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| parent_authority = Gray, 1826
| parent_authority = Gray, 1826
| taxon = Spondylus
| taxon = Spondylus
| authority = [[Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]<ref>Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decima, reformata. Laurentius Salvius: Holmiae. ii, 824 pp., available online at http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#page/3/mode/1up</ref>
| authority = [[Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]<ref>Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decima, reformata. Laurentius Salvius: Holmiae. ii, 824 pp., available online at https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#page/3/mode/1up</ref>
| synonyms = *''Carallospondylus'' <small>Monterosato, 1917</small>
| synonyms = *''Carallospondylus'' <small>Monterosato, 1917</small>
* † ''Dianchora'' <small>J. Sowerby, 1815</small>
* † ''Dianchora'' <small>J. Sowerby, 1815</small>
*''Eleutherospondylos'' <small>Dunker, 1882</small>
* ''Eleutherospondylos'' <small>Dunker, 1882</small>
*''Eltopera'' <small>Iredale, 1939</small>
* ''Eltopera'' <small>Iredale, 1939</small>
*''Lanilda'' <small>Iredale, 1939</small>
* ''Lanilda'' <small>Iredale, 1939</small>
* ''Spondylus (Corallospondylus)'' <small>Monterosato, 1917</small>
* ''Spondylus (Corallospondylus)'' <small>Monterosato, 1917</small>
* ''Spondylus (Eleutherospondylos)'' <small>Dunker, 1882</small>
* ''Spondylus (Eleutherospondylos)'' <small>Dunker, 1882</small>
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* Spon''dylus (Sponvola)'' <small>Iredale, 1939</small>
* Spon''dylus (Sponvola)'' <small>Iredale, 1939</small>
* ''Sponvola'' <small>Iredale, 1939</small>
* ''Sponvola'' <small>Iredale, 1939</small>
| synonyms_ref =  
| synonyms_ref =
| type_species = ''[[Spondylus gaederopus]]''
| type_species = ''[[Spondylus gaederopus]]''
| type_species_authority = [[Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]
| type_species_authority = [[Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]
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== Uses ==
== Uses ==
[[Archaeological]] evidence indicates that people in [[Neolithic]] [[Europe]] were trading the shells of ''S. gaederopus'' to make bangles and other ornaments throughout much of the Neolithic period.<ref name="Gardelková-Vrtelová">{{cite journal |last1=Gardelková-Vrtelová |first1=Anna |last2=Golej |first2= Marián |date=2013 |title=The necklace from the Strážnice site in the Hodonín district (Czech Republic). A contribution on the subject of Spondylus jewelry in the Neolithic |journal=Documenta Praehistorica |publisher=Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani |volume=40 |pages=265–277 |doi=10.4312/dp.40.21 |doi-access=free }}{{Open access}}</ref> The main period of Neolithic use appears to have been from around 5350 to 4200 BC.<ref name="Gardelková-Vrtelová"/> The shells were harvested from the [[Aegean Sea]], but were transported far into the center of the continent. In the [[LBK]] and [[Lengyel culture]]s, ''Spondylus'' shells from the Aegean Sea were worked into bracelets and belt buckles. Over time styles changed with the middle Neolithic favouring generally larger barrel-shaped beads and the late Neolithic smaller favoring flatter and disk-shaped beads.<ref name="Gardelková-Vrtelová"/> Significant finds of jewelry made from ''Spondylus'' shells were made at the [[Varna Necropolis]]. During the late Neolithic the use of ''Spondylus'' in grave goods appears to have been limited to women and children.<ref name="Gardelková-Vrtelová"/>
[[Archaeological]] evidence indicates that people in [[Neolithic]] [[Europe]] were trading the shells of ''S. gaederopus'' to make bangles and other ornaments throughout much of the Neolithic period.<ref name="Gardelková-Vrtelová">{{cite journal |last1=Gardelková-Vrtelová |first1=Anna |last2=Golej |first2= Marián |date=2013 |title=The necklace from the Strážnice site in the Hodonín district (Czech Republic). A contribution on the subject of Spondylus jewelry in the Neolithic |journal=Documenta Praehistorica |publisher=Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani |volume=40 |pages=265–277 |doi=10.4312/dp.40.21 |doi-access=free }}{{Open access}}</ref> The main period of Neolithic use appears to have been from around 5350 to 4200 BC.<ref name="Gardelková-Vrtelová"/> The shells were harvested from the [[Aegean Sea]], but were transported far into the center of the continent. In the [[LBK]] and [[Lengyel culture]]s, ''Spondylus'' shells from the Aegean Sea were worked into bracelets and belt buckles. Over time styles changed with the middle Neolithic favouring generally larger barrel-shaped beads and the late Neolithic smaller favoring flatter and disk-shaped beads.<ref name="Gardelková-Vrtelová"/> Significant finds of jewelry made from ''Spondylus'' shells were made at the [[Varna Necropolis]]. During the late Neolithic the use of ''Spondylus'' in grave goods appears to have been limited to women and children.<ref name="Gardelková-Vrtelová"/>
[[File:Diorama (detalle). Vestimenta de cuentas de concha spondylus. La Florida, Quito, Ecuador.jpg|thumb|263x263px|Pre-Columbian clothing made of Spondylus shell beads, La Florida archaeological site ([[Quito]], Ecuador)]]
[[File:Diorama (detalle). Vestimenta de cuentas de concha spondylus. La Florida, Quito, Ecuador.jpg|thumb|263x263px|Pre-Columbian clothing made of ''Spondylus'' shell beads, La Florida archaeological site ([[Quito]], Ecuador)]]
''S. crassisquama'' is found off the coast of [[Colombia]] and [[Ecuador]] and has been important to [[Andean]] peoples since [[pre-Columbian]] times, serving as both an offering to the fertility goddess [[Pachamama]] and as currency.<ref>Carter, Benjamin. "Spondylus in South American Prehistory" in ''Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data and Approaches.'' Ed. Fotis Ifantidis and Marianna Nikolaidou. BAR International Series 2216. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2011: 63–89.</ref> In fact, much like in Europe, the trade in ''Spondylus'' shells also reached far and wide, as pre-Hispanic Ecuadorian peoples traded them with peoples as far north as present-day [[Mexico]] and as far south as the central [[Andes]].<ref>Shimada, Izumi. “Evolution of Andean Diversity: Regional Formations (500 B.C.E-C.E. 600). The Cambridge History of the Native People of the Americas. Vol. III, pt. 1. Ed. Frank Salomon & Stuart B. Schwartz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999: 350–517, esp. "Mesoamerican-Northwest South American Connections", pp. 430–436.</ref> The [[Moche culture|Moche]] people of ancient [[Peru]] regarded the sea and animals as sacred; they used ''Spondylus'' shells in their art and depicted ''Spondylus'' in effigy pots.<ref>Katherine Berrin and Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames and Hudson]], 1997.</ref> Spondylus also were harvested from the [[Gulf of California]] and traded to tribes throughout Mexico and the American Southwest.
''S. crassisquama'' is found off the coast of [[Colombia]] and [[Ecuador]] and has been important to [[Andean]] peoples since [[pre-Columbian]] times, serving as both an offering to the fertility goddess [[Pachamama]] and as currency.<ref>Carter, Benjamin. "Spondylus in South American Prehistory" in ''Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data and Approaches.'' Ed. Fotis Ifantidis and Marianna Nikolaidou. BAR International Series 2216. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2011: 63–89.</ref> In fact, much like in Europe, the trade in ''Spondylus'' shells also reached far and wide, as pre-Hispanic Ecuadorian peoples traded them with peoples as far north as present-day [[Mexico]] and as far south as the central [[Andes]].<ref>Shimada, Izumi. "Evolution of Andean Diversity: Regional Formations (500 B.C.E.–C.E. 600). The Cambridge History of the Native People of the Americas. Vol. III, pt. 1. Ed. Frank Salomon & Stuart B. Schwartz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999: 350–517, esp. "Mesoamerican-Northwest South American Connections", pp. 430–436.</ref> The [[Moche culture|Moche]] people of ancient [[Peru]] regarded the sea and animals as sacred; they used ''Spondylus'' shells in their art and depicted ''Spondylus'' in effigy pots.<ref>Katherine Berrin and Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames and Hudson]], 1997.</ref> Spondylus also were harvested from the [[Gulf of California]] and traded to tribes throughout Mexico and the American Southwest.


