Narmer: Difference between revisions
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imported>Veristune edit note because Narmer and Aha were different people |
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| predecessor = [[Ka (pharaoh)|Ka]]? [[Scorpion II]]? | | predecessor = [[Ka (pharaoh)|Ka]]? [[Scorpion II]]? | ||
| successor = [[Hor-Aha]] | | successor = [[Hor-Aha]] | ||
| horus = Hor-Narmer (often show in a ''serekh'' with just the catfish)<br/>''Ḥr-nˁr | | horus = Hor-Narmer<br/>''Ḥr-nˁr-mr''<br/>''Fierce catfish of Horus''<br/>{{Infobox pharaoh/Serekh |Horus=[[File:Narhieroglyph.png|x22px]]<hiero>U23</hiero>||prefix=<hiero>G5</hiero>}}<br/>Second Horus name: Hor-Nar (version often show in a ''serekh'' with just the catfish)<ref>{{Cite web | title=Narmer in hieroglyphs {{!}} Pharaoh.se | url=https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/pharaoh/narmer/ | access-date=2025-08-30 | website=pharaoh.se}}</ref><br/>''Ḥr-nˁr''<br/>''The catfish of Horus''<br/>{{Infobox pharaoh/Serekh |Horus=[[File:Narhieroglyph.png|x22px]]||prefix=<hiero>G5</hiero>}}<br/>Third Horus name: Hor-Narmer-Tjai (rare—only one example exists)<br/>''Ḥr-nˁr-mr-ṯ3j''<br/>''Manly catfish of Horus''<br/>{{Infobox pharaoh/Serekh |Horus =[[File:Narhieroglyph.png|x22px]]<hiero>U23-G47</hiero>}} | ||
| | | prenomen = (Disputed) Nisut-Bity-Men<br/>''nsw.t-bjtj-mn''<br/>''King of Upper and Lower Egypt, the endurer''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ancient-egypt.org/history/early-dynastic-period/1st-dynasty/horus-aha/naqada-label.html |title=Naqada Label {{!}} The Ancient Egypt Site<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=2021-07-20 |archive-date=2022-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403204733/http://www.ancient-egypt.org/history/early-dynastic-period/1st-dynasty/horus-aha/naqada-label.html |url-status=live }}</ref><br/><hiero>M23:t-L2:t-Y5</hiero><br/>(Disputed) Menes{{efn|name=a}}{{efn|name=b}} | ||
<br />''Mnj''<br />He who endures{{Sfn | Edwards | 1971 | p = 11}} | <br />''Mnj''<br />He who endures{{Sfn | Edwards | 1971 | p = 11}}<br/><hiero><-Y5:N35-M17-></hiero> | ||
| prenomen_hiero = | |||
| nomen = | |||
| nomen_hiero = | |||
| spouse = Uncertain: possibly [[Neithhotep]] | | spouse = Uncertain: possibly [[Neithhotep]] | ||
| children = Uncertain: probably [[Hor-Aha]] | | children = Uncertain: probably [[Hor-Aha]] | ||
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}} | }} | ||
'''Narmer''' ({{langx|egy|[[Wiktionary:nꜥr-mr|nꜥr-mr]]}}, may mean "painful [[catfish]]", "stinging catfish", "harsh catfish", or "fierce catfish";{{sfn|Pätznick|2009|pp=308, n.8}}{{sfn|Leprohon|2013|p=22}}{{sfn|Clayton|1994|p=16}} {{fl.|{{circa}} 3100 BC}}){{sfn|Hayes|1970|pp=173-176}} was an [[ancient Egypt]]ian king of the [[Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)|Early Dynastic Period]], whose reign began at the end of the [[4th millennium BC]]. He | '''Narmer''' ({{langx|egy|[[Wiktionary:nꜥr-mr|nꜥr-mr]]}}, may mean "painful [[catfish]]", "stinging catfish", "harsh catfish", or "fierce catfish";{{sfn|Pätznick|2009|pp=308, n.8}}{{sfn|Leprohon|2013|p=22}}{{sfn|Clayton|1994|p=16}} {{fl.|{{circa}} 3100 BC}}){{sfn|Hayes|1970|pp=173-176}} was an [[ancient Egypt]]ian king of the [[Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)|Early Dynastic Period]], whose reign began at the end of the [[4th millennium BC]]. He's believed to have been the successor to the [[Naqada III|Protodynastic]] king [[Ka (pharaoh)|Ka]]. Many scholars consider him the unifier of [[Egypt]] and founder of the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]], and in turn the first king of a unified Egypt. He also had a prominently noticeable presence in [[Canaan]], compared to his predecessors and successors. [[Neithhotep]] is thought to be his queen consort or his daughter. | ||
A majority of [[Egyptologist]]s believe that Narmer was the same person as [[Menes]].{{efn|name=a|Egyptologists have long debated whether [[Menes]] was the same person as Narmer or [[Hor-Aha]], Narmer's successor. A 2014 study by [[Thomas C. Heagy]] published in the Egyptological journal ''Archéo-Nil'' compiled a list of 69 Egyptologists who took either position. Forty-one of them have concluded that [[Menes]] was Narmer, while 31 have concluded that [[Menes]] was [[Hor-Aha]]. Three Egyptologists—[[Flinders Petrie]], [[Kurt Sethe]] and {{ill|Stan Hendrickx|fr}}—on the list have first concluded that [[Menes]] was [[Hor-Aha]], but later concluded that [[Menes]] was Narmer.{{sfn|Heagy|2014|pp=83–84}}}}{{sfn|Cervelló-Autuori|2003|p=174}}{{sfn|Grimal|1994}}{{sfn|Edwards|1971|p=13}} | A majority of [[Egyptologist]]s believe that Narmer was the same person as [[Menes]].{{efn|name=a|Egyptologists have long debated whether [[Menes]] was the same person as Narmer or [[Hor-Aha]], Narmer's successor. A 2014 study by [[Thomas C. Heagy]] published in the Egyptological journal ''Archéo-Nil'' compiled a list of 69 Egyptologists who took either position. Forty-one of them have concluded that [[Menes]] was Narmer, while 31 have concluded that [[Menes]] was [[Hor-Aha]]. Three Egyptologists—[[Flinders Petrie]], [[Kurt Sethe]] and {{ill|Stan Hendrickx|fr}}—on the list have first concluded that [[Menes]] was [[Hor-Aha]], but later concluded that [[Menes]] was Narmer.{{sfn|Heagy|2014|pp=83–84}}}}{{sfn|Cervelló-Autuori|2003|p=174}}{{sfn|Grimal|1994}}{{sfn|Edwards|1971|p=13}} | ||
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| footer = | | footer = | ||
}} | }} | ||
Although highly interrelated, the questions of "who was [[Menes]]?" and "who unified Egypt?" are actually two separate issues. Narmer is often credited with the [[unification of Egypt]] by means of the conquest of [[Lower Egypt]] by [[Upper Egypt]]. [[Menes]] | Although highly interrelated, the questions of "who was [[Menes]]?" and "who unified Egypt?" are actually two separate issues. Narmer is often credited with the [[unification of Egypt]] by means of the conquest of [[Lower Egypt]] by [[Upper Egypt]]. [[Menes]] was the first [[pharaoh]] of [[Ancient Egypt]] according to the ancient historian [[Manetho]], and is identified by the majority of [[Egyptologists]] as the same person as Narmer – although a vigorous debate also proposes identification with [[Hor-Aha]], Narmer's successor, as a primary alternative.{{efn|name=b|The question of who was Menes—hence, who was the first king of the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]] has been hotly debated. Since 1897, 70 different authors have taken an opinion on whether it is Narmer or Aha.{{sfn | Heagy |2014| pp=83–84}} Most of these are only passing references, but there have been several in depth analyses on both sides of the issues. Recent discussions in favor of Narmer include {{harvnb|Kinnaer|2001}}, {{harvnb|Cervelló-Autuori |2005}}, and {{harvnb|Heagy|2014}}. Detailed discussions in favor of Aha include {{harvnb|Helck| 1953}}, {{harvnb|Emery |1961|pp=31–37}}, and {{harvnb|Dreyer|2007}}. For the most part, English speaking authors favor Narmer, while German speaking authors favor [[Hor-Aha]]. The most important evidence in favor of Narmer are the two necropolis seal impressions from [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]], which list Narmer as the first king. Since the publication of the first of the [[necropolis sealings]] in 1987, 28 authors have published articles identifying [[Menes]] with Narmer compared to 14 who identify Menes with [[Hor-Aha]].}} | ||
The issue is confusing because "Narmer" is a [[Horus name]] while "Menes" is a [[Prenomen (Ancient Egypt)|Sedge and Bee name]] | The issue is confusing because "Narmer" is a [[Horus name]] while "Menes" is a [[Prenomen (Ancient Egypt)|Sedge and Bee name]], also known as "prenomen" or "throne name". All of the [[List of pharaohs#Ancient Egyptian king lists|King Lists]] which began to appear in the [[New Kingdom]] only list throne names, and almost all begin with [[Menes]], or begin with divine and/or semi-divine rulers, with [[Menes]] as the first "human king". The difficulty is aligning the contemporary archaeological evidence which lists Horus names with the king lists that list personal names. | ||
[[File:Naqad Label.svg|right|thumb|Naqada Label reconstruction]] | [[File:Naqad Label.svg|right|thumb|Naqada Label reconstruction]] | ||
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==Reign== | ==Reign== | ||
