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{{distinguish|Bushfood|Bushmead}} | {{distinguish|Bushfood|Bushmead}} | ||
{{Infobox food | {{Infobox food | ||
| name = Bushmeat | | name = Bushmeat | ||
| image = Bushmeat - Buschfleisch Ghana.JPG | | image = Bushmeat - Buschfleisch Ghana.JPG | ||
| caption = Bushmeat seen on the roadside [[Ghanaian_cuisine|in Ghana]]: includes [[cane rat]], [[giant pouched rat]], and [[red-flanked duiker]]. | | caption = Bushmeat seen on the roadside [[Ghanaian_cuisine|in Ghana]]: includes dried [[cane rat]], [[giant pouched rat]], and [[red-flanked duiker]]. | ||
| alternate_name = Wild meat, wild game | | alternate_name = Wild meat, wild game | ||
| country = | | country = | ||
| main_ingredient = Wildlife | | main_ingredient = Wildlife | ||
| no_recipes = false | | no_recipes = false | ||
}} | }} | ||
'''Bushmeat''' is [[meat]] from [[wildlife]] | '''Bushmeat''' is [[meat]] from [[wildlife]] [[Hunting|hunted]] for human consumption, specifically in parts of [[Africa]], [[Asia]], and [[South America]]. Bushmeat is commonly harvested through unregulated or subsistence hunting practices. Bushmeat often consists of local small [[mammal]]s in an area, such as [[primate]]s, [[bat]]s, and [[rodent]]s, but can also refer to small [[bird]]s and [[reptile]]s. | ||
In a [[public health]] context, bushmeat is of concern due to its association with the [[Pathogen transmission|transmission]] of [[Zoonosis|zoonotic]] diseases such as [[Ebola]] and [[HIV]], as well as other emerging infectious diseases linked to the handling, butchering, and consumption of wild animals.<ref name=Georges-Courbot1997>{{cite journal |author1=Georges-Courbot, M. C. |author2=Sanchez, A. |author3=Lu, C. Y. |author4=Baize, S. |author5=Leroy, E. |author6=Lansout-Soukate, J. |author7=Tévi-Bénissan, C. | author8=Georges, A. J. |author9=Trappier, S. G. |author10=Zaki, S. R. |author11=Swanepoel, R. |author12=Leman, P. A. |author13=Rollin, P. E. |author14=Peters, C. J. |author15=Nichol, S. T. |author16=Ksiazek, T. G. |name-list-style=amp |year=1997 |title=Isolation and phylogenetic characterization of Ebola viruses causing different outbreaks in Gabon |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=59–62 |doi=10.3201/eid0301.970107 |pmid=9126445 |pmc=2627600 }}</ref><ref name=McMichael2002>{{cite journal |author=McMichael, A. J. |year=2002 |title=Population, environment, disease, and survival: past patterns, uncertain futures |journal=The Lancet |volume=359 |issue=9312 |pages=1145–1148 |doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(02)08164-3 |pmid=11943282 |s2cid=9159650 |url=http://www3.carleton.ca/fecpl/courses/Reading%202.pdf}}</ref><ref name=Karesh_al2009>{{Cite journal |pmid=19787649 |year=2009 |last1=Karesh |first1=W. B. |last2=Noble |first2=E. |name-list-style=amp |title=The bushmeat trade: Increased opportunities for transmission of zoonotic disease |journal=Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine: A Journal of Translational and Personalized Medicine |volume=76 |issue=5 |pages=429–444 |doi=10.1002/msj.20139}}</ref> Bushmeat represents a primary source of animal [[protein]] and a cash-earning commodity in poor and rural communities of humid [[tropical forest]] regions of the world.<ref name="Nasi_al2008">{{cite book |last1=Nasi |first1=R. |last2=Brown |first2=D. |last3=Wilkie |first3=D. |last4=Bennett |first4=E. |last5=Tutin |first5=C. |last6=Van Tol |first6=G. |last7=Christophersen |first7=T. |name-list-style=amp |year=2008 |title=Conservation and use of wildlife-based resources: the bushmeat crisis |location=Montreal and Bogor |publisher=Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) |series=CBD Technical Series no. 33 |pages=1–50 |url=http://re.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/Conservation%20and%20use%20of%20wildlife-based%20resources.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Bennett_al2007">{{cite journal |author1=Bennett, E. L. |author2=Blencowe, E. |author3=Brandon, K. |author4=Brown, D. |author5=Burn, R. W. |author6=Cowlishaw, G. |author7=Davies, G. |author8=Dublin, H. |author9=Fa, J. E. |author10=Milner-Gulland, E. J. |author11=Robinson, J. G. |author12=Rowcliffe, J. M. |author13=Underwood, F. M. |author14=Wilkie, D. S. |name-list-style=amp |year=2007 |title=Hunting for consensus: reconciling bushmeat harvest, conservation, and development policy in West and Central Africa |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=884–887 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00595.x |pmid=17531066 |bibcode=2007ConBi..21..884B |s2cid=38428707 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6304848}}</ref> | |||
The numbers of animals killed and traded as bushmeat in 1994 in [[West Africa|West]] and [[Central Africa]] were thought to be unsustainable.<ref name=Bowen-Jones1999>{{cite journal |last1=Bowen-Jones |first1=E. |last2=Pendry |first2=S. |name-list-style=amp |year=1999 |title=The threats to primates and other mammals from the bushmeat trade in Africa and how this could be diminished |journal=Oryx |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=233–247 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-3008.1999.00066.x|doi-access=free }}</ref> | The numbers of animals killed and traded as bushmeat in 1994 in [[West Africa|West]] and [[Central Africa]] were thought to be unsustainable.<ref name=Bowen-Jones1999>{{cite journal |last1=Bowen-Jones |first1=E. |last2=Pendry |first2=S. |name-list-style=amp |year=1999 |title=The threats to primates and other mammals from the bushmeat trade in Africa and how this could be diminished |journal=Oryx |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=233–247 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-3008.1999.00066.x|doi-access=free }}</ref> | ||
By 2005, commercial harvesting and trading of bushmeat was considered a threat to [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cowlishaw |first1=G. |last2=Mendelson |first2=S. |last3=Rowcliffe |first3=J. |name-list-style=amp |title=Evidence for post-depletion sustainability in a mature bushmeat market |year=2005 |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=460–468 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01046.x |doi-access=free |bibcode=2005JApEc..42..460C }}</ref> As of 2016, 301 terrestrial [[mammal]]s were threatened with [[extinction]] due to hunting for bushmeat including non-human [[primates]], [[even-toed ungulates]], [[bat]]s, [[Diprotodontia|diprotodont marsupials]], [[rodent]]s and [[carnivore]]s occurring in [[developing country|developing countries]].<ref name=Ripple_al2016>{{cite journal |last1=Ripple |first1=W. J. |last2=Abernethy|first2=K. |first3=M. G. |last3=Betts |first4=G. |last4=Chapron |first5=R. |last5=Dirzo |first6=M. |last6=Galetti |first7=T. |last7=Levi |first8=P. A. |last8=Lindsey |first9=D. W. |last9=Macdonald |first10=B. |last10=Machovina |first11=T. M. |last11=Newsome |first12=C. A. |last12=Peres |first13=A. D.|last13= Wallach |first14=C. |last14=Wolf |first15=H. |last15=Young |date=2016 |title=Bushmeat hunting and extinction risk to the world's mammals |journal=[[Royal Society Open Science]] |volume=3 |issue=10 | | By 2005, commercial harvesting and trading of bushmeat was considered a threat to [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cowlishaw |first1=G. |last2=Mendelson |first2=S. |last3=Rowcliffe |first3=J. |name-list-style=amp |title=Evidence for post-depletion sustainability in a mature bushmeat market |year=2005 |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=460–468 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01046.x |doi-access=free |bibcode=2005JApEc..42..460C }}</ref> As of 2016, 301 terrestrial [[mammal]]s were threatened with [[extinction]] due to hunting for bushmeat including non-human [[primates]], [[even-toed ungulates]], [[bat]]s, [[Diprotodontia|diprotodont marsupials]], [[rodent]]s and [[carnivore]]s occurring in [[developing country|developing countries]].