''Spondylus'' shells were the driving factor of trade within the Central Andes and were used in a similar manner to gold nuggets, copper hatches, coca, salt, red pepper, and cotton cloth.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Political Economy, Ethnogenesis, and Language Dispersals in the Prehispanic Andes: A World-System Perspective |journal=American Anthropologist}}</ref>
''Spondylus'' shells were the driving factor of trade within the Central Andes and were used in a similar manner to gold nuggets, copper hatches, coca, salt, red pepper, and cotton cloth.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Political Economy, Ethnogenesis, and Language Dispersals in the Prehispanic Andes: A World-System Perspective |journal=American Anthropologist}}</ref>


The use of ''Spondylus'' shells is what led to an economy of sorts in the Central Andes and led to the development of a merchant class, "mercardes", in different cultures within the Central Andes.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Negotiated Subjugation: Maritime Trade and the Incorporation of Chincha Into the Inca Empire |journal=The Journal of Island and Coastal Archeology}}</ref> This caused the development of different styles of trade that went through evolutionary changes throughout pre-Columbian times. These are reciprocity (home based), reciprocity (boundary), down-the-line trade, central place redistribution, central place market exchange, emissary trading, and port of trade.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Alexander J.|date=2001|title=The Dynamics of Pre-Columbian Spondylus Trade across the South American Central Pacific Coast|journal=Florida Atlantic University, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing|via=ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global|url=https://fau.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fau%3A9706/datastream/OBJ/download/dynamics_of_pre-Columbian_Spondylus_trade_across_the_South_American_Central_Pacific_Coast.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619010259/https://fau.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fau%3A9706/datastream/OBJ/download/dynamics_of_pre-Columbian_Spondylus_trade_across_the_South_American_Central_Pacific_Coast.pdf |archive-date=2020-06-19 |url-status=live}}</ref> These modes of trade dictate the way that the ''Spondylus'' shells are traded, as well as who is benefiting the most from the trades. Modes such as central place redistribution require the entity that is the central place to be the one that gains the most benefit from the trade, and modes such as emissary trading and port of trade are the modes that started the "mercardes" class within the Central Andes.
The use of ''Spondylus'' shells is what led to an economy of sorts in the Central Andes and led to the development of a merchant class, "mercardes", in different cultures within the Central Andes.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Negotiated Subjugation: Maritime Trade and the Incorporation of Chincha Into the Inca Empire |journal=The Journal of Island and Coastal Archeology}}</ref> This caused the development of different styles of trade that went through evolutionary changes throughout pre-Columbian times. These are reciprocity (home based), reciprocity (boundary), down-the-line trade, central place redistribution, central place market exchange, emissary trading, and port of trade.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Alexander J.|date=2001|title=The Dynamics of Pre-Columbian Spondylus Trade across the South American Central Pacific Coast|journal=Florida Atlantic University, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing|id={{ProQuest|<!-- add ProQuest data here -->}}|url=https://fau.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fau%3A9706/datastream/OBJ/download/dynamics_of_pre-Columbian_Spondylus_trade_across_the_South_American_Central_Pacific_Coast.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619010259/https://fau.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fau%3A9706/datastream/OBJ/download/dynamics_of_pre-Columbian_Spondylus_trade_across_the_South_American_Central_Pacific_Coast.pdf |archive-date=2020-06-19 |url-status=live}}</ref> These modes of trade dictate the way that the ''Spondylus'' shells are traded, as well as who is benefiting the most from the trades. Modes such as central place redistribution require the entity that is the central place to be the one that gains the most benefit from the trade, and modes such as emissary trading and port of trade are the modes that started the "mercardes" class within the Central Andes.