The date commonly given for the beginning of Narmer's reign is {{circa}} 3100 BC, which is derived from several sources including the [[Turin Canon]].{{sfn|Hayes|1970|pp=173-176}}{{sfn|Quirke|Spencer|1992|p=223}} A 2013 study, using [[radiocarbon dating]] and | The date commonly given for the beginning of Narmer's reign is {{circa}} 3100 BC (± 150 years), which is derived from several sources including the [[Turin Canon]].{{sfn|Hayes|1970|pp=173-176}}{{sfn|Quirke|Spencer|1992|p=223}}{{sfn|Gardiner|1961|pp=61–68}} A 2013 study, using [[radiocarbon dating]] and [[Bayesian statistics]], placed the reign of [[Hor-Aha|Aha]] (Narmer's successor) most likely between 3111 and 3045 BC (with 68% confidence), with a broader range of 3218 to 3035 BC (with 95% confidence).{{sfn|Dee| et al.}} Other mainstream estimates, using both the historical method and radiocarbon dating, are in the range {{circa}} 3173–2987 BC.{{efn|Establishing absolute dating for Ancient Egypt relies on two different methods, each of which is problematic. As a starting point, the Historical Method makes use of astronomical events that are recorded in Ancient Egyptian texts, which establishes a starting point in which an event in Egyptian history is given an unambiguous absolute date. "Dead reckoning"—adding or subtracting the length of each king's reign (based primarily on [[Manetho]], the [[Turin King List]], and the [[Palermo Stone]]) is then used until one gets to the reign of the king in question. However, there is uncertainty about the length of reigns, especially in the [[Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)|Archaic Period]] and the Intermediate Periods. Two astrological events are available to anchor these estimates, one in the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] and one in the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] (for a discussion of the problems in establishing absolute dates for Ancient Egypt, see {{harvnb|Shaw|2000a|pp=1–16}}). Two estimates based on this method are: {{harvnb|Hayes |1970|p=174}}, who gives the beginning of the reign of Narmer/Menes as 3114 BC, which he rounds to 3100 BC; and {{harvnb|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=487}}, who places the ascent of Narmer to the throne of Egypt as {{circa}} 2950 BC. | ||
Several estimates of the beginning of the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]] assume that it began with [[Hor-Aha]]. Setting aside the question of whether the First Dynasty began with Narmer or Hor-Aha, to calculate the beginning of Narmer's reign from these estimates, they must be adjusted by the length of Narmer's reign. Unfortunately, there are no reliable estimates of the length of Narmer's reign. In the absence of other evidence, scholars use Manetho's estimate of the length of the reign of Menes, i.e. 62 years. If one assumes that Narmer and Menes are the same person, this places the date for the beginning of Narmer's reign at 62 years earlier than the date for the beginning of the First Dynasty given by the authors who associate the beginning of the First Dynasty with the start of Hor-Aha's reign. Estimates of the beginning of Narmer's reign calculated in this way include {{harvnb|von Beckerath |1997|p=179}} ({{circa}} 3094–3044 BC); {{harvnb|Helck |1986|p=28}} (c. 2987 BC); {{harvnb|Kitchen|2000|p=48}} (c. 3092 BC), and {{harvnb|Shaw|2000b|p=480}} (c. 3062 BC). Considering all six estimates suggests a range of c. 3114 – 2987 BC based on the Historical Method. | Several estimates of the beginning of the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]] assume that it began with [[Hor-Aha]]. Setting aside the question of whether the First Dynasty began with Narmer or Hor-Aha, to calculate the beginning of Narmer's reign from these estimates, they must be adjusted by the length of Narmer's reign. Unfortunately, there are no reliable estimates of the length of Narmer's reign. In the absence of other evidence, scholars use Manetho's estimate of the length of the reign of Menes, i.e. 62 years. If one assumes that Narmer and Menes are the same person, this places the date for the beginning of Narmer's reign at 62 years earlier than the date for the beginning of the First Dynasty given by the authors who associate the beginning of the First Dynasty with the start of Hor-Aha's reign. Estimates of the beginning of Narmer's reign calculated in this way include {{harvnb|von Beckerath |1997|p=179}} ({{circa}} 3094–3044 BC); {{harvnb|Helck |1986|p=28}} (c. 2987 BC); {{harvnb|Kitchen|2000|p=48}} (c. 3092 BC), and {{harvnb|Shaw|2000b|p=480}} (c. 3062 BC). Considering all six estimates suggests a range of c. 3114 – 2987 BC based on the Historical Method. | ||
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===Peak of Egyptian presence in Canaan=== | ===Peak of Egyptian presence in Canaan=== | ||
According to {{harvnb|Manetho}} | According to {{harvnb|Manetho}}, quoted by [[Eusebius]] (Fr. 7a), "Menes made a foreign expedition and won renown." If this is correct (and assuming it refers to Narmer), it was undoubtedly to the land of [[Canaan]] where Narmer's ''serekh'' has been identified at nine different sites. An Egyptian presence in Canaan predates Narmer, but after about 200 years of active presence in Canaan,{{Sfn | Anđelković | 1995 | p = 72}} Egyptian presence peaked during Narmer's reign and quickly declined afterwards. The relationship between Egypt and Canaan "began around the end of the fifth millennium and apparently came to an end sometime during the Second Dynasty when it ceased altogether."{{sfn|Braun|2011|p=105}} It peaked during Dynasty 0 through the reign of Narmer.{{sfn|Anđelković|2011|p=31}} Dating to this period are 33 Egyptian ''serekhs'' found in Canaan,{{sfn|Anđelković|2011|p=31}} among which 20 have been attributed to Narmer. Prior to Narmer, only one ''serekh'' of Ka and one inscription with Iry-Hor's name have been found in Canaan.{{sfn|Jiménez-Serrano|2007|p=370, Table 8}} The ''serekhs'' earlier than Iry-Hor are either generic ''serekhs'' that do not refer to a specific king, or are for kings not attested in Abydos.{{sfn |Anđelković|2011|p=31}} Indicative of the decline of Egyptian presence in the region after Narmer, only one ''serekh'' attributed to his successor, Hor-Aha, has been found in Canaan.{{sfn|Anđelković|2011|p=31}} Even this one example is questionable, Wilkinson does not believe there are any ''serekhs'' of Hor-Aha outside Egypt{{sfn|Wilkinson|1999|p=71}} and very few ''serekhs'' of kings for the rest of the first two dynasties have been found in Canaan.{{sfn|Wilkinson|1999|pp=71–105}} | ||
The Egyptian presence in Canaan is best demonstrated by the presence of pottery made from Egyptian Nile clay and found in Canaan,{{efn| During the summer of 1994, excavators from the [[Nahal Tillah]] expedition, in southern [[Israel]], discovered an incised ceramic [[sherd]] with the ''serekh'' sign of Narmer. The sherd was found on a large circular platform, possibly the foundations of a storage silo on the Halif Terrace. Dated to {{circa}} 3000 BC, mineralogical studies conducted on the sherd conclude that it is a fragment of a wine jar which had been imported from the [[Nile]] valley to [[Canaan]].{{Sfn | Levy | van den Brink | Goren | Alon | 1995 | pp = 26–35}}}} as well as pottery made from local clay, but in the Egyptian style. The latter suggests the existence of Egyptian colonies rather than just trade.{{sfn|Porat|1986–87|p=109}} | The Egyptian presence in Canaan is best demonstrated by the presence of pottery made from Egyptian Nile clay and found in Canaan,{{efn| During the summer of 1994, excavators from the [[Nahal Tillah]] expedition, in southern [[Israel]], discovered an incised ceramic [[sherd]] with the ''serekh'' sign of Narmer. The sherd was found on a large circular platform, possibly the foundations of a storage silo on the Halif Terrace. Dated to {{circa}} 3000 BC, mineralogical studies conducted on the sherd conclude that it is a fragment of a wine jar which had been imported from the [[Nile]] valley to [[Canaan]].{{Sfn | Levy | van den Brink | Goren | Alon | 1995 | pp = 26–35}}}} as well as pottery made from local clay, but in the Egyptian style. The latter suggests the existence of Egyptian colonies rather than just trade.{{sfn|Porat|1986–87|p=109}} | ||
The nature of Egypt's role in Canaan has been vigorously debated, between scholars who suggest a military invasion{{sfn|Yadin|1955}} and others proposing that only trade and colonization were involved. | The nature of Egypt's role in Canaan has been vigorously debated, between scholars who suggest a military invasion{{sfn|Yadin|1955}} and others proposing that only trade and colonization were involved. The latter has gained predominance.{{sfn|Porat|1986–87|p=109}}{{sfn|Campagno|2008|pp=695–696}} [[Tell es-Sakan]] was a walled city dating to Dynasty 0 through early Dynasty 1 period, and built almost entirely using an Egyptian style of construction. As the only fortified Egyptian site in the region it likely functioned as a centre of administration.{{sfn|de Miroschedji|Sadeq|2008|pp=2028–2029}} | ||
Regardless of the nature of Egypt's presence in Canaan, control of trade to (and through) Canaan was important to Ancient Egypt. Narmer probably did not establish Egypt's initial influence in Canaan by a military invasion, but a military campaign by Narmer to re-assert Egyptian authority, or to increase its sphere of influence in the region, is certainly plausible. In addition to the quote by Manetho, and the large number of Narmer ''serekhs'' found in Canaan, a recent reconstruction of a box of Narmer's by Dreyer may have commemorated a military campaign in Canaan.{{sfn|Dreyer|2016|p=104}} It may also represent just the presentation of tribute to Narmer by Canaanites.{{sfn|Dreyer|2016|p=104}} | Regardless of the nature of Egypt's presence in Canaan, control of trade to (and through) Canaan was important to Ancient Egypt. Narmer probably did not establish Egypt's initial influence in Canaan by a military invasion, but a military campaign by Narmer to re-assert Egyptian authority, or to increase its sphere of influence in the region, is certainly plausible. In addition to the quote by Manetho, and the large number of Narmer ''serekhs'' found in Canaan, a recent reconstruction of a box of Narmer's by Dreyer may have commemorated a military campaign in Canaan.{{sfn|Dreyer|2016|p=104}} It may also represent just the presentation of tribute to Narmer by Canaanites.{{sfn|Dreyer|2016|p=104}} | ||