<ref name=Ripple_al2016>{{cite journal |last1=Ripple |first1=W. J. |last2=Abernethy|first2=K. |first3=M. G. |last3=Betts |first4=G. |last4=Chapron |first5=R. |last5=Dirzo |first6=M. |last6=Galetti |first7=T. |last7=Levi |first8=P. A. |last8=Lindsey |first9=D. W. |last9=Macdonald |first10=B. |last10=Machovina |first11=T. M. |last11=Newsome |first12=C. A. |last12=Peres |first13=A. D.|last13= Wallach |first14=C. |last14=Wolf |first15=H. |last15=Young |date=2016 |title=Bushmeat hunting and extinction risk to the world's mammals |journal=[[Royal Society Open Science]] |volume=3 |issue=10 |article-number=160498 |doi=10.1098/rsos.160498 |pmid=27853564 |pmc=5098989 |bibcode=2016RSOS....360498R |author-link1=William J. Ripple |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> | ||
== Nomenclature == | == Nomenclature == | ||
The term 'bushmeat' is originally an [[Africa]]n term for wildlife species that are hunted for human consumption,<ref name=Bennett_al2007/> and usually refers specifically to the meat of African wildlife.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bushmeat, explained|last=Hall|first=Jani|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/bushmeat-explained|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410195017/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/bushmeat-explained | The term 'bushmeat' is originally an [[Africa]]n term for wildlife species that are hunted for human consumption,<ref name=Bennett_al2007/> and usually refers specifically to the meat of African wildlife.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bushmeat, explained|last=Hall|first=Jani|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/bushmeat-explained|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410195017/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/bushmeat-explained|archive-date=April 10, 2021|date=2019-06-19|work=[[National Geographic]]|access-date=2022-05-18|url-access=registration}}</ref> | ||
In October 2000, the [[IUCN]] World Conservation Congress passed a resolution on the unsustainable commercial trade in ''wild meat''. Affected countries were urged to recognize the increasing ramifications of the bushmeat trade, to strengthen and enforce legislation, and to develop action programmes to mitigate the consequences of the trade. Donor organisations were requested to provide funding for the implementation of such programmes.<ref>{{cite book |location=Gland, Switzerland |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources |series=Occasional papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission |isbn= | In October 2000, the [[IUCN]] World Conservation Congress passed a resolution on the unsustainable commercial trade in ''wild meat''. Affected countries were urged to recognize the increasing ramifications of the bushmeat trade, to strengthen and enforce legislation, and to develop action programmes to mitigate the consequences of the trade. Donor organisations were requested to provide funding for the implementation of such programmes.<ref>{{cite book |location=Gland, Switzerland |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources |series=Occasional papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission |isbn=978-2-8317-0638-2 |title=Links Between Biodiversity Conservation, Livelihoods and Food Security: The Sustainable Use of Wild Species for Meat |editor=Mainka, S. |editor2=Trivedi, M. |year=2002 |chapter=IUCN Resolution 2.64: The unsustainable commercial trade in wild meat |pages=5–6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HnbhyC0SfhIC&pg=PA5}}</ref> | ||
Wildlife [[hunting]] for food is important for the livelihood security of and supply of [[dietary protein]] for poor people. It can be sustainable when carried out by traditional [[hunter-gatherer]]s in large landscapes for their own consumption. Due to the extent of bushmeat hunting for [[wildlife trade|trade]] in markets, the survival of those species that are large-bodied and reproduce slowly is threatened. The term ''bushmeat crisis'' was coined in 2007 and refers to this dual threat of depleting food resources and wildlife [[extinction]]s, both entailed by the bushmeat trade.<ref name=Bennett_al2007/> | Wildlife [[hunting]] for food is important for the livelihood security of and supply of [[dietary protein]] for poor people. It can be sustainable when carried out by traditional [[hunter-gatherer]]s in large landscapes for their own consumption. Due to the extent of bushmeat hunting for [[wildlife trade|trade]] in markets, the survival of those species that are large-bodied and reproduce slowly is threatened. The term ''bushmeat crisis'' was coined in 2007 and refers to this dual threat of depleting food resources and wildlife [[extinction]]s, both entailed by the bushmeat trade.<ref name=Bennett_al2007/> | ||
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== Affected wildlife species == | == Affected wildlife species == | ||
Globally, more than 1,000 animal species are estimated to be affected by hunting for bushmeat.<ref name=Nasi_al2008/> | Globally, more than 1,000 animal species are estimated to be affected by hunting for bushmeat.<ref name=Nasi_al2008/> | ||
Bushmeat hunters use mostly leg-hold [[snare trap]]s to catch any wildlife, but prefer to kill large species, as these provide a greater amount of meat | Bushmeat hunters use mostly leg-hold [[snare trap]]s to catch any wildlife, but prefer to kill large species, as these provide a greater amount of meat.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wilkie, D.S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Wieland, M. |author3=Boulet, H. |author4=Le Bel, S. |author5=van Vliet, N. |author6=Cornelis, D. |author7=BriacWarnon, V. |author8=Nasi, R. |author9=Fa, J.E. |year=2016 |title=Eating and conserving bushmeat in Africa |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=402–414 |doi=10.1111/aje.12392 |bibcode=2016AfJEc..54..402W |url=http://agritrop.cirad.fr/582403/}}</ref> | ||
[[File:Pangolin du Cameroun 04.jpg|thumb|[[Pangolin]] in Cameroon]] | [[File:Pangolin du Cameroun 04.jpg|thumb|[[Pangolin]] in Cameroon]] | ||
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[[File:Gibier bord route.jpg|thumb|Bushmeat in Gabon]] | [[File:Gibier bord route.jpg|thumb|Bushmeat in Gabon]] | ||