The value of ''Spondylus shells'' in the Central Andes stems from supply and demand. There was a great demand for ''Spondylus'' shells due to the "fetishistic needs to the south".<ref>{{Cite book |title=Waves of Influence: Pacific Maritime Networks Connecting Mexico, Central America, and Northwestern South America}}</ref>
The value of ''Spondylus'' shells in the Central Andes stems from supply and demand. There was a great demand for ''Spondylus'' shells due to the "fetishistic needs to the south".<ref>{{Cite book |title=Waves of Influence: Pacific Maritime Networks Connecting Mexico, Central America, and Northwestern South America}}</ref>


Even today, there are collectors of ''Spondylus'' shells, and a commercial market exists for them. Additionally, some species (especially ''S. americanus'') sometimes are found in the saltwater aquariums.
Even today, there are collectors of ''Spondylus'' shells, and a commercial market exists for them. Additionally, some species (especially ''S. americanus'') sometimes are found in the saltwater aquariums.
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=== Aztec culture ===
=== Aztec culture ===
In addition to its significance in the [[pre-Columbian]] times, ''Spondylus crassiquama'' was also an important part of [[Aztec]] culture. ''Spondylus'' uses amongst Aztecs included: art, jewelry, statues, religious motifs, and at times, as currency. One example of ''Spondylus'' used in art is the double-headed serpent that may be seen amongst images on the right of the page. [[File:Double Headed Turquoise Serpent.jpg|thumb|Double-headed serpent made of Spondylus shell]]
In addition to its significance in the [[pre-Columbian]] times, ''Spondylus crassiquama'' was also an important part of [[Aztec]] culture.
[[File:Double Headed Turquoise Serpent.jpg|thumb|Double-headed serpent made of ''Spondylus'' shell]]


As stated above, ''Spondylus'' held immense religious value amongst [[Aztec]] culture [[pre-columbian]] times and is also a great representation of the relationship between the Aztec empire and nature. To Aztec groups and peoples, ''Spondylus'' was a gift from the deities to be celebrated. Certain ''Spondylus'' groups were formed as a result of when and where they may be found seasonally and tend to connect a particular group of ''Spondylus'' to specific religious symbols such as the Fertility goddess, the Moon goddess, the Sun god, and the mountain spirits. This led to certain groups of ''Spondylus'' being associated with seasonal weather events such as heavy rains or increases in sea temperature along the coast, as those events were closely associated with particular deities or spirits in [[Aztec]] culture [http://sitios.espam.edu.ec/sigloxxi/Ponencias/VII/ponencias/53.pdf].
''Spondylus'' held immense religious significance in [[pre-Columbian]] [[Aztec]] culture and is also a great representation of the relationship between the Aztec empire and nature. To Aztec groups and peoples, ''Spondylus'' was a gift from the deities to be celebrated. Certain ''Spondylus'' groups were formed as a result of when and where they may be found seasonally and tend to connect a particular group of ''Spondylus'' to specific religious symbols such as the Fertility goddess, the Moon goddess, the Sun god, and the mountain spirits. This led to certain groups of ''Spondylus'' being associated with seasonal weather events such as heavy rains or increases in sea temperature along the coast, as those events were closely associated with particular deities or spirits in [[Aztec]] culture.


[[File:Aztec Mask.png|thumb|Mask made of Spondylus and other materials]]
[[File:Aztec Mask.png|thumb|Mask made of ''Spondylus'' and other materials]]
''Spondylus'' had several key uses in [[pre-Columbian]] Aztec history, most predominantly its importance in jewelry, art, and sculpture. Another use of ''Spondylus'', that had to be executed with extreme detail and precision, was to create breathtaking masks, vests, and other items individuals would use to express how important or wealthy they were in life and death. Having the most beautiful ''Spondylus'' pieces, meant that individual had immense power within the community.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Spondylus in Precolumbian, Historic and Contemporary Southwest Jewelry |url=https://www.academia.edu/38298911 |first=Robert |last=Liu |magazine=[[Ornament (magazine)|Ornament]] |pages=38–44 |date=2005-03-28 |via=[[Academia.edu]]}}</ref>
''Spondylus'' had several key uses in [[pre-Columbian]] Aztec history, most predominantly its importance in jewelry, art, and sculpture. Another use of ''Spondylus'', that had to be executed with extreme detail and precision, was to create breathtaking masks, vests, and other items individuals would use to express how important or wealthy they were in life and death. Having the most beautiful ''Spondylus'' pieces, meant that individual had immense power within the community.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Spondylus in Precolumbian, Historic and Contemporary Southwest Jewelry |url=https://www.academia.edu/38298911 |first=Robert |last=Liu |magazine=[[Ornament (magazine)|Ornament]] |pages=38–44 |date=2005-03-28 |via=[[Academia.edu]]}}</ref>