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As the tomb dates back more than 5,000 years, and [[Grave robbery#Africa|has been pillaged]], repeatedly, from antiquity to modern times, it is amazing that anything useful could be discovered in it. Because of the repeated [[Disturbance (archaeology)|disturbances]] in Umm el-Qa'ab, many articles of Narmer's were found in other graves, and objects of other kings were recovered in Narmer's grave. However, [[Flinders Petrie]] during the period 1899–1903,{{sfn|Petrie|1900}}{{sfn|Petrie|1901}} and, starting in the 1970s, the [[German Archaeological Institute]] (DAI){{efn|Numerous publications with either Werner Kaiser or his successor, [[Günter Dreyer]], as the lead author—most of them published in MDAIK beginning in 1977}} have made discoveries of the greatest importance to the history of Early Egypt by their re-excavation of the tombs of Umm el-Qa'ab. | As the tomb dates back more than 5,000 years, and [[Grave robbery#Africa|has been pillaged]], repeatedly, from antiquity to modern times, it is amazing that anything useful could be discovered in it. Because of the repeated [[Disturbance (archaeology)|disturbances]] in Umm el-Qa'ab, many articles of Narmer's were found in other graves, and objects of other kings were recovered in Narmer's grave. However, [[Flinders Petrie]] during the period 1899–1903,{{sfn|Petrie|1900}}{{sfn|Petrie|1901}} and, starting in the 1970s, the [[German Archaeological Institute]] (DAI){{efn|Numerous publications with either Werner Kaiser or his successor, [[Günter Dreyer]], as the lead author—most of them published in MDAIK beginning in 1977}} have made discoveries of the greatest importance to the history of Early Egypt by their re-excavation of the tombs of Umm el-Qa'ab. | ||
Despite the chaotic condition of the cemetery, inscriptions on both wood and bone, seal impressions, as well as dozens of [[flint]] arrowheads were found. (Petrie says with dismay that "hundreds" of arrowheads were discovered by "the French", presumably [[Émile Amélineau|Amélineau]]. What happened to them is not clear, but none ended up in the Cairo Museum.{{sfn|Petrie|1901|p=22}}) Flint knives and a fragment of an [[ebony]] chair leg were also discovered in Narmer's tomb, all of which might be part of the original funerary [[Glossary of archaeology#assemblage|assemblage]]. The flint knives and fragment of a chair leg were not included in any of Petrie's publications, but are now at the [[Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology]] (University College London), registration numbers ''UC35679, UC52786'', and ''UC35682''. According to Dreyer,<ref name="DPC">G. Dreyer, personal communication to Thomas C. Heagy, 2017</ref>{{unreliable source|certain=y|reason=Sources MUST be [[WP:V|verifiable]], which private, unpublished writings by nature are not. If it's mentioned in another reliable source, cite that instead|date=December 2024}} these arrowheads are probably from the tomb of [[Djer]], where similar arrowheads were found.{{sfn|Petrie|1901|pp=pl.VI.}} | Despite the chaotic condition of the cemetery, inscriptions on both wood and bone, seal impressions, as well as dozens of [[flint]] arrowheads were found. (Petrie says with dismay that "hundreds" of arrowheads were discovered by "the French", presumably [[Émile Amélineau|Amélineau]]. What happened to them is not clear, but none ended up in the Cairo Museum.{{sfn|Petrie|1901|p=22}}) Flint knives and a fragment of an [[ebony]] chair leg were also discovered in Narmer's tomb, all of which might be part of the original funerary [[Glossary of archaeology#assemblage|assemblage]]. The flint knives and fragment of a chair leg were not included in any of Petrie's publications, but are now at the [[Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology]] (University College London), registration numbers ''UC35679, UC52786'', and ''UC35682''. According to Dreyer,<ref name="DPC">G. Dreyer, personal communication to Thomas C. Heagy, 2017</ref>{{unreliable source?|certain=y|reason=Sources MUST be [[WP:V|verifiable]], which private, unpublished writings by nature are not. If it's mentioned in another reliable source, cite that instead|date=December 2024}} these arrowheads are probably from the tomb of [[Djer]], where similar arrowheads were found.{{sfn|Petrie|1901|pp=pl.VI.}} | ||
It is likely that all of the kings of Ancient Egypt buried in Umm el-Qa'ab had funerary enclosures in Abydos' northern cemetery, near the cultivation line. These were characterized by large mud brick walls that enclosed space in which funerary ceremonies are believed to have taken place. Eight enclosures have been excavated, two of which have not been definitely identified.{{sfn|Adams|O'Connor|2003|pp=78–85}}{{sfn|O'Connor|2009|pp=159–181}} While it has yet to be confirmed, one of these unidentified funerary enclosures may have belonged to Narmer.{{efn|Next to Hor-Aha's enclosure is a large, unattributed enclosure referred to as the "Donkey Enclosure" because of the presence of 10 donkeys buried next to the enclosure. No objects were found in the enclosure with a king's name, but hundreds of seal impressions were found in the gateway chamber of the enclosure, all of which appear to date to the reigns of Narmer, Hor-Aha, or Djer. Hor-Aha and Djer both have enclosures identified, "making Narmer the most attractive candidate for the builder of this monument".{{sfn|Bestock|2009|p=102}} The main objection to its assignment to Narmer is that the enclosure is too big. It is larger than all three of Hor-Aha's put together, while Hor-Aha's tomb is much larger than Narmer's tomb. For all of the clearly identified 1st Dynasty enclosures, there is a rough correlation between the size of the tomb and the size of the enclosure. Identifying the Donkey Enclosure with Narmer would violate that correlation. That leaves Hor-Aha and Djer. The objection to the assignment of the enclosure to Aha is the inconsistency of the subsidiary graves of Hor-Aha's enclosure, and subsidiary graves of the donkeys. In addition, the seeming completeness of the Aha enclosure without the Donkey Enclosure, argues against Hor-Aha. This leaves Djer, whom Bestock considers the most likely candidate. The problems with this conclusion, as identified by Bestock, are that the Donkey Enclosure has donkeys in the subsidiary graves, whereas Djer has humans in his. In addition, there are no large subsidiary graves at Djer's tomb complex that would correspond to the Donkey Enclosure.{{sfn|Bestock|2009|pp=102–104}} She concludes that, "the interpretation and attribution of the Donkey Enclosure remain speculative."{{sfn|Bestock|2009|p=104}} | It is likely that all of the kings of Ancient Egypt buried in Umm el-Qa'ab had funerary enclosures in Abydos' northern cemetery, near the cultivation line. These were characterized by large mud brick walls that enclosed space in which funerary ceremonies are believed to have taken place. Eight enclosures have been excavated, two of which have not been definitely identified.{{sfn|Adams|O'Connor|2003|pp=78–85}}{{sfn|O'Connor|2009|pp=159–181}} While it has yet to be confirmed, one of these unidentified funerary enclosures may have belonged to Narmer.{{efn|Next to Hor-Aha's enclosure is a large, unattributed enclosure referred to as the "Donkey Enclosure" because of the presence of 10 donkeys buried next to the enclosure. No objects were found in the enclosure with a king's name, but hundreds of seal impressions were found in the gateway chamber of the enclosure, all of which appear to date to the reigns of Narmer, Hor-Aha, or Djer. Hor-Aha and Djer both have enclosures identified, "making Narmer the most attractive candidate for the builder of this monument".{{sfn|Bestock|2009|p=102}} The main objection to its assignment to Narmer is that the enclosure is too big. It is larger than all three of Hor-Aha's put together, while Hor-Aha's tomb is much larger than Narmer's tomb. For all of the clearly identified 1st Dynasty enclosures, there is a rough correlation between the size of the tomb and the size of the enclosure. Identifying the Donkey Enclosure with Narmer would violate that correlation. That leaves Hor-Aha and Djer. The objection to the assignment of the enclosure to Aha is the inconsistency of the subsidiary graves of Hor-Aha's enclosure, and subsidiary graves of the donkeys. In addition, the seeming completeness of the Aha enclosure without the Donkey Enclosure, argues against Hor-Aha. This leaves Djer, whom Bestock considers the most likely candidate. The problems with this conclusion, as identified by Bestock, are that the Donkey Enclosure has donkeys in the subsidiary graves, whereas Djer has humans in his. In addition, there are no large subsidiary graves at Djer's tomb complex that would correspond to the Donkey Enclosure.{{sfn|Bestock|2009|pp=102–104}} She concludes that, "the interpretation and attribution of the Donkey Enclosure remain speculative."{{sfn|Bestock|2009|p=104}} | ||
