One built.[26]
  • S.30 Mk III Atlantic : powered by four Script error: No such module "convert". Bristol Perseus XIIc sleeve valve radial engines. Four built.[26]
  • S.30 Mk IV New Zealand : powered by four Script error: No such module "convert". Bristol Perseus XIIc sleeve valve radial engines. Two built.[26]
  • S.30M : two converted from impressed S.30 Mk III Atlantic for ASV trials and transport duties.
  • S.33 : powered by four Script error: No such module "convert". Bristol Pegasus Xc poppet valve radial engines. Two completed, third example scrapped when 75% complete.[26]

Many S.23, S.30 & S.33 were re-engined during the war with Script error: No such module "convert". Bristol Pegasus XXII poppet valve radial engines.[26]

Accidents and incidents

Most accidents involving the aircraft occurred during landing and were generally attributed to pilot error. For pilots trained on smaller less sophisticated aircraft judgement of height was difficult due to the high cockpit of the Empire, as well as the concept of using flaps to manage speed.[27] With time improved familiarity reduced the accident rate. Once in service the structure was found to be weak in places, especially on the planing bottoms, which led to later models employing thicker gauge skins on the hull and wings.[27]

24 March 1937
G-ADVA Capricornus of Imperial Airways crashed in the Beaujolais mountains in Central France, during the inaugural Southampton to Alexandria scheduled service.[28]
27 November 1938
G-AETV Calpurnia of Imperial Airways crashed on landing on Lake Habbaniya, Iraq with the loss of four lives.[29]
21 January 1939
G-ADUU Cavalier of Imperial Airways ditched in the Atlantic Ocean due to carburettor icing affecting all four engines. The aircraft subsequently sank with the loss of three lives. Ten survivors were rescued by the American tanker Script error: No such module "WPSHIPS utilities"..[30]
14 March 1939
G-ADVB Corsair (under Capt E.S. Alcock, brother of John Alcock) foundered during a forced landing on the Dungu River. After 10 months' salvage work, and one failed take-off attempt, it was flown off the river on 6 January 1940.Template:Sfn
1 May 1939
G-ADVD Challenger of Imperial Airways crashed on landing in Mozambique Harbour with the loss of two lives.[31]
February 1941
G-AFCX Clyde of BOAC was wrecked in a gale at Lisbon, Portugal.[32]
29 December 1941
G-ADUX Cassiopeia of BOAC crashed after striking debris on takeoff from Sabang, Indonesia, killing four.[33]
30 January 1942
G-AEUH Corio of BOAC was shot down by seven Japanese fighter aircraft and crashed off West Timor, killing 13 of the 18 people on board. The aircraft was owned by BOAC, but was operated by Qantas.
28 February 1942
G-AETZ Circe of Qantas was shot down Script error: No such module "convert". south of Java by Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Navy with the loss of all on board.[34][35]
22 April 1943
G-AEUB (VH-ADU) crashed off Port Moresby, with 18 survivors.[36]

List of aircraft

File:Sam Hood - 3639888721.jpg
Empire G-AFBK, Coolangatta, June 1936
File:IWM-CH14013 Short Empire AFKZ 205210604.jpg
Empire G-AFKZ, Cathay, at Vaal Dam, South Africa, circa 1942
File:British Overseas Airways Corporation and Qantas, 1940-1945. CH15322.jpg
Empire G-ADUV, Corsair, moored on the lake at Gwalior, India
File:ZK-AMA flying.jpg
Empire ZK-AMA, Aotearoa, flying above Auckland, New Zealand
File:British Overseas Airways Corporation and Qantas, 1940-1945. CH14781.jpg
Empire G-ADUV, Cambria, taking off from the Nile at Rod El Farag flying boat base, Cairo
File:Airplane. Cambria BAnQ P48S1P01055 zoom.jpg
Empire G-ADUV, idling in the water
File:An aerial profile view of the seaplane G-ADUT in-flight taken from another aircraft (AM 77480-1).jpg
Empire G-ADUT, Centaurus photographed in flight from a Beech Staggerwing
List of aircraft[18]
Registration Name Operator
S.23
G-ADHL Canopus Imperial Airways/BOAC
G-ADHM Caledonia Imperial Airways, later BOAC
G-ADUT Centaurus Imperial Airways, to Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) in 1939 (as serial A18-10)
G-ADUU Cavalier Imperial Airways. Crashed 21 January 1939
G-ADUV Cambria Imperial Airways, later BOAC
G-ADUW Castor Imperial Airways, later BOAC
G-ADUX Cassiopeia Imperial Airways, later BOAC
G-ADUY Capella Imperial Airways
G-ADUZ Cygnus Imperial Airways
G-ADVA Capricornus Imperial Airways
G-ADVB Corsair Imperial Airways, later BOAC
G-ADVC Courtier Imperial Airways
G-ADVD Challenger Imperial Airways
G-ADVE Centurion Imperial Airways
G-AETV Coriolanus Imperial Airways, later BOAC, to QANTAS in 1942 (as registration VH-ABG)
G-AETW Calpurnia Imperial Airways.
G-AETX Ceres Imperial Airways, later BOAC
G-AETY Clio Imperial Airways, later BOAC, to Royal Air Force (RAF) in 1940 (as AX659). Crashed 22 August 1941
G-AETZ Circe Imperial Airways, later BOAC
G-AEUA Calypso Imperial Airways, to QANTAS in 1939 not used directly, to RAAF (as serial A18-11)
G-AEUB Camilla Imperial Airways, later BOAC, to QANTAS (as VH-ADU)
G-AEUC Corinna Imperial Airways, later BOAC
G-AEUD Cordelia Imperial Airways, later BOAC, to RAF in 1940 (as AX660), returned to BOAC in 1941 (as G-AEUD)
G-AEUE Cameronian Imperial Airways, later BOAC
G-AEUF Corinthian Imperial Airways, later BOAC
G-AEUG Coogee Imperial Airways, to QANTAS in 1938 (as VH-ABC), to RAAF in 1939 (as A18-12)
G-AEUH Corio Imperial Airways, to QANTAS in 1938 (as VH-ABD), to Imperial Airways in 1939 (as G-AEUH)
G-AEUI Coorong Imperial Airways, to QANTAS in 1938 (as VH-ABE), to Imperial Airways in 1939 (as G-AEUI)
G-AFBJ Carpentaria Imperial Airways not used, to QANTAS in 1937 (as VH-ABA), to BOAC in 1942 (as G-AFBJ)
G-AFBK Coolangatta Imperial Airways not used, to QANTAS in 1937 (as VH-ABB), to RAAF in 1939 (as A18-13)
G-AFBL Cooee Imperial Airways not used, to QANTAS in 1937 (as VH-ABF) to BOAC in 1942
S.30
G-AFCT Champion Imperial Airways, later BOAC
G-AFCU Cabot Imperial Airways, to RAF in 1939 (as V3137).
Destroyed 5 May 1940
G-AFCV Caribou Imperial Airways, to RAF in 1939 (as V3138).
Destroyed 6 May 1940
G-AFCW Connemara Imperial Airways
G-AFCX Clyde Imperial Airways, later BOAC
G-AFCY Captain Cook Imperial Airways, to TEAL in 1940 (as ZK-AMC Awarua). Sold as obsolete in 1948[37][38]
G-AFCZ Australia then Clare Imperial Airways, to TEAL in 1940 (as ZK-AMB), later to BOAC
G-AFDA Aotearoa Imperial Airways, to TEAL in 1940 (as ZK-AMA). Sold as obsolete in 1948[39][38]
G-AFKZ Cathay Imperial Airways, later BOAC
S.33
G-AFPZ Clifton BOAC April 1940, to RAAF (as A18-14), to QANTAS in 1942 (as VH-ACD). Crashed January 1944.
G-AFRA Cleopatra BOAC May 1940, 1st Service 5 June 1940 Poole to Durban. Final Service ended 5 November 1946 at Poole. Scrapped 1946.