== Species ==
== Species ==
Spondylidae taxonomy has undergone many revisions,<ref>{{cite book|last1=WoRMS Editorial Board|title=Spondylus|chapter-url=http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=138518|website=World Register of Marine Species|access-date=19 February 2018|doi=10.14284/170|year=2017|type=Data Set|publisher=VLIZ|chapter=Taxonomy}}</ref> mostly due to the fact that identification is traditionally based on the shell alone, and this is highly variable. To add to this, while some shallow-water species are extremely common, at least two deep-water species <!-- one is S. ostreoides, the other is the Caspian one; bear with me, my copy of Lamprell is 800 km away, right now --> are known from a single specimen, while a third (''S. gravis'')<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lamprell|first=Kevin L.|title=Recent Spondylus species from the Middle East and adjacent regions, with the description of two new species|journal=Vita Marina|date=May 1998|volume=45|issue=1–2|page=58}}</ref> was only identified in the late 1900s. At least another common species (''S. regius'') has a different shell when it grows in deep water.<ref>{{cite web|last=Poppe|first=Guido T.|title=Spondylus regius, deep water|url=https://www.conchology.be/?t=66&family=SPONDYLIDAE&species=Spondylus%20regius%20DEEP%20WATER|website=Shell Encyclopedia|access-date=19 February 2018}}</ref>
Spondylidae taxonomy has undergone many revisions,<ref>{{cite book|last1=WoRMS Editorial Board|title=Spondylus|chapter-url=http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=138518|via=World Register of Marine Species|access-date=19 February 2018|doi=10.14284/170|year=2017|type=Data Set|publisher=VLIZ|chapter=Taxonomy}}</ref> mostly due to the fact that identification is traditionally based on the shell alone, and this is highly variable. To add to this, while some shallow-water species are extremely common, at least two deep-water species <!-- one is S. ostreoides, the other is the Caspian one; bear with me, my copy of Lamprell is 800 km away, right now --> are known from a single specimen, while a third (''S. gravis'')<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lamprell|first=Kevin L.|title=Recent Spondylus species from the Middle East and adjacent regions, with the description of two new species|journal=Vita Marina|date=May 1998|volume=45|issue=1–2|page=58}}</ref> was only identified in the late 1900s. At least another common species (''S. regius'') has a different shell when it grows in deep water.<ref>{{cite web|last=Poppe|first=Guido T.|title=Spondylus regius, deep water|url=https://www.conchology.be/?t=66&family=SPONDYLIDAE&species=Spondylus%20regius%20DEEP%20WATER|website=Shell Encyclopedia|access-date=19 February 2018}}</ref>
[[File:Spondylus senegalensis (K. Schreibers, 1793).jpg|thumb|Spondylus senegalensis (K. Schreibers, 1793) Tenerife, Canary Islands]]
[[File:Spondylus senegalensis (K. Schreibers, 1793).jpg|thumb|''Spondylus senegalensis'' (K. Schreibers, 1793) from Tenerife, Canary Islands]]
[[File:Spondylus crassisquama.jpg|thumb|Pacific thorny oyster, ''S. crassisquama'' Lamarck, 1819, from the [[Gulf of California]], Mexico]]
[[File:Spondylus crassisquama.jpg|thumb|Pacific thorny oyster, ''S. crassisquama'' Lamarck, 1819, from the [[Gulf of California]], Mexico]]
[[Image:SpondylusPliocene.jpg|thumb|The interior of two fossil valves of ''Spondylus'' from the [[Pliocene]] of [[Cyprus]]]]
[[Image:SpondylusPliocene.jpg|thumb|The interior of two fossil valves of ''Spondylus'' from the [[Pliocene]] of [[Cyprus]]]]
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[[File:Shell Spondylus visayensis.jpg|thumb|''[[Spondylus visayensis]]'']]
[[File:Shell Spondylus visayensis.jpg|thumb|''[[Spondylus visayensis]]'']]
<ref name=WoRMS/>
<ref name=WoRMS/>
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}  
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*''[[Spondylus americanus]]'' <small>[[Johann Hermann|Hermann]], 1781</small> – Atlantic thorny oyster
* ''[[Spondylus americanus]]'' <small>[[Johann Hermann|Hermann]], 1781</small> – Atlantic thorny oyster
*''[[Spondylus anacanthus]]'' <small>[[John Mawe|Mawe]], 1823</small> – nude thorny oyster
* ''[[Spondylus anacanthus]]'' <small>[[John Mawe|Mawe]], 1823</small> – nude thorny oyster
*{{Extinct}}''[[Spondylus aonis]]'' <small>d'Orbigny, 1850</small>
* {{Extinct}}''[[Spondylus aonis]]'' <small>d'Orbigny, 1850</small>
*''[[Spondylus asiaticus]]'' <small>[[Jean-Charles Chenu|Chenu]], 1844</small>
* ''[[Spondylus asiaticus]]'' <small>[[Jean-Charles Chenu|Chenu]], 1844</small>
*''[[Spondylus asperrimus]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1847</small>
* ''[[Spondylus asperrimus]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1847</small>
*{{Extinct}}''[[Spondylus aucklandicus]]'' <small>P. Marshall, 1918</small>
* {{Extinct}}''[[Spondylus aucklandicus]]'' <small>P. Marshall, 1918</small>
*''[[Spondylus avramsingeri]]'' <small>Kovalis, 2010</small>
* ''[[Spondylus avramsingeri]]'' <small>Kovalis, 2010</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus bostrychites]]'' <small>Guppy, 1867</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus bostrychites]]'' <small>Guppy, 1867</small>
*''[[Spondylus butleri]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
* ''[[Spondylus butleri]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
*''[[Spondylus candidus]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1819</small>
* ''[[Spondylus candidus]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1819</small>
*''[[Spondylus clarksoni]]'' <small>Lamprell, 1992</small>
* ''[[Spondylus clarksoni]]'' <small>Lamprell, 1992</small>
*''[[Spondylus concavus]]'' <small>[[Gérard Paul Deshayes|Deshayes]] in Maillard, 1863</small>
* ''[[Spondylus concavus]]'' <small>[[Gérard Paul Deshayes|Deshayes]] in Maillard, 1863</small>
*''[[Spondylus crassisquama]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1819</small>
* ''[[Spondylus crassisquama]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1819</small>
*''[[Spondylus croceus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
* ''[[Spondylus croceus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus darwini]]'' <small>[[Félix Pierre Jousseaume|Jousseaume]], 1882</small>
* ''[[Spondylus darwini]]'' <small>[[Félix Pierre Jousseaume|Jousseaume]], 1882</small>
*''[[Spondylus deforgesi]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
* ''[[Spondylus deforgesi]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
*''[[Spondylus depressus]]'' <small>Fulton, 1915</small>
* ''[[Spondylus depressus]]'' <small>Fulton, 1915</small>
*''[[Spondylus eastae]]'' <small>Lamprell, 1992</small>
* ''[[Spondylus eastae]]'' <small>Lamprell, 1992</small>
*''[[Spondylus echinatus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
* ''[[Spondylus echinatus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus erectospinosus]]'' <small>Habe, 1973</small>
* ''[[Spondylus erectospinosus]]'' <small>Habe, 1973</small>
*''[[Spondylus exiguus]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
* ''[[Spondylus exiguus]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
*''[[Spondylus exilis]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]]I, 1895</small>
* ''[[Spondylus exilis]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]]I, 1895</small>
*''[[Spondylus fauroti]]'' <small>[[Félix Pierre Jousseaume|Jousseaume]], 1888</small>
* ''[[Spondylus fauroti]]'' <small>[[Félix Pierre Jousseaume|Jousseaume]], 1888</small>
*''[[Spondylus foliaceus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
* ''[[Spondylus foliaceus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus gaederopus]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]</small> – European thorny oyster
* ''[[Spondylus gaederopus]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]</small> – European thorny oyster
*''[[Spondylus gloriandus]]'' <small>[[James Cosmo Melvill (naturalist)|Melvill]] & Standen, 1907</small>
* ''[[Spondylus gloriandus]]'' <small>[[James Cosmo Melvill (naturalist)|Melvill]] & Standen, 1907</small>
*''[[Spondylus gloriosus]]'' <small>Dall, [[Paul Bartsch|Bartsch]] & [[Harald A. Rehder|Rehder]], 1938</small>
* ''[[Spondylus gloriosus]]'' <small>Dall, [[Paul Bartsch|Bartsch]] & [[Harald A. Rehder|Rehder]], 1938</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus granulosus]]'' <small>Deshayes, 1830</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus granulosus]]'' <small>Deshayes, 1830</small>
*''[[Spondylus gravis]]'' <small>Fulton, 1915</small>