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===Artifacts=== | ===Artifacts=== | ||
[[File:Narmer serekh on alabaster jar from Abydos.jpg|thumb|Narmer ''serekh'' in its full formal format on an alabaster vase from Abydos]] | [[File:Narmer serekh on alabaster jar from Abydos.jpg|thumb|Narmer ''serekh'' in its full formal format on an alabaster vase from Abydos]] | ||
Narmer is well attested throughout Egypt, southern [[Canaan]] and Sinai: altogether 98 inscriptions at 26 sites.{{efn |Of these inscriptions, 29 are controversial or uncertain. They include the unique examples from Coptos, En Besor, Tell el- | Narmer is well attested throughout Egypt, southern [[Canaan]] and Sinai: altogether 98 inscriptions at 26 sites.{{efn |Of these inscriptions, 29 are controversial or uncertain. They include the unique examples from Coptos, En Besor, [[Tell el-Farkha]], [[Gebel Tjauti]], and Kharga Oasis, as well as both inscriptions each from Buto and Tel Ma'ahaz. Sites with more than one inscription are footnoted with either references to the most representative inscriptions, or to sources that are the most important for that site. All of the inscriptions are included in the [http://www.narmer.org/ ''Narmer Catalog''], which also includes extensive bibliographies for each inscription. Several references discuss substantial numbers of inscriptions. They include: [http://www4.ivv1.uni-muenster.de/litw3/Aegyptologie/index06.htm ''Database of Early Dynastic Inscriptions''], {{ harvnb|Kaplony | 1963 }}, {{harvnb|Kaplony | 1964|}}, {{ harvnb|Kaiser | Dreyer |1982}}, {{harvnb|Kahl |1994|}},{{harvnb|van den Brink | 1996 |}}, {{harvnb|van den Brink |2001 }}, {{harvnb|Jiménez-Serrano |2003}}, {{harvnb|Jiménez-Serrano |2007 }}, and {{harvnb|Pätznick |2009 }}. {{harvnb|Anđelković |1995}} includes Narmer inscriptions from Canaan within the context of the overall relations between Canaan and Early Egypt, including descriptions of the sites in which they were found.}} At Abydos and Hierakonpolis Narmer's name appears both within a ''[[serekh]]'' and without reference to a ''serekh''. At every other site except Coptos, Narmer's name appears in a ''serekh''. In Egypt, his name has been found at 17 sites: | ||
* 4 in Upper Egypt: [[Nekhen|Hierakonpolis]],{{Sfn|Quibell|1898|pp=81–84, pl. XII–XIII}} [[Naqada]],{{sfn | Spencer | 1980 | p = 64(454), pl. 47.454, pl.64.454}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0084 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913093222/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/0084 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]],{{Sfn|Petrie |1900}}{{sfn|Petrie | 1901}} and [[Qift|Coptos]]{{sfn|Williams|1988| pp=35–50, fig. 3a}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0085</ref> | * 4 in Upper Egypt: [[Nekhen|Hierakonpolis]],{{Sfn|Quibell|1898|pp=81–84, pl. XII–XIII}} [[Naqada]],{{sfn | Spencer | 1980 | p = 64(454), pl. 47.454, pl.64.454}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0084 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913093222/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/0084 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]],{{Sfn|Petrie |1900}}{{sfn|Petrie | 1901}} and [[Qift|Coptos]]{{sfn|Williams|1988| pp=35–50, fig. 3a}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0085 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913091626/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/0085 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> | ||
* 10 in Lower Egypt: [[Tarkhan (Egypt)|Tarkhan]],{{sfn|Petrie|Wainwright| Gardiner|1913}}{{sfn|Petrie|1914}} [[Helwan (cemetery)|Helwan]],{{sfn | Saad | 1947 | pp = 26–27 |}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0114 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913135222/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/0114 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> [[Zawyet El Aryan|Zawyet el'Aryan]],{{sfn | Dunham | 1978|pp=25–26|loc= pl. 16A }} Tell Ibrahim Awad,{{sfn | van den Brink | 1992 | pp =52–53 }} Ezbet el-Tell,{{sfn | Bakr|1988| pp=50–51|loc=pl. 1b}} [[Minshat Abu Omar]],{{sfn|Wildung|1981|pp=35–37}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0121 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913135022/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/0121 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> [[Saqqara]],{{sfn | Lacau | Lauer | 1959 | pp = 1–2, pl. 1.1|}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0115 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913135100/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/0115 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> [[Buto]],{{sfn|von der Way|1989|pp=285–286|loc=n.76, fig. 11.7}} Tell el-Farkha,{{sfn | Jucha |2008 | pp = 132–133, fig. 47.2 |}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6002</ref> and Kafr Hassan Dawood{{sfn | Hassan |2000 | p = 39}} | * 10 in Lower Egypt: [[Tarkhan (Egypt)|Tarkhan]],{{sfn|Petrie|Wainwright| Gardiner|1913}}{{sfn|Petrie|1914}} [[Helwan (cemetery)|Helwan]],{{sfn | Saad | 1947 | pp = 26–27 |}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0114 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913135222/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/0114 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> [[Zawyet El Aryan|Zawyet el'Aryan]],{{sfn | Dunham | 1978|pp=25–26|loc= pl. 16A }} Tell Ibrahim Awad,{{sfn | van den Brink | 1992 | pp =52–53 }} Ezbet el-Tell,{{sfn | Bakr|1988| pp=50–51|loc=pl. 1b}} [[Minshat Abu Omar]],{{sfn|Wildung|1981|pp=35–37}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0121 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913135022/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/0121 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> [[Saqqara]],{{sfn | Lacau | Lauer | 1959 | pp = 1–2, pl. 1.1|}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0115 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913135100/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/0115 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> [[Buto]],{{sfn|von der Way|1989|pp=285–286|loc=n.76, fig. 11.7}} Tell el-Farkha,{{sfn | Jucha |2008 | pp = 132–133, fig. 47.2 |}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6002 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913093225/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/6002 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> and Kafr Hassan Dawood{{sfn | Hassan |2000 | p = 39}} | ||
* 1 in the Eastern Desert: Wadi el-Qaash{{sfn|Winkler| 1938| pp=10,25|loc=pl.11.1}} | * 1 in the Eastern Desert: Wadi el-Qaash{{sfn|Winkler| 1938| pp=10,25|loc=pl.11.1}} | ||
* 2 in the Western Desert: [[Kharga Oasis]]{{sfn|Ikram | Rossi |2004 | pp = 211–215|loc=fig. 1-2}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6015 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913091603/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/6015 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> and [[Gebel Tjauti]]{{sfn | Darnell | Darnell | 1997| pp = 71–72|loc=fig. 10}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/4037 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913091549/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/4037 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> | * 2 in the Western Desert: [[Kharga Oasis]]{{sfn|Ikram | Rossi |2004 | pp = 211–215|loc=fig. 1-2}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6015 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913091603/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/6015 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> and [[Gebel Tjauti]]{{sfn | Darnell | Darnell | 1997| pp = 71–72|loc=fig. 10}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/4037 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913091549/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/4037 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> | ||