The volume of the bushmeat trade in [[West Africa|West]] and [[Central Africa]] was estimated at {{convert|1-5|e6t|abbr=off}} per year at the turn of the 21st century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davies |first1=G. |title=Bushmeat and international development |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=16 |issue=3 |year=2002 |pages=587–589 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.01636.x|bibcode=2002ConBi..16..587D |s2cid=83996789 }}</ref> In 2002, it was estimated that species weighing more than {{convert|10|kg|abbr=on}} contribute {{convert|177.7 ± 358.4|kg/km2|abbr=on}} of meat per year to the bushmeat extracted in the [[Congo Basin]], based on 24 individuals. Species weighing ''less'' than {{convert|10|kg|abbr=on}} were estimated to contribute {{convert|35.4 ± 72.2|kg/km2|abbr=on}}, also based on 24 individuals. Bushmeat extraction in the [[Amazon rainforest]] was estimated to be much lower, at {{convert|3.69 ± 3.9|kg/km2|abbr=on}} in the case of species weighing more than 10 kg and {{convert|0.6 ± 0.9|kg/km2|abbr=on}} in the case of species weighing less than 10 kg, based on 3 individuals.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Fa, J. E.|author2=Peres, C. A.|author3=Meeuwig, J.|year=2002|title=Bushmeat exploitation in tropical forests: an intercontinental comparison|journal=Conservation Biology |volume=16|issue=1|pages=232–237|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00275.x|pmid=35701970 |bibcode=2002ConBi..16..232F |name-list-style=amp|s2cid=55246983}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} | The volume of the bushmeat trade in [[West Africa|West]] and [[Central Africa]] was estimated at {{convert|1-5|e6t|abbr=off}} per year at the turn of the 21st century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davies |first1=G. |title=Bushmeat and international development |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=16 |issue=3 |year=2002 |pages=587–589 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.01636.x|bibcode=2002ConBi..16..587D |s2cid=83996789 }}</ref> In 2002, it was estimated that species weighing more than {{convert|10|kg|abbr=on}} contribute {{convert|177.7 ± 358.4|kg/km2|abbr=on}} of meat per year to the bushmeat extracted in the [[Congo Basin]], based on 24 individuals. Species weighing ''less'' than {{convert|10|kg|abbr=on}} were estimated to contribute {{convert|35.4 ± 72.2|kg/km2|abbr=on}}, also based on 24 individuals. Bushmeat extraction in the [[Amazon rainforest]] was estimated to be much lower, at {{convert|3.69 ± 3.9|kg/km2|abbr=on}} in the case of species weighing more than 10 kg and {{convert|0.6 ± 0.9|kg/km2|abbr=on}} in the case of species weighing less than 10 kg, based on 3 individuals.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Fa, J. E.|author2=Peres, C. A.|author3=Meeuwig, J.|year=2002|title=Bushmeat exploitation in tropical forests: an intercontinental comparison|journal=Conservation Biology |volume=16|issue=1|pages=232–237|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00275.x|pmid=35701970 |bibcode=2002ConBi..16..232F |name-list-style=amp|s2cid=55246983}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} | ||
Based on these estimates, a total of {{convert|2200000|t|abbr=on}} bushmeat is extracted in the Congo Basin per year | Based on these estimates, a total of {{convert|2200000|t|abbr=on}} bushmeat is extracted in the Congo Basin per year.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Fa, J. E. |author2=Currie, D. |author3=Meeuwig, J. |name-list-style=amp |year=2003 |title=Bushmeat and food security in the Congo Basin: linkages between wildlife and people's future |journal=Environmental Conservation |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=71–78 |doi=10.1017/S0376892903000067 |bibcode=2003EnvCo..30...71F |s2cid=84561619 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259360340}}</ref> | ||
The 301 mammal species threatened by hunting for bushmeat comprise 126 primates, 65 even-toed ungulates, 27 bats, 26 diprotodont marsupials, 21 rodents, 12 carnivores and all [[pangolin]] species.<ref name=Ripple_al2016/> | The 301 mammal species threatened by hunting for bushmeat comprise 126 primates, 65 even-toed ungulates, 27 bats, 26 diprotodont marsupials, 21 rodents, 12 carnivores and all [[pangolin]] species.<ref name=Ripple_al2016/> | ||
[[File:Gorilla gorilla09.jpg|thumb|A [[gorilla]] in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2008]] | [[File:Gorilla gorilla09.jpg|thumb|A [[gorilla]] in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2008]] | ||
Between 1983 and 2002, the [[Gabon]] populations of [[western gorilla]] (''Gorilla gorilla'') and [[common chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes'') were estimated to have declined by 56%. This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting, which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure for [[logging]] purposes.<ref name="Nature2003">{{cite journal |author=Walsh, P. D.; Abernethy, K. A.; Bermejo, M.; Beyers, R.; De Wachter, P.; Akou, M. E.; Huijbregts, B.; Mambounga, D. I.; Toham, A. K.; Kilbourn, A. M.;, Lahm, S.A.;, Latour. S.; Maisels, F.; Mbinak, C.; Mihindouk, Y.; Obiang, S. N.; Effa, E. N.; Starkey, M. P.; Telfer, P. M.; Thibault, M.; Tutin, C. E. G.; White, L. J. T.; Wilkie, D. S. |title=Catastrophic ape decline in western equatorial Africa |journal=Nature |volume=422 |issue=6932 |year=2003 |pages=611–614 |doi=10.1038/nature01566 |pmid=12679788 |bibcode=2003Natur.422..611W |s2cid=5905831 |url=http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/ebola_decline_congo_western_equatorial_africa_3.pdf}}</ref> | Between 1983 and 2002, the [[Gabon]] populations of [[western gorilla]] (''Gorilla gorilla'') and [[common chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes'') were estimated to have declined by 56%. This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting, which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure for [[logging]] purposes.<ref name="Nature2003">{{cite journal |author=Walsh, P. D.; Abernethy, K. A.; Bermejo, M.; Beyers, R.; De Wachter, P.; Akou, M. E.; Huijbregts, B.; Mambounga, D. I.; Toham, A. K.; Kilbourn, A. M.;, Lahm, S.A.;, Latour. S.; Maisels, F.; Mbinak, C.; Mihindouk, Y.; Obiang, S. N.; Effa, E. N.; Starkey, M. P.; Telfer, P. M.; Thibault, M.; Tutin, C. E. G.; White, L. J. T.; Wilkie, D. S. |title=Catastrophic ape decline in western equatorial Africa |journal=Nature |volume=422 |issue=6932 |year=2003 |pages=611–614 |doi=10.1038/nature01566 |pmid=12679788 |bibcode=2003Natur.422..611W |s2cid=5905831 |url=http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/ebola_decline_congo_western_equatorial_africa_3.pdf}}</ref> | ||
[[Marsh mongoose]] (''Atilax paludinosus'') and [[long-nosed mongoose]] (''Herpestes naso'') are the most numerous small carnivores offered in rural bushmeat markets in the country.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bahaa-el-din, L. |author2=Henschel, P. |author3= | [[Marsh mongoose]] (''Atilax paludinosus'') and [[long-nosed mongoose]] (''Herpestes naso'') are the most numerous small carnivores offered in rural bushmeat markets in the country.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bahaa-el-din, L. |author2=Henschel, P. |author3=Aba'a, R. |author4=Abernethy, K. |author5=Bohm, T. |author6=Bout, N. |author7=Coad, L. |author8=Head, J. |author9=Inoue, E. |author10=Lahm, S. |author11=Lee, M. E. |author12=Maisels, F. |author13=Rabanal, L. |author14=Starkey, M. |author15=Taylor, G. |author16=Vanthomme, A. |author17=Nakashima, Y. |author18=Hunter, L. |year=2013 |title=Notes on the distribution and status of small carnivores in Gabon |journal=Small Carnivore Conservation |issue=48 |pages=19–29 }}</ref> | ||