* ''[[Spondylus gravis]]'' <small>Fulton, 1915</small>
*''[[Spondylus groschi]]'' <small>Lamprell & Kilburn, 1995</small>
* ''[[Spondylus groschi]]'' <small>Lamprell & Kilburn, 1995</small>
*{{Extinct}}''[[Spondylus guadalupae]]'' <small>[[Ferdinand von Roemer|Roemer]], 1849</small><ref>Roemer, F. (1849). Texas : mit besonderer Rücksicht auf deutsche Auswanderung und die physischen Verhältnisse des Landes nach eigener Beobachtung. A. Marcus </ref>
* {{Extinct}}''[[Spondylus guadalupae]]'' <small>[[Ferdinand von Roemer|Roemer]], 1849</small><ref>Roemer, F. (1849). Texas : mit besonderer Rücksicht auf deutsche Auswanderung und die physischen Verhältnisse des Landes nach eigener Beobachtung. A. Marcus </ref>
*''[[Spondylus gussonii]]'' <small>[[Oronzio Gabriele Costa|O. G. Costa]], 1830</small>
* ''[[Spondylus gussonii]]'' <small>[[Oronzio Gabriele Costa|O. G. Costa]], 1830</small>
*''[[Spondylus heidkeae]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
* ''[[Spondylus heidkeae]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
*''[[Spondylus imperialis]]'' <small>[[Jean-Charles Chenu|Chenu]], 1844</small>
* ''[[Spondylus imperialis]]'' <small>[[Jean-Charles Chenu|Chenu]], 1844</small>
* ''[[Spondylus jamarci]]'' <small>Okutani, 1983</small>
* ''[[Spondylus jamarci]]'' <small>Okutani, 1983</small>
*''[[Spondylus Lamarckii]]'' <small>[[Jean-Charles Chenu|Chenu]], 1845</small>
* ''[[Spondylus Lamarckii]]'' <small>[[Jean-Charles Chenu|Chenu]], 1845</small>
*''[[Spondylus layardi]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
* ''[[Spondylus layardi]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
*''[[Spondylus leucacanthus]]'' <small>[[William Broderip|Broderip]], 1833</small>
* ''[[Spondylus leucacanthus]]'' <small>[[William Broderip|Broderip]], 1833</small>
*''[[Spondylus limbatus]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1847</small>
* ''[[Spondylus limbatus]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1847</small>
*''[[Spondylus linguafelis]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1847</small>
* ''[[Spondylus linguafelis]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1847</small>
*''[[Spondylus maestratii]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
* ''[[Spondylus maestratii]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
*''[[Spondylus marinensis]]'' <small>Cossignani & Allary, 2018</small>
* ''[[Spondylus marinensis]]'' <small>Cossignani & Allary, 2018</small>
*''[[Spondylus mimus]]'' <small>Dall, [[Paul Bartsch|Bartsch]] & [[Harald A. Rehder|Rehder]], 1938</small>
* ''[[Spondylus mimus]]'' <small>Dall, [[Paul Bartsch|Bartsch]] & [[Harald A. Rehder|Rehder]], 1938</small>
*''[[Spondylus morrisoni]]'' <small>Damarco, 2015</small>
* ''[[Spondylus morrisoni]]'' <small>Damarco, 2015</small>
*''[[Spondylus multimuricatus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
* ''[[Spondylus multimuricatus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
*''[[Spondylus multisetosus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
* ''[[Spondylus multisetosus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus multistriatus]]'' <small>Deshayes, 1830</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus multistriatus]]'' <small>Deshayes, 1830</small>
*''[[Spondylus nicobaricus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
* ''[[Spondylus nicobaricus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus occidens]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]]I, 1903</small>
* ''[[Spondylus occidens]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]]I, 1903</small>
*''[[Spondylus ocellatus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
* ''[[Spondylus ocellatus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
*''[[Spondylus orstomi]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
* ''[[Spondylus orstomi]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
*''[[Spondylus ostreoides]]'' <small>[[Edgar Albert Smith|E. A. Smith]], 1885</small>
* ''[[Spondylus ostreoides]]'' <small>[[Edgar Albert Smith|E. A. Smith]], 1885</small>
*''[[Spondylus pratii]]'' <small>Parth, 1990</small>
* ''[[Spondylus pratii]]'' <small>Parth, 1990</small>
*''[[Spondylus proneri]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
* ''[[Spondylus proneri]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
* ''[[Spondylus pseudogaederopus]]'' <small>T. Cossignani, 2022</small>
* ''[[Spondylus pseudogaederopus]]'' <small>T. Cossignani, 2022</small>
* ''[[Spondylus purpurascens]]'' <small>T. Cossignani, 2022</small>
* ''[[Spondylus purpurascens]]'' <small>T. Cossignani, 2022</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus radula]]'' <small>Lamarck, 1806</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus radula]]'' <small>Lamarck, 1806</small>
*''[[Spondylus raoulensis]]'' <small>[[Walter Oliver|W. R. B. Oliver]], 1915</small>
* ''[[Spondylus raoulensis]]'' <small>[[Walter Oliver|W. R. B. Oliver]], 1915</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus rarispina]]'' <small>Deshayes, 1830</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus rarispina]]'' <small>Deshayes, 1830</small>
*''[[Spondylus reesianus]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]]I, 1903</small>
* ''[[Spondylus reesianus]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]]I, 1903</small>
*''[[Spondylus regius]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]</small> – regal thorny oyster
* ''[[Spondylus regius]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]</small> – regal thorny oyster
*''[[Spondylus rippingalei]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
* ''[[Spondylus rippingalei]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
*''[[Spondylus rubicundus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
* ''[[Spondylus rubicundus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
*''[[Spondylus senegalensis]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
* ''[[Spondylus senegalensis]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus sinensis]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
* ''[[Spondylus sinensis]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus spinosus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
* ''[[Spondylus spinosus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus squamosus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
* ''[[Spondylus squamosus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus tenellus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
* ''[[Spondylus tenellus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
*''[[Spondylus tenuis]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
* ''[[Spondylus tenuis]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus tenuispinosus]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1847</small>
* ''[[Spondylus tenuispinosus]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1847</small>
*''[[Spondylus tenuitas]]'' <small>Garrard, 1966</small>
* ''[[Spondylus tenuitas]]'' <small>Garrard, 1966</small>
*''[[Spondylus variegatus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
* ''[[Spondylus variegatus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus varius]]'' <small>G. B. Sowerby I, 1827</small>
* ''[[Spondylus varius]]'' <small>G. B. Sowerby I, 1827</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus vaudini]]'' <small>Deshayes, 1858</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus vaudini]]'' <small>Deshayes, 1858</small>
*''[[Spondylus versicolor]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
* ''[[Spondylus versicolor]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus victoriae]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1860</small>
* ''[[Spondylus victoriae]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1860</small>
*''[[Spondylus violacescens]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1819</small>
* ''[[Spondylus violacescens]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1819</small>
*''[[Spondylus virgineus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
* ''[[Spondylus virgineus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
*''[[Spondylus visayensis]]'' <small>[[Guido Poppe|Poppe]] & Tagaro, 2010</small>
* ''[[Spondylus visayensis]]'' <small>[[Guido Poppe|Poppe]] & Tagaro, 2010</small>
*''[[Spondylus zonalis]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1819</small>
* ''[[Spondylus zonalis]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1819</small>
{{div col end}}
{{div col end}}
 