During Narmer's reign, Egypt had an active economic presence in southern Canaan. Pottery [[sherd]]s have been discovered at several sites, both from pots made in Egypt and imported to Canaan and others made in the Egyptian style out of local materials. Twenty ''serekhs'' have been found in Canaan that may belong to Narmer, but seven of those are uncertain or controversial. These ''serekhs'' came from eight different sites: [[Tel Arad]],{{sfn | Amiran | 1974| pp=4–12, fig. 20, pl.1}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0123</ref> En Besor ([[Ein HaBesor]]),{{sfn | Schulman | 1976 |pp = 25–26}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0547 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913091620/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/0547 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> [[Tell es-Sakan]],{{sfn | de Miroschedji| Sadeq |2000| pp=136–137| loc = fig. 9}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6009 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913093227/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/6009 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> Nahal Tillah ([[Tell el-Khuweilifeh|Halif]] Terrace),{{Sfn | Levy | van den Brink | Goren | Alon | 1997 | pp = 31–33}} [[Tel Erani]] (Tel Gat),{{sfn | Yeivin | 1960 | pp=193–203| loc = fig. 2, pl. 24a}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0124 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614075431/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/0124 |date=2020-06-14 }}</ref> Small | During Narmer's reign, Egypt had an active economic presence in southern Canaan. Pottery [[sherd]]s have been discovered at several sites, both from pots made in Egypt and imported to Canaan and others made in the Egyptian style out of local materials. Twenty ''serekhs'' have been found in Canaan that may belong to Narmer, but seven of those are uncertain or controversial. These ''serekhs'' came from eight different sites: [[Tel Arad]],{{sfn | Amiran | 1974| pp=4–12, fig. 20, pl.1}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0123</ref> En Besor ([[Ein HaBesor]]),{{sfn | Schulman | 1976 |pp = 25–26}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0547 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913091620/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/0547 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> [[Tell es-Sakan]],{{sfn | de Miroschedji| Sadeq |2000| pp=136–137| loc = fig. 9}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6009 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913093227/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/6009 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> Nahal Tillah ([[Tell el-Khuweilifeh|Halif]] Terrace),{{Sfn | Levy | van den Brink | Goren | Alon | 1997 | pp = 31–33}} [[Tel Erani]] (Tel Gat),{{sfn | Yeivin | 1960 | pp=193–203| loc = fig. 2, pl. 24a}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0124 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614075431/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/0124 |date=2020-06-14 }}</ref> Small {{ill|Tel Malhata|fr|Tel Malhata}},{{sfn |Amiran| Ilan| Aron|1983| pp = 75–83|loc=fig.7c }}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6006 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913135058/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/6006 |date=2017-09-13 }}</ref> Tel Ma'ahaz,{{sfn|Schulman| Gophna| 1981}} and Tel [[Lod]],{{sfn | van den Brink | Braun |2002| pp = 167–192 }} | ||
Narmer's ''serekh'', along with those of other Predynastic and Early Dynastic kings, has been found at the Wadi 'Ameyra in the southern Sinai, where inscriptions commemorate Egyptian mining expeditions to the area.{{sfn | Tallet | Laisney |2012 | pp=383–389}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/4814 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614075636/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/4814 |date=2020-06-14 }}</ref> | Narmer's ''serekh'', along with those of other Predynastic and Early Dynastic kings, has been found at the Wadi 'Ameyra in the southern Sinai, where inscriptions commemorate Egyptian mining expeditions to the area.{{sfn | Tallet | Laisney |2012 | pp=383–389}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/4814 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614075636/http://www.narmer.org/inscription/4814 |date=2020-06-14 }}</ref> | ||
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[[File:Limestone head of a king. Thought by Petrie to be Narmer. Bought by Petrie in Cairo, Egypt. 1st Dynasty. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London.jpg|thumb|[[Limestone]] head of a king, thought by [[Flinders Petrie]] to be Narmer, on the basis of the similarity to the head of Narmer on the Narmer Palette. This has not been generally accepted by Egyptologists.]] | [[File:Limestone head of a king. Thought by Petrie to be Narmer. Bought by Petrie in Cairo, Egypt. 1st Dynasty. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London.jpg|thumb|[[Limestone]] head of a king, thought by [[Flinders Petrie]] to be Narmer, on the basis of the similarity to the head of Narmer on the Narmer Palette. This has not been generally accepted by Egyptologists.]] | ||
First recorded at the end of the 19th century, an important series of rock carvings at Nag el-Hamdulab near [[Aswan]] was rediscovered in 2009, and its importance only realized then.{{sfn|Gatto et al. 2009}}{{full citation needed|date=April 2025}}{{sfn|Darnell|2015}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6014</ref> Among the many inscriptions, tableau 7a shows a man wearing a headdress similar to the [[Hedjet|White Crown]] of [[Upper Egypt]] and carrying a scepter. He is followed by a man with a fan. He is then preceded by two men with standards, and accompanied by a dog. Apart from the dog motif, this scene is similar to scenes on the [[Scorpion Macehead]] and the recto of the Narmer Palette. The man, equipped with pharaonic regalia (the crown and scepter), can clearly be identified as a king. Although no name appears in the tableau, Darnell{{sfn|Darnell|2015|}} attributes it to Narmer, based on the iconography, and suggests that it might represent an actual visit to the region by Narmer for a "Following of Horus" ritual. In an interview in 2012, Gatto{{sfn|Gatto 2012}}{{full citation needed|date=April 2025}} also describes the king in the inscription as Narmer. However, Hendricks (2016) places the scene slightly before Narmer, based, in part on the uncharacteristic absence of Narmer's royal name in the inscription. | First recorded at the end of the 19th century, an important series of rock carvings at Nag el-Hamdulab near [[Aswan]] was rediscovered in 2009, and its importance only realized then.{{sfn|Gatto et al. 2009}}{{full citation needed|date=April 2025}}{{sfn|Darnell|2015}}<ref>The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6014 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718055245/https://www.narmer.org/inscription/6014 |date=2018-07-18 }}</ref> Among the many inscriptions, tableau 7a shows a man wearing a headdress similar to the [[Hedjet|White Crown]] of [[Upper Egypt]] and carrying a scepter. He is followed by a man with a fan. He is then preceded by two men with standards, and accompanied by a dog. Apart from the dog motif, this scene is similar to scenes on the [[Scorpion Macehead]] and the recto of the Narmer Palette. The man, equipped with pharaonic regalia (the crown and scepter), can clearly be identified as a king. Although no name appears in the tableau, Darnell{{sfn|Darnell|2015|}} attributes it to Narmer, based on the iconography, and suggests that it might represent an actual visit to the region by Narmer for a "Following of Horus" ritual. In an interview in 2012, Gatto{{sfn|Gatto 2012}}{{full citation needed|date=April 2025}} also describes the king in the inscription as Narmer. However, Hendricks (2016) places the scene slightly before Narmer, based, in part on the uncharacteristic absence of Narmer's royal name in the inscription. | ||
==Popular culture== | ==Popular culture== | ||
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* {{citation|last1=Brewer|first1=D.J.|last2=Friedman|first2=R.F.|title=Fish and fishing in ancient Egypt| publisher=The American University Press in Cairo| location=Cairo|year=1989}}. | * {{citation|last1=Brewer|first1=D.J.|last2=Friedman|first2=R.F.|title=Fish and fishing in ancient Egypt| publisher=The American University Press in Cairo| location=Cairo|year=1989}}. | ||
* {{citation |last=Campagno |first=M |year=2008 |chapter=Ethnicity and Changing Relationships between Egyptians and South Levantines during the Early Dynastic Period | editor1-last= Midant-Reynes | editor2-last= Tristant | editor2-first = Y | title =Egypt at its Origins |volume=2 |location=Leuven |publisher=Peeters |isbn = 978-90-429-1994-5}}. | * {{citation |last=Campagno |first=M |year=2008 |chapter=Ethnicity and Changing Relationships between Egyptians and South Levantines during the Early Dynastic Period | editor1-last= Midant-Reynes | editor2-last= Tristant | editor2-first = Y | title =Egypt at its Origins |volume=2 |location=Leuven |publisher=Peeters |isbn = 978-90-429-1994-5}}. | ||
* {{citation | last = Cervelló-Autuori | first = Josep | contribution = Narmer, Menes and the seals from Abydos | year = 2003 | title = Egyptology at the dawn of the twenty-first century: proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Egyptologists, 2000 | volume = 2 | place = Cairo | publisher =[[American University in Cairo Press|The American University in Cairo Press]] | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pJ48YP14qZQC| isbn = 9789774247149 }}. | * {{citation | last = Cervelló-Autuori | first = Josep | contribution = Narmer, Menes and the seals from Abydos | year = 2003 | title = Egyptology at the dawn of the twenty-first century: proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Egyptologists, 2000 | volume = 2 | place = Cairo | publisher = [[American University in Cairo Press|The American University in Cairo Press]] | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pJ48YP14qZQC | isbn = 9789774247149 }}. | ||
* {{citation |last=Cervelló-Autuori |first=Josep |title=Was King Narmer Menes? |journal=Archéo-Nil |volume=15 |year = 2005 |pages=31–46 |doi=10.3406/ARNIL.2005.896 |doi-access=free}}. | * {{citation |last=Cervelló-Autuori |first=Josep |title=Was King Narmer Menes? |journal=Archéo-Nil |volume=15 |year = 2005 |pages=31–46 |doi=10.3406/ARNIL.2005.896 |doi-access=free}}. | ||