In the late 1990s, fresh and smoked [[bonobo]] (''Pan paniscus'') carcasses were observed in [[Basankusu]] in the [[Province of Équateur]] in the Congo Basin.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Dupain, J. |author2=Bofaso, M. |author3=Lompongo, J. |author4=Elsacker, L. V. |name-list-style=amp |year=2001 |title=Bonobos at the market of Basankusu (Equateur Province, DRC) in 1999: new evidence for bonobos between the lkelemba and Bosomba rivers |journal=Pan Africa News |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=24–26 |url=https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/143400/1/PAN8(2)_24.pdf|doi=10.5134/143400 |doi-access=free }}</ref> | In the late 1990s, fresh and smoked [[bonobo]] (''Pan paniscus'') carcasses were observed in [[Basankusu]] in the [[Province of Équateur]] in the Congo Basin.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Dupain, J. |author2=Bofaso, M. |author3=Lompongo, J. |author4=Elsacker, L. V. |name-list-style=amp |year=2001 |title=Bonobos at the market of Basankusu (Equateur Province, DRC) in 1999: new evidence for bonobos between the lkelemba and Bosomba rivers |journal=Pan Africa News |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=24–26 |url=https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/143400/1/PAN8(2)_24.pdf|doi=10.5134/143400 |doi-access=free }}</ref> | ||
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=== Logging === | === Logging === | ||
[[Logging]] concessions operated by companies in African forests have been closely linked to the bushmeat trade. Because they provide roads, trucks and other access to remote forests, they are the primary means for the transportation of hunters and meat between forests and urban centres. Some, including the Congolaise Industrielle du Bois (CIB) in the [[Republic of Congo]], partnered with governments and international conservation organizations to regulate the bushmeat trade within the concessions where they operate. Numerous solutions are needed; because each country has different circumstances, traditions and laws, no one solution will work in every location.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Poulsen, J. R. |author2=Clark, C. J. |author3=Mavah, G. |author4=Elkan, P. W. |name-list-style=amp |year=2009 |title=Bushmeat supply and consumption in a tropical logging concession in northern Congo |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1608 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01251.x |pmid=19459888 |bibcode=2009ConBi..23.1597P |s2cid=42668922 |url=https://www.tropicalecology.us/uploads/1/9/3/6/19363955/poulsen_et_al._2009_consbio.pdf |access-date=2019-12-26 |archive-date=2019-12-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226170333/https://www.tropicalecology.us/uploads/1/9/3/6/19363955/poulsen_et_al._2009_consbio.pdf | [[Logging]] concessions operated by companies in African forests have been closely linked to the bushmeat trade. Because they provide roads, trucks and other access to remote forests, they are the primary means for the transportation of hunters and meat between forests and urban centres. Some, including the Congolaise Industrielle du Bois (CIB) in the [[Republic of Congo]], partnered with governments and international conservation organizations to regulate the bushmeat trade within the concessions where they operate. Numerous solutions are needed; because each country has different circumstances, traditions and laws, no one solution will work in every location.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Poulsen, J. R. |author2=Clark, C. J. |author3=Mavah, G. |author4=Elkan, P. W. |name-list-style=amp |year=2009 |title=Bushmeat supply and consumption in a tropical logging concession in northern Congo |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1608 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01251.x |pmid=19459888 |bibcode=2009ConBi..23.1597P |s2cid=42668922 |url=https://www.tropicalecology.us/uploads/1/9/3/6/19363955/poulsen_et_al._2009_consbio.pdf |access-date=2019-12-26 |archive-date=2019-12-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226170333/https://www.tropicalecology.us/uploads/1/9/3/6/19363955/poulsen_et_al._2009_consbio.pdf }}</ref> | ||
===Nutrition=== | ===Nutrition=== | ||
Bushmeat can be an important source of [[micronutrient]]s and [[macronutrient]]s. A study of South Americans in the [[Tres Fronteras]] region found that those who consumed bushmeat were at a lower risk of [[anemia]] and chronic health conditions, as their diets included more [[iron]], [[zinc]], and [[vitamin C]] than those who did not eat bushmeat.<ref name="Tien Ming">{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-060827|doi-access=free|title=The Harvest of Tropical Wildlife for Bushmeat and Traditional Medicine|year=2020|last1=Lee|first1=Tien Ming|last2=Sigouin|first2=Amanda|last3=Pinedo-Vasquez|first3=Miguel|last4=Nasi|first4=Robert|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources|volume=45|pages=145–170}}</ref> | Bushmeat can be an important source of [[micronutrient]]s and [[macronutrient]]s. A study of South Americans in the [[Tres Fronteras]] region found that those who consumed bushmeat were at a lower risk of [[anemia]] and chronic health conditions, as their diets included more [[iron]], [[zinc]], and [[vitamin C]] than those who did not eat bushmeat.<ref name="Tien Ming">{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-060827|doi-access=free|title=The Harvest of Tropical Wildlife for Bushmeat and Traditional Medicine|year=2020|last1=Lee|first1=Tien Ming|last2=Sigouin|first2=Amanda|last3=Pinedo-Vasquez|first3=Miguel|last4=Nasi|first4=Robert|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources|volume=45|issue=1 |pages=145–170 |bibcode=2020ARER...45..145L }}</ref> | ||
=== Overfishing === | === Overfishing === | ||
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=== Pastoralism === | === Pastoralism === | ||
[[Transhumant]] [[Pastoralism|pastoralist]]s from the border area between [[Sudan]] and the [[Central African Republic]] are accompanied by armed merchants who also engage in [[poaching]] large [[herbivore]]s. The decline of [[giant eland]], Cape buffalo, [[hartebeest]] and [[waterbuck]] in the [[Chinko]] area between 2012 and 2017 is attributed to their poaching activities. They use livestock to transport bushmeat to markets.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Äbischer, T. |author2=Ibrahim, T. |author3=Hickisch, R. |author4=Furrer, R. D. |name-list-style=amp |author5=Leuenberger, C. |author6=Wegmann, D. |year=2020 |title=Apex predators decline after an influx of pastoralists in former Central African Republic hunting zones |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=241 | | [[Transhumant]] [[Pastoralism|pastoralist]]s from the border area between [[Sudan]] and the [[Central African Republic]] are accompanied by armed merchants who also engage in [[poaching]] large [[herbivore]]s. The decline of [[giant eland]], Cape buffalo, [[hartebeest]] and [[waterbuck]] in the [[Chinko]] area between 2012 and 2017 is attributed to their poaching activities. They use livestock to transport bushmeat to markets.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Äbischer, T. |author2=Ibrahim, T. |author3=Hickisch, R. |author4=Furrer, R. D. |name-list-style=amp |author5=Leuenberger, C. |author6=Wegmann, D. |year=2020 |title=Apex predators decline after an influx of pastoralists in former Central African Republic hunting zones |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=241 |article-number=108326 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108326 |bibcode=2020BCons.24108326A |s2cid=213766740 |url=https://doc.rero.ch/record/328409/files/weg_apd.pdf}}</ref> | ||
== Role in spread of diseases == | == Role in spread of diseases == | ||
| Line 78: | Line 72: | ||