* ''[[Spondylus echinus]]'' <small>[[Félix Pierre Jousseaume|Jousseaume]] in Lamy, 1927</small> ([[taxon inquirendum]])
*''[[Spondylus echinus]]'' <small>[[Félix Pierre Jousseaume|Jousseaume]] in Lamy, 1927</small> ([[taxon inquirendum]])
* ''[[Spondylus imbricatus]]'' <small>Perry, 1811</small> ([[nomen dubium]])
*''[[Spondylus imbricatus]]'' <small>Perry, 1811</small> ([[nomen dubium]])
* ''[[Spondylus microlepos]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1819</small> ([[nomen dubium]])
*''[[Spondylus microlepos]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1819</small> ([[nomen dubium]])
* ''[[Spondylus unicolor]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1847</small> ([[nomen dubium]])
*''[[Spondylus unicolor]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1847</small> ([[nomen dubium]])
See also: [[Tikod amo]], an undescribed species
See also: [[Tikod amo]], an undescribed species


Line 186: Line 186:
* [https://www.conchology.be/?t=65&family=SPONDYLIDAE Spondylidae] examples of the shells of most extant species
* [https://www.conchology.be/?t=65&family=SPONDYLIDAE Spondylidae] examples of the shells of most extant species
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120203010849/http://www.nmr-pics.nl/Spondylidae/album/index.html shells at the Rotterdam Natural History Museum]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120203010849/http://www.nmr-pics.nl/Spondylidae/album/index.html shells at the Rotterdam Natural History Museum]
* [http://www.unizd.hr/Portals/39/papers/Abstracts_Book.pdf Session Abstracts] on ''Spondylus'' research at the 13th Meeting of the European Association of Archaeologists at Zadar, Croatia, September 2007
* [https://www.unizd.hr/Portals/39/papers/Abstracts_Book.pdf Session Abstracts] on ''Spondylus'' research at the 13th Meeting of the European Association of Archaeologists at Zadar, Croatia, September 2007
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20031231033508/http://nighthawk.tricity.wsu.edu/museum/ArcherdShellCollection/Bivalvia/Spondylidae.html Information about ''Spondylus''] from the website of the Gladys Archerd Shell Collection at Washington State University Tri-Cities Natural History Museum
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20031231033508/http://nighthawk.tricity.wsu.edu/museum/ArcherdShellCollection/Bivalvia/Spondylidae.html Information about ''Spondylus''] from the website of the Gladys Archerd Shell Collection at Washington State University Tri-Cities Natural History Museum
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070226163542/http://home.earthlink.net/~aydinslibrary/MalacGp09.pdf Article on "notched" ''Spondylus''] Neolithic artifacts in Europe
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070226163542/http://home.earthlink.net/~aydinslibrary/MalacGp09.pdf Article on "notched" ''Spondylus''] Neolithic artifacts in Europe
Line 192: Line 192:
== Bibliography ==
== Bibliography ==
{{Commons category}}
{{Commons category}}
* [http://spondylus.wordpress.com/ A full and constantly updated bibliography] on ''Spondylus'' spp. in Aegean, Balkan, European and American contexts
* [https://spondylus.wordpress.com/ A full and constantly updated bibliography] on ''Spondylus'' spp. in Aegean, Balkan, European and American contexts
* Lamprell, Kevin L.: ''Spondylus: Spiny Oyster Shells of the World'', E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1987 {{ISBN|90-04-08329-4}}
* Lamprell, Kevin L.: ''Spondylus: Spiny Oyster Shells of the World'', E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1987 {{ISBN|90-04-08329-4}}