* {{citation|last=Cervelló-Autuori|first= J.|year= 2008|chapter=The Thinite "Royal Lists": Typology and meaning |editor1-last =Midant-Reynes|editor1-first =B.|editor2-last=Tristant|editor2-first=Y.|editor3-last=Rowland|editor3-first=J.|editor4-last =Hendrickx| editor4-first=S.|title= Egypt at its origins 2. Proceedings of the international conference "Origin of the state. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt", Toulouse (France), 5th – 8th September 2005|series= OLA |number=172|location= Leuven}} | * {{citation|last=Cervelló-Autuori|first= J.|year= 2008|chapter=The Thinite "Royal Lists": Typology and meaning |editor1-last =Midant-Reynes|editor1-first =B.|editor2-last=Tristant|editor2-first=Y.|editor3-last=Rowland|editor3-first=J.|editor4-last =Hendrickx| editor4-first=S.|title= Egypt at its origins 2. Proceedings of the international conference "Origin of the state. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt", Toulouse (France), 5th – 8th September 2005|series= OLA |number=172|location= Leuven}} | ||
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* {{citation|last=Collins|first=William G.| year=2013|title=Murder by the Gods: An Ancient Egyptian Mystery|publisher=CreateSpacePublishing}}. | * {{citation|last=Collins|first=William G.| year=2013|title=Murder by the Gods: An Ancient Egyptian Mystery|publisher=CreateSpacePublishing}}. | ||
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* {{citation|first=John Coleman |last=Darnell|year=2015|journal=Archeo-Nil|title=The Early Hieroglyphic Annotation in the Nag el-Hamdulab Rock Art Tableaux, and the Following of Horus in the Northwest Hinterland of Aswan |volume=25 |pages=19–43 |doi=10.3406/ARNIL.2015.1087 |doi-access=free}} | * {{citation|first=John Coleman |last=Darnell|year=2015|journal=Archeo-Nil|title=The Early Hieroglyphic Annotation in the Nag el-Hamdulab Rock Art Tableaux, and the Following of Horus in the Northwest Hinterland of Aswan |volume=25 |pages=19–43 |doi=10.3406/ARNIL.2015.1087 |doi-access=free}} | ||
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| Line 266: | Line 268: | ||
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| Line 274: | Line 276: | ||
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* {{citation|last=Newberry|first= Percy E.|year= 1929|chapter= Menes: the founder of the Egyptian monarchy (circa 3400 B.C.)|editor-last= Anonymous|title= Great ones of ancient Egypt: portraits by Winifred Brunton, historical studies by various Egyptologists|pages= 37–53| location=London| publisher= Hodder and Stoughton}}. | * {{citation|last=Newberry|first= Percy E.|year= 1929|chapter= Menes: the founder of the Egyptian monarchy (circa 3400 B.C.)|editor-last= Anonymous|title= Great ones of ancient Egypt: portraits by Winifred Brunton, historical studies by various Egyptologists|pages= 37–53| location=London| publisher= Hodder and Stoughton}}. | ||
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{{Refend}} | {{Refend}} | ||
Latest revision as of 17:18, 18 December 2025
Template:Short description Script error: No such module "Infobox".Template:Template otherScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
Narmer (Template:Langx, may mean "painful catfish", "stinging catfish", "harsh catfish", or "fierce catfish";Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Template:Fl.)Template:Sfn was an ancient Egyptian king of the Early Dynastic Period, whose reign began at the end of the 4th millennium BC. He's believed to have been the successor to the Protodynastic king Ka. Many scholars consider him the unifier of Egypt and founder of the First Dynasty, and in turn the first king of a unified Egypt. He also had a prominently noticeable presence in Canaan, compared to his predecessors and successors. Neithhotep is thought to be his queen consort or his daughter.
A majority of Egyptologists believe that Narmer was the same person as Menes.Template:EfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Historical identity
Script error: No such module "Multiple image". Although highly interrelated, the questions of "who was Menes?" and "who unified Egypt?" are actually two separate issues. Narmer is often credited with the unification of Egypt by means of the conquest of Lower Egypt by Upper Egypt. Menes was the first pharaoh of Ancient Egypt according to the ancient historian Manetho, and is identified by the majority of Egyptologists as the same person as Narmer – although a vigorous debate also proposes identification with Hor-Aha, Narmer's successor, as a primary alternative.Template:Efn
The issue is confusing because "Narmer" is a Horus name while "Menes" is a Sedge and Bee name, also known as "prenomen" or "throne name". All of the King Lists which began to appear in the New Kingdom only list throne names, and almost all begin with Menes, or begin with divine and/or semi-divine rulers, with Menes as the first "human king". The difficulty is aligning the contemporary archaeological evidence which lists Horus names with the king lists that list personal names.
Two documents have been put forward as proof either that Narmer was Menes or alternatively Hor-Aha was Menes. The first is the "Naqada Label" found at the site of Naqada, in the tomb of Neithhotep, often assumed to have been the mother of Horus Aha.[1] The label shows a serekh of Hor-Aha next to an enclosure inside of which are symbols that have been interpreted by some scholars as the name "Menes". The second is the seal impression from Abydos that alternates between a serekh of Narmer and the chessboard symbol, "mn", which is interpreted as an abbreviation of Menes. Arguments have been made with regard to each of these documents in favour of Narmer or Hor-Aha being Menes, but in neither case is the argument conclusive.Template:Efn
The second document, the seal impression from Abydos, shows the serekh of Narmer alternating with the gameboard sign (mn), together with its phonetic complement, the n sign, which is always shown when the full name of Menes is written, again representing the name "Menes". At first glance, this would seem to be strong evidence that Narmer was Menes.Template:Sfn However, based on an analysis of other early First Dynasty seal impressions, which contain the name of one or more princes, the seal impression has been interpreted by other scholars as showing the name of a prince of Narmer named Menes, hence Menes was Narmer's successor, Hor-Aha, and thus Hor-Aha was Menes.Template:Sfn Cervelló-Autuori has rebutted this (Script error: No such module "Footnotes".), but opinions still vary, and the seal impression cannot be said to definitively support either theory.Template:Sfn
Two necropolis sealings, found in 1985 and 1991 in Abydos (Umm el-Qa'ab), in or near the tombs of DenTemplate:Sfn (called the Den seal impressions) and Qa'a (called the Qa'a sealing),Template:Sfn show Narmer as the first king on each list, followed by Hor-Aha. The Qa'a sealing lists all eight of the kings of what scholars now call the First Dynasty in the correct order, starting with Narmer. These necropolis sealings are strong evidence that Narmer was the first king of the First Dynasty, hence the same person as Menes.Template:Sfn
Name
The complete spelling of Narmer's name consists of the hieroglyphs for a catfish (nꜥr)Template:Efn and a chisel (mr), hence the reading "Narmer" (using the rebus principle). This word is sometimes translated as "raging catfish".Template:Sfn However, there is no consensus on this reading. Other translations of the adjective before "catfish" include "angry", "fighting", "fierce", "painful", "furious", "bad", "evil", "biting", "menacing", and "stinging".Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Some scholars have taken entirely different approaches to reading the name that do not include "catfish" in the name at all,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn but these approaches have not been generally accepted.
Rather than incorporating both hieroglyphs, Narmer's name is often shown in an abbreviated form with just the catfish symbol, sometimes stylized, even, in some cases, represented by just a horizontal line.Template:SfnScript error: No such module "Unsubst". This simplified spelling appears to be related to the formality of the context. In every case that a serekh is shown on a work of stone or an official seal impression, it has both symbols. But, in most cases, where the name is shown on a piece of pottery or a rock inscription, just the catfish, or a simplified version of it appears.
Two alternative spellings of Narmer's name have also been found. On a mud sealing from Tarkhan, the symbol for the ṯꜣj-bird (Gardiner sign G47 "duckling") has been added to the two symbols for "Narmer" within the serekh. This has been interpreted as meaning "Narmer the masculine";Template:Sfn however, according to Ilona Regulski,Template:Sfn "The third sign (the [ṯꜣj]-bird) is not an integral part of the royal name since it occurs so infrequently." GodronTemplate:Sfn suggested that the extra sign is not part of the name, but was put inside the serekh for compositional convenience.