Many hunters and traders are not aware of [[zoonosis]] and the risks of disease transmissions.<ref>{{Cite journal |pmid=23408099 |year=2012 |last1=Subramanian |first1=M. |title=Zoonotic disease risk and the bushmeat trade: Assessing awareness among hunters and traders in Sierra Leone |journal=EcoHealth |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=471–482 |doi=10.1007/s10393-012-0807-1 |s2cid=22594553 |url=http://www.tacugama.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Subramanian_2014_Zoonotic-disease-risk-and-bushmeat-trade-in-SL.pdf}}</ref> | Many hunters and traders are not aware of [[zoonosis]] and the risks of disease transmissions.<ref>{{Cite journal |pmid=23408099 |year=2012 |last1=Subramanian |first1=M. |title=Zoonotic disease risk and the bushmeat trade: Assessing awareness among hunters and traders in Sierra Leone |journal=EcoHealth |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=471–482 |doi=10.1007/s10393-012-0807-1 |s2cid=22594553 |url=http://www.tacugama.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Subramanian_2014_Zoonotic-disease-risk-and-bushmeat-trade-in-SL.pdf}}</ref> | ||
An interview survey in rural communities in Nigeria revealed that 55% of the respondents knew of [[zoonoses]], but their education and cultural traditions are important drivers for hunting and eating bushmeat despite the risks involved.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Friant, S. |author2=Paige, S. B. |author3=Goldberg, T. L. |name-list-style=amp |title=Drivers of bushmeat hunting and perceptions of zoonoses in Nigerian hunting communities |year=2015 |journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |volume=9 |issue=5 | | An interview survey in rural communities in Nigeria revealed that 55% of the respondents knew of [[zoonoses]], but their education and cultural traditions are important drivers for hunting and eating bushmeat despite the risks involved.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Friant, S. |author2=Paige, S. B. |author3=Goldberg, T. L. |name-list-style=amp |title=Drivers of bushmeat hunting and perceptions of zoonoses in Nigerian hunting communities |year=2015 |journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |volume=9 |issue=5 |article-number=e0003792 |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0003792|pmid=26001078 |pmc=4441483 |doi-access=free}}</ref> | ||
=== HIV === | === HIV === | ||
| Line 85: | Line 79: | ||
=== Ebola === | === Ebola === | ||
The natural reservoirs of ebolaviruses are unknown.<ref name="CDC EVD">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/about.html| title=What is Ebola Virus Disease?| website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention| date=5 November 2019| access-date=25 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.aogh.2015.02.005 |title=Transmission of Ebola Virus Disease: An Overview |year=2015 |last1=Rewar |first1=S. |last2=Mirdha |first2=D. |journal=Annals of Global Health |volume=80 |issue=6 |pages=444–451 |pmid=25960093 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=Baseler>{{cite journal |doi=10.1146/annurev-pathol-052016-100506 |title=The Pathogenesis of Ebola Virus Disease |year=2017 |last1=Baseler |first1=L. |last2=Chertow |first2=D. S.|last3=Johnson |first3=K. M. |last4=Feldmann |first4=H. |last5=Morens |first5=D. M.|journal=Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease |volume=12 |pages=387–418 |pmid=27959626 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Possible reservoirs include non-human [[primate]]s,<ref name="CDC EVD"/> [[megabat]]s, rodents, shrews, carnivores, and ungulates.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/mam.12074|quote=We found published evidence from cases of serological and/or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) positivity of EVD in non- human mammal, or of EVD-linked mortality, in 28 mammal species: 10 primates, three rodents, one shrew, eight bats, one carnivore, and five ungulates|title=Mammalian biogeography and the Ebola virus in Africa |year=2017 |last1=Olivero |first1=J. |last2=Fa |first2=J. E. |last3=Real |first3=R. |last4=Farfán |first4=M. Á. |last5=Márquez |first5=A. L. |last6=Vargas |first6=J. M. |last7=Gonzalez |first7=J. P. |last8=Cunningham|first8=A. A. |last9=Nasi |first9=R. |journal=Mammal Review |volume=47 |pages=24–37 |url=https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/611996/2/Olivero%20et%20al%202016%20Mammal%20biogeography%20and%20the%20Ebola%20virus%20MamRev-1.pdf}}</ref> | The natural reservoirs of ebolaviruses are unknown.<ref name="CDC EVD">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/about.html| title=What is Ebola Virus Disease?| website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention| date=5 November 2019| access-date=25 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.aogh.2015.02.005 |title=Transmission of Ebola Virus Disease: An Overview |year=2015 |last1=Rewar |first1=S. |last2=Mirdha |first2=D. |journal=Annals of Global Health |volume=80 |issue=6 |pages=444–451 |pmid=25960093 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=Baseler>{{cite journal |doi=10.1146/annurev-pathol-052016-100506 |title=The Pathogenesis of Ebola Virus Disease |year=2017 |last1=Baseler |first1=L. |last2=Chertow |first2=D. S.|last3=Johnson |first3=K. M. |last4=Feldmann |first4=H. |last5=Morens |first5=D. M.|journal=Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease |volume=12 |pages=387–418 |pmid=27959626 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Possible reservoirs include non-human [[primate]]s,<ref name="CDC EVD"/> [[megabat]]s, rodents, shrews, carnivores, and ungulates.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/mam.12074|quote=We found published evidence from cases of serological and/or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) positivity of EVD in non- human mammal, or of EVD-linked mortality, in 28 mammal species: 10 primates, three rodents, one shrew, eight bats, one carnivore, and five ungulates|title=Mammalian biogeography and the Ebola virus in Africa |year=2017 |last1=Olivero |first1=J. |last2=Fa |first2=J. E. |last3=Real |first3=R. |last4=Farfán |first4=M. Á. |last5=Márquez |first5=A. L. |last6=Vargas |first6=J. M. |last7=Gonzalez |first7=J. P. |last8=Cunningham|first8=A. A. |last9=Nasi |first9=R. |journal=Mammal Review |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=24–37 |bibcode=2017MamRv..47...24O |url=https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/611996/2/Olivero%20et%20al%202016%20Mammal%20biogeography%20and%20the%20Ebola%20virus%20MamRev-1.pdf}}</ref> | ||
Between October 2001 and December 2003, five Ebola virus outbreaks occurred in the border area between Gabon and Republic of Congo. Autopsies of wildlife carcasses showed that chimpanzees, gorillas and bay duikers were infected with the virus.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rouquet, P. |author2=Froment, J. |author3=Bermejo, M. |author4=Kilbourne, A. |author5=Karesh, W. |author6=Reed, P. |author7=Kumulungui, B. |author8=Yaba, P. |author9=Délicat, A. |author10=Rollin, P. E. |author11=Leroy, E. M. |name-list-style=amp |year=2005 |title=Wild animal mortality monitoring and human Ebola outbreaks, Gabon and Republic of Congo, 2001–2003 |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=283–290 |doi=10.3201/eid1102.040533 |pmc=3320460 |pmid=15752448}}</ref> | Between October 2001 and December 2003, five Ebola virus outbreaks occurred in the border area between Gabon and Republic of Congo. Autopsies of wildlife carcasses showed that chimpanzees, gorillas and bay duikers were infected with the virus.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rouquet, P. |author2=Froment, J. |author3=Bermejo, M. |author4=Kilbourne, A. |author5=Karesh, W. |author6=Reed, P. |author7=Kumulungui, B. |author8=Yaba, P. |author9=Délicat, A. |author10=Rollin, P. E. |author11=Leroy, E. M. |name-list-style=amp |year=2005 |title=Wild animal mortality monitoring and human Ebola outbreaks, Gabon and Republic of Congo, 2001–2003 |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=283–290 |doi=10.3201/eid1102.040533 |pmc=3320460 |pmid=15752448 |bibcode=2005EIDis..11..283R }}</ref> | ||