Latest revision as of 13:48, 1 September 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "For". Script error: No such module "Distinguish". Template:Automatic taxobox

Spondylus is a genus of bivalve molluscs, the only genus in the family Spondylidae and subfamily Spondylinae.[1] They are known in English as spiny oysters or thorny oysters (although they are not, in fact, true oysters, but are related to scallops).

Description

File:Spondylus varius.jpg
Spondylus varius from Mayotte in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa

The many species of Spondylus vary considerably in appearance. They are grouped in the same superfamily as the scallops.

They are not closely related to true oysters (family Ostreidae); however, they do share some habits such as cementing themselves to rocks rather than attaching themselves by a byssus. The two halves of their shells are joined with a ball-and-socket type of hinge, rather than with a toothed hinge as is more common in other bivalves. They also still retain vestigial anterior and posterior auricles ("ears", triangular shell flaps) along the hinge line, a characteristic feature of scallops, although not of oysters.

As is the case in all scallops, Spondylus spp. have multiple eyes around the edges of their mantle, and they have relatively well-developed nervous systems. Their nervous ganglia are concentrated in the visceral region, with recognisable optic lobes connected to the eyes.

Evolutionary history

The genus Spondylus appeared in the Mesozoic era, and is known in the fossil records from the Triassic Cassian beds in Italy (235 to 232 million years ago) onward. Approximately 40 extinct species are known.[2]

File:Spondylidae - Spondylus crassicosta.JPG
Fossil valve of Spondylus crassicosta from the Pliocene of Italy

Fossils of these molluscs may be found in fossiliferous marine strata all over the world. For example, they are present in Cretaceous rocks in the Fort Worth Formation of Texas, and in the Trent River Formation of Vancouver Island, as well as in other parts of North America.[3][4]

Distribution

Spiny oysters are found in all subtropical and (especially) tropical seas, usually close to the coasts.

Ecology

Spondylus are filter feeders. The adults live cemented to hard substrates, a characteristic they share, by convergent evolution, with true oysters and jewel boxes. Like the latter, they are protected by spines and a layer of epibionts and, like the former, they can produce pearls.[5] The type of substrate they use depends on the species: many only attach to coral, and the largest diversity of species is found in tropical coral reefs; others (particularly S. spinosus), however, easily adapt to manufactured structures such as boats, pipes, and docks thereby becoming significant invasive species. Often other species are found attached to the shells of other species, perhaps the most common being found attached to the genus Malleus.

Uses

Archaeological evidence indicates that people in Neolithic Europe were trading the shells of S. gaederopus to make bangles and other ornaments throughout much of the Neolithic period.[6] The main period of Neolithic use appears to have been from around 5350 to 4200 BC.[6] The shells were harvested from the Aegean Sea, but were transported far into the center of the continent. In the LBK and Lengyel cultures, Spondylus shells from the Aegean Sea were worked into bracelets and belt buckles. Over time styles changed with the middle Neolithic favouring generally larger barrel-shaped beads and the late Neolithic smaller favoring flatter and disk-shaped beads.[6] Significant finds of jewelry made from Spondylus shells were made at the Varna Necropolis. During the late Neolithic the use of Spondylus in grave goods appears to have been limited to women and children.[6]

File:Diorama (detalle). Vestimenta de cuentas de concha spondylus. La Florida, Quito, Ecuador.jpg
Pre-Columbian clothing made of Spondylus shell beads, La Florida archaeological site (Quito, Ecuador)

S. crassisquama is found off the coast of Colombia and Ecuador and has been important to Andean peoples since pre-Columbian times, serving as both an offering to the fertility goddess Pachamama and as currency.[7] In fact, much like in Europe, the trade in Spondylus shells also reached far and wide, as pre-Hispanic Ecuadorian peoples traded them with peoples as far north as present-day Mexico and as far south as the central Andes.[8] The Moche people of ancient Peru regarded the sea and animals as sacred; they used Spondylus shells in their art and depicted Spondylus in effigy pots.[9] Spondylus also were harvested from the Gulf of California and traded to tribes throughout Mexico and the American Southwest.