Operators

File:Short S-23.jpg
Short S.23 Cooee of Qantas—this aircraft is also pictured at the top of the page while later serving with BOAC, as G-AFBL
File:Short S.30 ZK-AMC.jpg
The third TEAL aircraft, ZK-AMC, named Awarua, circa 1940

Civil operators

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Military operators

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Specifications (Short S.23)

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See also

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Related development

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

Related lists

Notes

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  1. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Norris 1966, p. 3.
  2. ↑ Norris 1966, pp. 3–4.
  3. ↑ a b c d Norris 1966, p. 4.
  4. ↑ a b Norris 1966, pp. 6–7.
  5. ↑ a b c d Norris 1966, p. 7.
  6. ↑ THE AEROPLANE 28 October 1936
  7. ↑ Norris 1966, pp. 7–10.
  8. ↑ Norris 1966, pp. 10–11.
  9. ↑ a b c d e f g h Norris 1966, p. 11.
  10. ↑ a b c Norris 1966, p. 13.
  11. ↑ Norris 1966, pp. 13–14.
  12. ↑ Norris 1966, pp. 4–6.
  13. ↑ Pegram, page 182.
  14. ↑ a b c Norris 1966, p. 6.
  15. ↑ "The Greatest Short." Flight, 20 July 1939. p. e.
  16. ↑ a b c d Norris 1966, p. 5.
  17. ↑ a b Norris 1966, pp. 5–6.
  18. ↑ a b Norris 1966, p. 14.
  19. ↑ a b c d e Norris 1966, p. 10.
  20. ↑ "Flying-boat Prestige." Flight, 15 February 1937.
  21. ↑ Jackson 1974, p. 146
  22. ↑ Norris 1966, pp. 11–12.
  23. ↑ a b c Norris 1966, p. 12.
  24. ↑ Robert Mayo – Short Aircraft Engineer's Concept
  25. ↑ Norris 1966, pp. 12–13.
  26. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Cite error: Script error: No such module "Namespace detect".Script error: No such module "Namespace detect".
  27. ↑ a b Pegram, page 183.
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  32. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  33. ↑ Template:ASN accident
  34. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  35. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  36. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  37. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  38. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  39. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

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References

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  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • BOAC at War – Part 2 – Aeroplane Monthly – August 1975.
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  • Knott, Richard, 'Flying Boats of the Empire', Robert Hale, 2011.
  • Norris, Geoffrey. The Short Empire Boats (Aircraft in Profile Number 84). Leatherhead, Surrey, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1966.
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  • Sims, Phillip, Adventurous Empires. Airlife Publishing, 2000. Template:ISBN
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External links

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  • Short C-Class Empire Boats – British Aircraft of World War II
  • Century of Flight entry
  • [1] LIFE photos by Margaret Bourke-White of CAVALIER and its competitor the Bermuda Clipper New York area 1937
  • [2] LIFE photos by Margaret Bourke-White of CALEDONIA with a Beech Staggerwing near Central Park New York City July 1937
  • [3] LIFE colour photos by Dmitri Kessel of CLARE at the La Guardia Marine Terminal New York City, during a series of mail/courier flights it, and CLYDE, operated to New York via Newfoundland during the Battle of Britain, 1940
  • The Short Sunderland Flying Boat Describes the development of the Empire though to Sunderland through flying boats.

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