The Ebola virus has been linked to bushmeat, with some researchers hypothesizing that megabats are a primary host of at least some variants of Ebola virus. Between the first recorded outbreak in 1976 and the largest in 2014, the virus has [[Spillover infection|transferred from animals to humans]] only 30 times, despite large numbers of bats being killed and sold each year. Bats drop partially eaten fruits and pulp, then terrestrial mammals such as gorillas and duikers feed on these fruits. This chain of events forms a possible indirect means of transmission from the natural host to animal populations.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Leroy, E. |author2=Gonzalez, J. P. |author3=Pourrut, X. |chapter=Ebolavirus and Other Filoviruses |name-list-style=amp |pages=363–387 |title=Wildlife and Emerging Zoonotic Diseases: The Biology, Circumstances and Consequences of Cross-Species Transmission |volume=315 |editor1=Childs, J. E. |editor2=Mackenzie, J. S. |editor3=Richt, J. A. |year=2007 |pmid=17848072 |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-70962-6_15 |isbn=978-3-540-70961-9 |series=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |pmc=7121322 |chapter-url=}}</ref> | The Ebola virus has been linked to bushmeat, with some researchers hypothesizing that megabats are a primary host of at least some variants of Ebola virus. Between the first recorded outbreak in 1976 and the largest in 2014, the virus has [[Spillover infection|transferred from animals to humans]] only 30 times, despite large numbers of bats being killed and sold each year. Bats drop partially eaten fruits and pulp, then terrestrial mammals such as gorillas and duikers feed on these fruits. This chain of events forms a possible indirect means of transmission from the natural host to animal populations.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Leroy, E. |author2=Gonzalez, J. P. |author3=Pourrut, X. |chapter=Ebolavirus and Other Filoviruses |name-list-style=amp |pages=363–387 |title=Wildlife and Emerging Zoonotic Diseases: The Biology, Circumstances and Consequences of Cross-Species Transmission |volume=315 |editor1=Childs, J. E. |editor2=Mackenzie, J. S. |editor3=Richt, J. A. |year=2007 |pmid=17848072 |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-70962-6_15 |isbn=978-3-540-70961-9 |series=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |pmc=7121322 |chapter-url=}}</ref> | ||
The suspected [[index case]] for the [[Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa]] in 2014 was a two-year-old boy in [[Meliandou]] in south-eastern Guinea, who played in a hollow tree harbouring a colony of [[Angolan free-tailed bat]]s (''Mops condylurus'').<ref name=EMBOMM123014>{{cite journal |author=Saéz, A. M. |author2=Weiss, S. |author3=Nowak, K. |author4=Lapeyre, V. |author5=Zimmermann, F. |author6=Düx, A. |author7=Kühl, H. S. |author8=Kaba, M. |author9=Regnaut, S. |author10=Merkel, K. |author11=Sachse, A. |author12=Thiesen, U. |author13=Villányi, L. |author14=Boesch, C. |author15=Dabrowski, P. W. |author16=Radonić, A. |author17=Nitsche, A. |author18=Leendertz, S. A. J. |author19=Petterson, S. |author20=Becker, S. |author21=Krähling, V. |author22=Couacy-Hymann, E. |author23=Akoua-Koffi, C. |author24=Weber, N. |author25=Schaade, L. |author26=Fahr, J. |author27=Borchert, M. |author28=Gogarten, J. F. |author29=Calvignac-Spencer, S. |author30=Leendertz, F. H. |name-list-style=amp |title=Investigating the zoonotic origin of the West African Ebola epidemic |journal=EMBO Molecular Medicine |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=17–23 |date=2014 |doi=10.15252/emmm.201404792 |pmid=25550396 |pmc=4309665}}</ref> | The suspected [[index case]] for the [[Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa]] in 2014 was a two-year-old boy in [[Meliandou]] in south-eastern Guinea, who played in a hollow tree harbouring a colony of [[Angolan free-tailed bat]]s (''Mops condylurus'').<ref name=EMBOMM123014>{{cite journal |author=Saéz, A. M. |author2=Weiss, S. |author3=Nowak, K. |author4=Lapeyre, V. |author5=Zimmermann, F. |author6=Düx, A. |author7=Kühl, H. S. |author8=Kaba, M. |author9=Regnaut, S. |author10=Merkel, K. |author11=Sachse, A. |author12=Thiesen, U. |author13=Villányi, L. |author14=Boesch, C. |author15=Dabrowski, P. W. |author16=Radonić, A. |author17=Nitsche, A. |author18=Leendertz, S. A. J. |author19=Petterson, S. |author20=Becker, S. |author21=Krähling, V. |author22=Couacy-Hymann, E. |author23=Akoua-Koffi, C. |author24=Weber, N. |author25=Schaade, L. |author26=Fahr, J. |author27=Borchert, M. |author28=Gogarten, J. F. |author29=Calvignac-Spencer, S. |author30=Leendertz, F. H. |name-list-style=amp |title=Investigating the zoonotic origin of the West African Ebola epidemic |journal=EMBO Molecular Medicine |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=17–23 |date=2014 |doi=10.15252/emmm.201404792 |pmid=25550396 |pmc=4309665}}</ref> | ||
Results of a study conducted during the Ebola crisis in Liberia showed that socio-economic conditions affected bushmeat consumption. During the crisis, there was a decrease in bushmeat consumption and daily meal frequency. In addition, preferences for bushmeat species stayed the same.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ordaz-Németh |first1=I. |last2=Arandjelovic |first2=M. |last3=Boesch |first3=L. |last4=Gatiso |first4=T. |last5=Grimes |first5=T. |last6=Kuehl |first6=H. S. |last7=Lormie |first7=M. |last8=Stephens |first8=C. |last9=Tweh |first9=C. |name-list-style=amp |date=2017 |title=The socio-economic drivers of bushmeat consumption during the West African Ebola crisis |journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |volume=11 |issue=3 | | Results of a study conducted during the Ebola crisis in Liberia showed that socio-economic conditions affected bushmeat consumption. During the crisis, there was a decrease in bushmeat consumption and daily meal frequency. In addition, preferences for bushmeat species stayed the same.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ordaz-Németh |first1=I. |last2=Arandjelovic |first2=M. |last3=Boesch |first3=L. |last4=Gatiso |first4=T. |last5=Grimes |first5=T. |last6=Kuehl |first6=H. S. |last7=Lormie |first7=M. |last8=Stephens |first8=C. |last9=Tweh |first9=C. |name-list-style=amp |date=2017 |title=The socio-economic drivers of bushmeat consumption during the West African Ebola crisis |journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |volume=11 |issue=3 |article-number=e0005450 |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0005450 |pmid=28282378 |pmc=5362244 |doi-access=free}}</ref> | ||
===Parasites=== | ===Parasites=== | ||
| Line 120: | Line 114: | ||
== External links == | == External links == | ||
* {{cite web |url=http://www.bushmeat.net/ |title=The Bushmeat Project | | * {{cite web |url=http://www.bushmeat.net/ |title=The Bushmeat Project |work=Biosynergy Institute}} | ||