Spondylus shells were the driving factor of trade within the Central Andes and were used in a similar manner to gold nuggets, copper hatches, coca, salt, red pepper, and cotton cloth.[10]

The use of Spondylus shells is what led to an economy of sorts in the Central Andes and led to the development of a merchant class, "mercardes", in different cultures within the Central Andes.[11] This caused the development of different styles of trade that went through evolutionary changes throughout pre-Columbian times. These are reciprocity (home based), reciprocity (boundary), down-the-line trade, central place redistribution, central place market exchange, emissary trading, and port of trade.[12] These modes of trade dictate the way that the Spondylus shells are traded, as well as who is benefiting the most from the trades. Modes such as central place redistribution require the entity that is the central place to be the one that gains the most benefit from the trade, and modes such as emissary trading and port of trade are the modes that started the "mercardes" class within the Central Andes.

The value of Spondylus shells in the Central Andes stems from supply and demand. There was a great demand for Spondylus shells due to the "fetishistic needs to the south".[13]

Even today, there are collectors of Spondylus shells, and a commercial market exists for them. Additionally, some species (especially S. americanus) sometimes are found in the saltwater aquariums.

S. limbatus was commonly ground for mortar in Central America, giving raise to its junior synonym, "S. calcifer".

Spondylus is fished primarily for its adductor muscle, or "callus", which is a high-value foodstuff.[14] Some Mediterranean species are edible and are commonly consumed, with S. gaederopus in particular being popular in Sardinia. Tropical species, however, tend to bioaccumulate saxitoxin.[15] The Romans ate Spondylus species. Macrobius in Saturnalia III.13 describes a dinner party in 63 BCE in which there were two courses of Spondylus.

Aztec culture

In addition to its significance in the pre-Columbian times, Spondylus crassiquama was also an important part of Aztec culture.

File:Double Headed Turquoise Serpent.jpg
Double-headed serpent made of Spondylus shell

Spondylus held immense religious significance in pre-Columbian Aztec culture and is also a great representation of the relationship between the Aztec empire and nature. To Aztec groups and peoples, Spondylus was a gift from the deities to be celebrated. Certain Spondylus groups were formed as a result of when and where they may be found seasonally and tend to connect a particular group of Spondylus to specific religious symbols such as the Fertility goddess, the Moon goddess, the Sun god, and the mountain spirits. This led to certain groups of Spondylus being associated with seasonal weather events such as heavy rains or increases in sea temperature along the coast, as those events were closely associated with particular deities or spirits in Aztec culture.

File:Aztec Mask.png
Mask made of Spondylus and other materials

Spondylus had several key uses in pre-Columbian Aztec history, most predominantly its importance in jewelry, art, and sculpture. Another use of Spondylus, that had to be executed with extreme detail and precision, was to create breathtaking masks, vests, and other items individuals would use to express how important or wealthy they were in life and death. Having the most beautiful Spondylus pieces, meant that individual had immense power within the community.[16]

Species

Spondylidae taxonomy has undergone many revisions,[17] mostly due to the fact that identification is traditionally based on the shell alone, and this is highly variable. To add to this, while some shallow-water species are extremely common, at least two deep-water species are known from a single specimen, while a third (S. gravis)[18] was only identified in the late 1900s. At least another common species (S. regius) has a different shell when it grows in deep water.[19]

File:Spondylus senegalensis (K. Schreibers, 1793).jpg
Spondylus senegalensis (K. Schreibers, 1793) from Tenerife, Canary Islands
File:Spondylus crassisquama.jpg
Pacific thorny oyster, S. crassisquama Lamarck, 1819, from the Gulf of California, Mexico
File:SpondylusPliocene.jpg
The interior of two fossil valves of Spondylus from the Pliocene of Cyprus
File:WLA hmns Spondylus linguaefelis 2.jpg
Cat's tongue oyster, Spondylus linguaefelis Sowerby, 1847, from Hawaii
File:Thorny oyster.jpg
A view of the colorful mantle edges of a live thorny oyster from East Timor: The eyes may be seen on the fringe between the mantle and the shell.
File:SpondylusArticulated.jpg
A fossil Spondylus gaederopus from the Pliocene of Cyprus
File:Shell Spondylus visayensis.jpg
Spondylus visayensis

[1]

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See also: Tikod amo, an undescribed species

References

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  1. ↑ a b Template:Cite WoRMS
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Finsley, Chalres. 1999. A Field Guide to the Fossils of Texas. Gulf Publishing. Lanham, Maryland. plate 55.
  4. ↑ Ludvigsen, Rolf & Beard, Graham. 1997. West Coast Fossils: A Guide to the Ancient Life of Vancouver Island. pg. 104
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ a b c d Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".Template:Open access
  7. ↑ Carter, Benjamin. "Spondylus in South American Prehistory" in Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data and Approaches. Ed. Fotis Ifantidis and Marianna Nikolaidou. BAR International Series 2216. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2011: 63–89.
  8. ↑ Shimada, Izumi. "Evolution of Andean Diversity: Regional Formations (500 B.C.E.–C.E. 600). The Cambridge History of the Native People of the Americas. Vol. III, pt. 1. Ed. Frank Salomon & Stuart B. Schwartz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999: 350–517, esp. "Mesoamerican-Northwest South American Connections", pp. 430–436.
  9. ↑ Katherine Berrin and Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997.
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Roemer, F. (1849). Texas : mit besonderer Rücksicht auf deutsche Auswanderung und die physischen Verhältnisse des Landes nach eigener Beobachtung. A. Marcus

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External links

Bibliography

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