In addition, two necropolis seals from Abydos show the name in a unique way: While the chisel is shown conventionally where the catfish would be expected, there is a symbol that has been interpreted by several scholars as an animal skin.Template:Sfn According to Dreyer, it is probably a catfish with a bull's tail, similar to the image of Narmer on the Narmer Palette in which he is shown wearing a bull's tail as a symbol of power.[3]
Reign
The date commonly given for the beginning of Narmer's reign is c.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 3100 BC (± 150 years), which is derived from several sources including the Turin Canon.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn A 2013 study, using radiocarbon dating and Bayesian statistics, placed the reign of Aha (Narmer's successor) most likely between 3111 and 3045 BC (with 68% confidence), with a broader range of 3218 to 3035 BC (with 95% confidence).Template:Sfn Other mainstream estimates, using both the historical method and radiocarbon dating, are in the range c.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 3173–2987 BC.Template:Efn
Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt
The famous Narmer Palette, discovered by James E. Quibell in the 1897–1898 season at Hierakonpolis,Template:Sfn shows Narmer wearing the crown of Upper Egypt on one side of the palette, and the crown of Lower Egypt on the other side, giving rise to the theory that Narmer unified the two lands.Template:Sfn Since its discovery, however, it has been debated whether the Narmer Palette represents an actual historic event or is purely symbolic.Template:Efn Of course, the Narmer Palette could represent an actual historical event while at the same time having a symbolic significance.
In 1993, Günter Dreyer discovered a "year label" of Narmer at Abydos, depicting the same event that is depicted on the Narmer Palette. In the First Dynasty, years were identified by the name of the king and an important event that occurred in that year. A "year label" was typically attached to a container of goods and included the name of the king, a description or representation of the event that identified the year, and a description of the attached goods. This year label shows that the Narmer Palette depicts an actual historical event.Template:Sfn Support for this conclusion (in addition to Dreyer) includes WilkinsonTemplate:Sfn and Davies & Friedman.Template:Sfn Although this interpretation of the year label is the dominant opinion among Egyptologists, there are exceptions including BainesTemplate:Sfn and Wengrow.Template:Sfn
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Archaeological evidence suggests that Egypt was at least partially unified during the reigns of Ka and Iry-Hor (Narmer's immediate predecessors), and perhaps as early as Scorpion I. Tax collection is probably documented for KaTemplate:Sfn and Iry-Hor.Template:Sfn The evidence for a role for Scorpion I in Lower Egypt comes from his tomb Uj in Abydos (Upper Egypt), where labels were found identifying goods from Lower Egypt.Template:Sfn These are not tax documents, however, so they are probably indications of trade rather than subjugation. There is a substantial difference in the quantity and distribution of inscriptions with the names of those earlier kings in Lower Egypt and Canaan (which was reached through Lower Egypt), compared to the inscriptions of Narmer. Ka's inscriptions have been found in three sites in Lower Egypt and one in Canaan.Template:Sfn Iry-Hor inscriptions have also been found in two sites in Lower Egypt and one in Canaan.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn This must be compared to Narmer, whose serekhs have been found in ten sites in Lower Egypt and nine sites in Canaan (see discussion in "Tomb and Artefacts" section). This demonstrates a qualitative difference between Narmer's role in Lower Egypt compared to his two immediate predecessors. There is no evidence in Lower Egypt of any Upper Egyptian king's presence before Iry-Hor. The archaeological evidence suggest that the unification began before Narmer, but was completed by him through the conquest of a polity in the north-west Delta as depicted on the Narmer Palette.Template:Sfn
The importance that Narmer attached to his "unification" of Egypt is shown by the fact that it is commemorated not only on the Narmer Palette, but on a cylinder seal,Template:Sfn the Narmer Year Label,Template:Sfn and the Narmer Boxes;Template:Sfn and the consequences of the event are commemorated on the Narmer Macehead.Template:Sfn The importance of the unification to ancient Egyptians is shown by the fact that Narmer is shown as the first king on the two necropolis seals, and under the name Menes, the first king in the later King Lists. Although there is archaeological evidence of a few kings before Narmer, none of them are mentioned in any of those sources. It can be accurately said that from the point of view of Ancient Egyptians, history began with Narmer and the unification of Egypt, and that everything before him was relegated to the realm of myth.
Peak of Egyptian presence in Canaan
According to Script error: No such module "Footnotes"., quoted by Eusebius (Fr. 7a), "Menes made a foreign expedition and won renown." If this is correct (and assuming it refers to Narmer), it was undoubtedly to the land of Canaan where Narmer's serekh has been identified at nine different sites. An Egyptian presence in Canaan predates Narmer, but after about 200 years of active presence in Canaan,Template:Sfn Egyptian presence peaked during Narmer's reign and quickly declined afterwards. The relationship between Egypt and Canaan "began around the end of the fifth millennium and apparently came to an end sometime during the Second Dynasty when it ceased altogether."Template:Sfn It peaked during Dynasty 0 through the reign of Narmer.Template:Sfn Dating to this period are 33 Egyptian serekhs found in Canaan,Template:Sfn among which 20 have been attributed to Narmer. Prior to Narmer, only one serekh of Ka and one inscription with Iry-Hor's name have been found in Canaan.Template:Sfn The serekhs earlier than Iry-Hor are either generic serekhs that do not refer to a specific king, or are for kings not attested in Abydos.Template:Sfn Indicative of the decline of Egyptian presence in the region after Narmer, only one serekh attributed to his successor, Hor-Aha, has been found in Canaan.Template:Sfn Even this one example is questionable, Wilkinson does not believe there are any serekhs of Hor-Aha outside EgyptTemplate:Sfn and very few serekhs of kings for the rest of the first two dynasties have been found in Canaan.Template:Sfn
The Egyptian presence in Canaan is best demonstrated by the presence of pottery made from Egyptian Nile clay and found in Canaan,Template:Efn as well as pottery made from local clay, but in the Egyptian style. The latter suggests the existence of Egyptian colonies rather than just trade.Template:Sfn
The nature of Egypt's role in Canaan has been vigorously debated, between scholars who suggest a military invasionTemplate:Sfn and others proposing that only trade and colonization were involved. The latter has gained predominance.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Tell es-Sakan was a walled city dating to Dynasty 0 through early Dynasty 1 period, and built almost entirely using an Egyptian style of construction. As the only fortified Egyptian site in the region it likely functioned as a centre of administration.Template:Sfn
Regardless of the nature of Egypt's presence in Canaan, control of trade to (and through) Canaan was important to Ancient Egypt. Narmer probably did not establish Egypt's initial influence in Canaan by a military invasion, but a military campaign by Narmer to re-assert Egyptian authority, or to increase its sphere of influence in the region, is certainly plausible. In addition to the quote by Manetho, and the large number of Narmer serekhs found in Canaan, a recent reconstruction of a box of Narmer's by Dreyer may have commemorated a military campaign in Canaan.Template:Sfn It may also represent just the presentation of tribute to Narmer by Canaanites.Template:Sfn
Neithhotep
Narmer and Hor-Aha's names were both found in what is believed to be Neithhotep's tomb, which led Egyptologists to conclude that she was Narmer's queen and mother of Hor-Aha.Template:Sfn Neithhotep's name means "Neith is satisfied". This suggests that she was a princess of Lower Egypt (based on the fact that Neith is the patron goddess of Sais in the Western Delta, exactly the area Narmer conquered to complete the unification of Egypt), and that this was a marriage to consolidate the two regions of Egypt.Template:Sfn The fact that her tomb is in Naqada, in Upper Egypt, has led some to the conclusion that she was a descendant of the predynastic rulers of Naqada who ruled prior to its incorporation into a united Upper Egypt.Template:Sfn It has also been suggested that the Narmer Macehead commemorates this wedding.Template:Sfn However, the discovery in 2012 of rock inscriptions in Sinai by Pierre TalletTemplate:Sfn raise questions about whether she was really Narmer's wife.Template:Efn Neithhotep is probably the earliest non-mythical woman in history whose name is known to us today.Template:Sfn
Tomb and artifacts
Tomb
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Narmer's tomb in Umm el-Qa'ab near Abydos in Upper Egypt consists of two joined chambers (B17 and B18), lined in mud brick. Although both Émile Amélineau and Petrie excavated tombs B17 and B18, it was only in 1964 that Kaiser identified them as being Narmer's.Template:SfnScript error: No such module "Unsubst".Template:Efn Narmer's tomb is located next to the tombs of Ka, who likely ruled Upper Egypt just before Narmer, and Hor-Aha, who was his immediate successor.Template:Efn
As the tomb dates back more than 5,000 years, and has been pillaged, repeatedly, from antiquity to modern times, it is amazing that anything useful could be discovered in it. Because of the repeated disturbances in Umm el-Qa'ab, many articles of Narmer's were found in other graves, and objects of other kings were recovered in Narmer's grave. However, Flinders Petrie during the period 1899–1903,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and, starting in the 1970s, the German Archaeological Institute (DAI)Template:Efn have made discoveries of the greatest importance to the history of Early Egypt by their re-excavation of the tombs of Umm el-Qa'ab.