* {{cite web |url=https://www.4apes.com/working-groups/bushmeat |title=Bushmeat |website=Ape Alliance – Action for Apes}} | * {{cite web |url=https://www.4apes.com/working-groups/bushmeat |title=Bushmeat |website=Ape Alliance – Action for Apes}} | ||
* {{cite web |url=http://www.traffic.org/ |title=Action on wildlife trade |website=Traffic}} | * {{cite web |url=http://www.traffic.org/ |title=Action on wildlife trade |website=Traffic}} | ||
* {{cite news |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/people-are-hunting-primates-bats-and-other-mammals-extinction |title=People are hunting primates, bats, and other mammals to extinction |first= E. |last=Pennisi |author-link=Elizabeth Pennisi |date=2016 | | * {{cite news |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/people-are-hunting-primates-bats-and-other-mammals-extinction |title=People are hunting primates, bats, and other mammals to extinction |first= E. |last=Pennisi |author-link=Elizabeth Pennisi |date=2016 |work=[[Science (magazine)|Science]] |access-date=May 26, 2017}} | ||
* {{cite web |url=http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/understanding-the-bushmeat-market-why-do-people-risk-infection-from-bat-meat |title=Understanding the bushmeat market: why do people risk infection from bat meat?| | * {{cite web |url=http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/understanding-the-bushmeat-market-why-do-people-risk-infection-from-bat-meat |title=Understanding the bushmeat market: why do people risk infection from bat meat?|work=University of Cambridge |date=2014}} | ||
* {{cite news |url=http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/239123/icode/ |title=FAO warns of fruit bat risk in West African Ebola epidemic | | * {{cite news |url=http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/239123/icode/ |title=FAO warns of fruit bat risk in West African Ebola epidemic |work=Food and Agriculture Organisation News |date=2014}} | ||
* {{cite news |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/empres/news_151010.html|title=Bushmeat consumption, wildlife trade and global public health risks | | * {{cite news |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/empres/news_151010.html|title=Bushmeat consumption, wildlife trade and global public health risks |work=Food and Agriculture Organisation News |date=2010}} | ||
{{Natural resources}} | {{Natural resources}} | ||
Latest revision as of 20:05, 4 December 2025
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Bushmeat is meat from wildlife hunted for human consumption, specifically in parts of Africa, Asia, and South America. Bushmeat is commonly harvested through unregulated or subsistence hunting practices. Bushmeat often consists of local small mammals in an area, such as primates, bats, and rodents, but can also refer to small birds and reptiles.
In a public health context, bushmeat is of concern due to its association with the transmission of zoonotic diseases such as Ebola and HIV, as well as other emerging infectious diseases linked to the handling, butchering, and consumption of wild animals.[1][2][3] Bushmeat represents a primary source of animal protein and a cash-earning commodity in poor and rural communities of humid tropical forest regions of the world.[4][5]
The numbers of animals killed and traded as bushmeat in 1994 in West and Central Africa were thought to be unsustainable.[6] By 2005, commercial harvesting and trading of bushmeat was considered a threat to biodiversity.[7] As of 2016, 301 terrestrial mammals were threatened with extinction due to hunting for bushmeat including non-human primates, even-toed ungulates, bats, diprotodont marsupials, rodents and carnivores occurring in developing countries.[8]
Nomenclature
The term 'bushmeat' is originally an African term for wildlife species that are hunted for human consumption,[5] and usually refers specifically to the meat of African wildlife.[9] In October 2000, the IUCN World Conservation Congress passed a resolution on the unsustainable commercial trade in wild meat. Affected countries were urged to recognize the increasing ramifications of the bushmeat trade, to strengthen and enforce legislation, and to develop action programmes to mitigate the consequences of the trade. Donor organisations were requested to provide funding for the implementation of such programmes.[10]
Wildlife hunting for food is important for the livelihood security of and supply of dietary protein for poor people. It can be sustainable when carried out by traditional hunter-gatherers in large landscapes for their own consumption. Due to the extent of bushmeat hunting for trade in markets, the survival of those species that are large-bodied and reproduce slowly is threatened. The term bushmeat crisis was coined in 2007 and refers to this dual threat of depleting food resources and wildlife extinctions, both entailed by the bushmeat trade.[5]
Affected wildlife species
Globally, more than 1,000 animal species are estimated to be affected by hunting for bushmeat.[4] Bushmeat hunters use mostly leg-hold snare traps to catch any wildlife, but prefer to kill large species, as these provide a greater amount of meat.[11]
The volume of the bushmeat trade in West and Central Africa was estimated at Script error: No such module "convert". per year at the turn of the 21st century.[12] In 2002, it was estimated that species weighing more than Script error: No such module "convert". contribute Script error: No such module "convert". of meat per year to the bushmeat extracted in the Congo Basin, based on 24 individuals. Species weighing less than Script error: No such module "convert". were estimated to contribute Script error: No such module "convert"., also based on 24 individuals. Bushmeat extraction in the Amazon rainforest was estimated to be much lower, at Script error: No such module "convert". in the case of species weighing more than 10 kg and Script error: No such module "convert". in the case of species weighing less than 10 kg, based on 3 individuals.[13]Template:Better source needed Based on these estimates, a total of Script error: No such module "convert". bushmeat is extracted in the Congo Basin per year.[14]
The 301 mammal species threatened by hunting for bushmeat comprise 126 primates, 65 even-toed ungulates, 27 bats, 26 diprotodont marsupials, 21 rodents, 12 carnivores and all pangolin species.[8]
Between 1983 and 2002, the Gabon populations of western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) and common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) were estimated to have declined by 56%. This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting, which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure for logging purposes.[15] Marsh mongoose (Atilax paludinosus) and long-nosed mongoose (Herpestes naso) are the most numerous small carnivores offered in rural bushmeat markets in the country.[16]
In the late 1990s, fresh and smoked bonobo (Pan paniscus) carcasses were observed in Basankusu in the Province of Équateur in the Congo Basin.[17] The main species killed by bushmeat hunters in Tanzania's Katavi-Rukwa Region include impala (Aepyceros melampus), common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), warthog (Phacocherus africanus), Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer), harnessed bushbuck, red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus) and plains zebra (Equus quagga).[18]
A survey in a rural area in southwestern Madagascar revealed that bushmeat hunters target bushpig (Potamochoerus larvatus), ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi), Hubbard's sportive lemur (Lepilemur hubbardorum), fat-tailed dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus medius), common tenrec (Tenrec ecaudatus), grey mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus), reddish-gray mouse lemur (M. griseorufus), Madagascan fruit bat (Eidolon dupreanum) and Madagascan flying fox (Pteropus rufus).[19]
Dynamics
Logging
Logging concessions operated by companies in African forests have been closely linked to the bushmeat trade. Because they provide roads, trucks and other access to remote forests, they are the primary means for the transportation of hunters and meat between forests and urban centres. Some, including the Congolaise Industrielle du Bois (CIB) in the Republic of Congo, partnered with governments and international conservation organizations to regulate the bushmeat trade within the concessions where they operate. Numerous solutions are needed; because each country has different circumstances, traditions and laws, no one solution will work in every location.[20]
Nutrition
Bushmeat can be an important source of micronutrients and macronutrients. A study of South Americans in the Tres Fronteras region found that those who consumed bushmeat were at a lower risk of anemia and chronic health conditions, as their diets included more iron, zinc, and vitamin C than those who did not eat bushmeat.[21]
Overfishing
In Ghana, international illegal over-exploitation of African fishing grounds has increased demand for bushmeat. Both European Union-subsidized fleets and local commercial fleets have depleted fish stocks, leaving local people to supplement their diets with animals hunted from nature reserves. Over 30 years of data link sharp declines in both mammal populations and the biomass of 41 wildlife species with a decreased supply of fish.[22] Consumption of fish and of bushmeat is correlated: the decline of one resource drives up the demand and price for the other.[4]
Pastoralism
Transhumant pastoralists from the border area between Sudan and the Central African Republic are accompanied by armed merchants who also engage in poaching large herbivores. The decline of giant eland, Cape buffalo, hartebeest and waterbuck in the Chinko area between 2012 and 2017 is attributed to their poaching activities. They use livestock to transport bushmeat to markets.[23]
Role in spread of diseases
Animal sources may have been the cause for infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, leprosy, cholera, smallpox, measles, influenza, and syphilis acquired by early agrarians. The emergence of HIV-1, AIDS, Ebola virus disease, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease are attributed to animal sources today.[2] Thomas's rope squirrel (Funisciurus anerythrus) and red-legged sun squirrel (Heliosciurus rufobrachium) were found to carry MPXV in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the 1980s.[24]
Outbreaks of the Ebola virus in the Congo Basin and in Gabon in the 1990s have been associated with the butchering and consumption of chimpanzees and bonobos.[1] Bushmeat hunters in Central Africa infected with the human T-lymphotropic virus were closely exposed to wild primates.[25] Anthrax can be transmitted when butchering and eating ungulates. The risk of bloodborne diseases to be transmitted is higher when butchering a carcass than when transporting, cooking and eating it.[26]
Many hunters and traders are not aware of zoonosis and the risks of disease transmissions.[27] An interview survey in rural communities in Nigeria revealed that 55% of the respondents knew of zoonoses, but their education and cultural traditions are important drivers for hunting and eating bushmeat despite the risks involved.[28]
HIV
Results of research on wild chimpanzees in Cameroon indicate that they are naturally infected with the simian foamy virus and constitute a reservoir of HIV-1, a precursor of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in humans.[29] There are several distinct strains of HIV, indicating that this cross-species transfer has occurred several times.[30] Simian immunodeficiency virus present in chimpanzees is reportedly derived from older strains of the virus present in the collared mangabey (Cercocebus torquatus) and the putty-nosed monkey. It is likely that HIV was initially transferred to humans after having come into contact with infected bushmeat.[31]
Ebola
The natural reservoirs of ebolaviruses are unknown.[32][33][34] Possible reservoirs include non-human primates,[32] megabats, rodents, shrews, carnivores, and ungulates.[35] Between October 2001 and December 2003, five Ebola virus outbreaks occurred in the border area between Gabon and Republic of Congo. Autopsies of wildlife carcasses showed that chimpanzees, gorillas and bay duikers were infected with the virus.[36] The Ebola virus has been linked to bushmeat, with some researchers hypothesizing that megabats are a primary host of at least some variants of Ebola virus. Between the first recorded outbreak in 1976 and the largest in 2014, the virus has transferred from animals to humans only 30 times, despite large numbers of bats being killed and sold each year. Bats drop partially eaten fruits and pulp, then terrestrial mammals such as gorillas and duikers feed on these fruits. This chain of events forms a possible indirect means of transmission from the natural host to animal populations.[37] The suspected index case for the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa in 2014 was a two-year-old boy in Meliandou in south-eastern Guinea, who played in a hollow tree harbouring a colony of Angolan free-tailed bats (Mops condylurus).[38]
Results of a study conducted during the Ebola crisis in Liberia showed that socio-economic conditions affected bushmeat consumption. During the crisis, there was a decrease in bushmeat consumption and daily meal frequency. In addition, preferences for bushmeat species stayed the same.[39]
Parasites
In Cameroon, 15 primate species were examined for gastrointestinal parasites. Bushmeat primates were infected with Trichuris, Entamoeba, Ascaris, Capillaria, pinworms, Bertiella and Endolimax nana.[40] A large proportion of Bitis vipers sold at rural bushmeat markets in the Democratic Republic of the Congo are infected by Armillifer grandis, which represent a threat to public health.[41]
Management
Suggestions for reducing or halting bushmeat harvest and trade include:[42]
- increase access of consumers to affordable and reliable alternative sources of animal protein such as chicken, small livestock and farmed fish raised at family level;
- devolve rights and authority over wildlife to local communities;
- strengthen the management of protected areas and enforce wildlife conservation laws.
As an alternative to bushmeat, captive breeding of species traditionally harvested from the wild is sometimes feasible. Captive breeding efforts must be closely monitored, as there is risk they can be used to launder and legitimize individuals captured from the wild, similar to the laundering of wild green tree pythons in Indonesia for the pet trade.[21]
See also
- Cat meat
- Dog meat
- Game – animals hunted for food
- Indigenous cuisine of the Americas
- Malnutrition
- Roadkill cuisine
- Wildlife trafficking and emerging zoonotic diseases
- Yewei – wildlife meat sold at Chinese wet markets
- Template:Portal-inline
References
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External links
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