Despite the chaotic condition of the cemetery, inscriptions on both wood and bone, seal impressions, as well as dozens of flint arrowheads were found. (Petrie says with dismay that "hundreds" of arrowheads were discovered by "the French", presumably Amélineau. What happened to them is not clear, but none ended up in the Cairo Museum.Template:Sfn) Flint knives and a fragment of an ebony chair leg were also discovered in Narmer's tomb, all of which might be part of the original funerary assemblage. The flint knives and fragment of a chair leg were not included in any of Petrie's publications, but are now at the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology (University College London), registration numbers UC35679, UC52786, and UC35682. According to Dreyer,[3]Script error: No such module "Unsubst". these arrowheads are probably from the tomb of Djer, where similar arrowheads were found.Template:Sfn
It is likely that all of the kings of Ancient Egypt buried in Umm el-Qa'ab had funerary enclosures in Abydos' northern cemetery, near the cultivation line. These were characterized by large mud brick walls that enclosed space in which funerary ceremonies are believed to have taken place. Eight enclosures have been excavated, two of which have not been definitely identified.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn While it has yet to be confirmed, one of these unidentified funerary enclosures may have belonged to Narmer.Template:Efn
Artifacts
Narmer is well attested throughout Egypt, southern Canaan and Sinai: altogether 98 inscriptions at 26 sites.Template:Efn At Abydos and Hierakonpolis Narmer's name appears both within a serekh and without reference to a serekh. At every other site except Coptos, Narmer's name appears in a serekh. In Egypt, his name has been found at 17 sites:
- 4 in Upper Egypt: Hierakonpolis,Template:Sfn Naqada,Template:Sfn[4] Abydos,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and CoptosTemplate:Sfn[5]
- 10 in Lower Egypt: Tarkhan,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Helwan,Template:Sfn[6] Zawyet el'Aryan,Template:Sfn Tell Ibrahim Awad,Template:Sfn Ezbet el-Tell,Template:Sfn Minshat Abu Omar,Template:Sfn[7] Saqqara,Template:Sfn[8] Buto,Template:Sfn Tell el-Farkha,Template:Sfn[9] and Kafr Hassan DawoodTemplate:Sfn
- 1 in the Eastern Desert: Wadi el-QaashTemplate:Sfn
- 2 in the Western Desert: Kharga OasisTemplate:Sfn[10] and Gebel TjautiTemplate:Sfn[11]
During Narmer's reign, Egypt had an active economic presence in southern Canaan. Pottery sherds have been discovered at several sites, both from pots made in Egypt and imported to Canaan and others made in the Egyptian style out of local materials. Twenty serekhs have been found in Canaan that may belong to Narmer, but seven of those are uncertain or controversial. These serekhs came from eight different sites: Tel Arad,Template:Sfn[12] En Besor (Ein HaBesor),Template:Sfn[13] Tell es-Sakan,Template:Sfn[14] Nahal Tillah (Halif Terrace),Template:Sfn Tel Erani (Tel Gat),Template:Sfn[15] Small Template:Ill,Template:Sfn[16] Tel Ma'ahaz,Template:Sfn and Tel Lod,Template:Sfn
Narmer's serekh, along with those of other Predynastic and Early Dynastic kings, has been found at the Wadi 'Ameyra in the southern Sinai, where inscriptions commemorate Egyptian mining expeditions to the area.Template:Sfn[17]
Nag el-Hamdulab
First recorded at the end of the 19th century, an important series of rock carvings at Nag el-Hamdulab near Aswan was rediscovered in 2009, and its importance only realized then.Template:SfnScript error: No such module "Unsubst".Template:Sfn[18] Among the many inscriptions, tableau 7a shows a man wearing a headdress similar to the White Crown of Upper Egypt and carrying a scepter. He is followed by a man with a fan. He is then preceded by two men with standards, and accompanied by a dog. Apart from the dog motif, this scene is similar to scenes on the Scorpion Macehead and the recto of the Narmer Palette. The man, equipped with pharaonic regalia (the crown and scepter), can clearly be identified as a king. Although no name appears in the tableau, DarnellTemplate:Sfn attributes it to Narmer, based on the iconography, and suggests that it might represent an actual visit to the region by Narmer for a "Following of Horus" ritual. In an interview in 2012, GattoTemplate:SfnScript error: No such module "Unsubst". also describes the king in the inscription as Narmer. However, Hendricks (2016) places the scene slightly before Narmer, based, in part on the uncharacteristic absence of Narmer's royal name in the inscription.
Popular culture
- The First Pharaoh (The First Dynasty Book 1) by Lester Picker is a fictionalized biography of Narmer. The author consulted with Egyptologist Günter Dreyer to achieve authenticity.Template:Sfn
- Murder by the Gods: An Ancient Egyptian Mystery by William G. Collins is a thriller about Prince Aha (later king Hor-Aha), with Narmer included in a secondary role.Template:Sfn
- Pharaoh: The Boy who Conquered the Nile by Jackie French is a children's book (ages 10–14) about the adventures of Prince Narmer.Template:Sfn
- The Third Gate by Lincoln Child is the third book in the Jeremy Logan series and revolves primarily around the discovery and exploration of a fictional secret burial place of Narmer.
- Warframe uses Narmer's name for a faction added in The New War update that shares some similarities to the pharaoh's reign.[19]
- In The Kane Chronicles by Rick Riordan, one of siblings Carter and Sadie's parents comes from Narmer's lineage, the other from Ramses the Great (book one, The Red Pyramid, page 195).
Gallery
-
A mud jar sealing indicating that the contents came from the estate of Narmer. Originally from Tarkhan, now on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
-
Pottery sherd inscribed with the serekh and name of Narmer, on display at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
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Incised inscription on a vessel found at Tarkhan (tomb 414), naming Narmer; Petrie Museum, UC 16083
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Alabaster statue of a baboon divinity with the name of Narmer inscribed on its base, on display at the Egyptian Museum of Berlin
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Drawing of Narmer serekh on pottery vessel with stylized catfish and without chisel or falcon, copyright Kafr Hassan Dawood Mission
-
Arrowheads from Narmer's tomb, Petrie 1905, Royal Tombs II, pl. IV.14. According to Dreyer,[3] these arrowheads are probably from the tomb of Djer, where similar arrowheads were found.Template:Sfn
-
Photograph of sherd showing Narmer serekh from Nahal Tillah without the chisel sign to spell his name. Used with permission of copyright holder, Thomas E. Levy, Levantine and Cyber-Archaeology Laboratory, University of California San Diego
![Arrowheads from Narmer's tomb, Petrie 1905, Royal Tombs II, pl. IV.14. According to Dreyer,[3] these arrowheads are probably from the tomb of Djer, where similar arrowheads were found.Template:Sfn](/wiki143/index.php?title=File:Flint_arroheads_from_Narmer%27s_tomb.jpg){kind=link}
See also
Notes
References
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- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Footnotes".
- ↑ a b c G. Dreyer, personal communication to Thomas C. Heagy, 2017
- ↑ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0084 Template:Webarchive
- ↑ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0085 Template:Webarchive
- ↑ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0114 Template:Webarchive
- ↑ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0121 Template:Webarchive
- ↑ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0115 Template:Webarchive
- ↑ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6002 Template:Webarchive
- ↑ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6015 Template:Webarchive
- ↑ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/4037 Template:Webarchive
- ↑ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0123
- ↑ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0547 Template:Webarchive
- ↑ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6009 Template:Webarchive
- ↑ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0124 Template:Webarchive
- ↑ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6006 Template:Webarchive
- ↑ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/4814 Template:Webarchive
- ↑ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6014 Template:Webarchive
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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Bibliography
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Further reading
- Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
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- Davis, Whitney. 1992. Masking the Blow: The Scene of Representation In Late Prehistoric Egyptian Art. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Goldwasser, Orly. 1992. "The Narmer Palette and the 'Triumph of Metaphor'." Lingua Aegyptia 2: 67–85.
- Muhlestein, Kerry. 2011. Violence In the Service of Order: The Religious Framework for Sanctioned Killing In Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Archaeopress.
- Shaw, Ian. 2004. Ancient Egypt: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Takacs, Gabor. 1997. "Note on the Name of King Narmer." Linguistica 37, no. 1: 53–58.
- Wengrow, David. 2001. "Rethinking 'Cattle Cults' in Early Egypt: Towards a Prehistoric Perspective on the Narmer Palette." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 11, no. 1: 91–104.
- Wilkinson, Toby A. H. 2000. "What a King Is This: Narmer and the Concept of the Ruler." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 86: 24–32.
- Williams, Bruce, Thomas J. Logan, and William J. Murnane. 1987. "The Metropolitan Museum Knife Handle and Aspects of Pharaonic Imagery before Narmer." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 46, no. 4: 245–85.
External links
Template:Library resources box
- The Narmer Catalog
- HORUS NARMER
- Database of Early Dynastic Inscriptions
- Early Egyptian Queen Revealed in 5,000-Year Old Hieroglyphs
- Photos: 5,000-Year Old Hieroglyphs Discovered in Sinai Desert.
- Hierakonpolis: City of the Hawk
Template:Pharaohs Template:First Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Template:Rulers of the Ancient Near East