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{{Short description|Process of evolution of | {{Short description|Process of evolution of Earth's crust}} | ||
{{For|an architectural term|Tectonics (architecture)}} | {{For|an architectural term|Tectonics (architecture)}} | ||
{{Redirect|Tectonic}} | {{Redirect|Tectonic}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}} | ||
{{Geophysics|all}} | {{Geophysics|all}} | ||
[[File:Plate tectonics map.gif|thumb|upright=1.8]] | [[File:Plate tectonics map.gif|thumb|upright=1.8]] | ||
'''Tectonics''' ( | '''Tectonics''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|τεκτονικός}}'' {{grc-transl|τεκτονικός}}|pertaining to [[construction|building]]}} via [[Latin]] {{wikt-lang|la|tectonicus}})<ref>{{OEtymD|tectonic}}</ref> are the processes that result in the structure and properties of [[Earth's crust]] and its evolution through time. The field of ''planetary tectonics'' extends the concept to other planets and moons.<ref> | ||
Geologists (as distinct from architects) may define ''tectonics'' as "the architecture of the Earth's crust" - | Geologists (as distinct from architects) may define ''tectonics'' as "the architecture of the Earth's crust" - | ||
{{cite book | {{cite book | ||
| Line 44: | Line 46: | ||
</ref> | </ref> | ||
These processes include those of [[orogeny|mountain-building]], the growth and behavior of the strong, old cores of continents known as [[craton]]s, and the ways in which the relatively rigid [[tectonic plate|plates]] that constitute | These processes include those of [[orogeny|mountain-building]], the growth and behavior of the strong, old cores of continents known as [[craton]]s, and the ways in which the relatively rigid [[tectonic plate|plates]] that constitute Earth's outer shell interact with each other. Principles of tectonics also provide a framework for understanding the [[earthquake]] and [[volcanic belt]]s that directly affect much of the global population. | ||
Tectonic studies are important as guides for [[economic geology|economic geologists]] searching for [[fossil fuel]]s and [[ore deposit]]s of metallic and nonmetallic resources. An understanding of tectonic principles can help [[geomorphology|geomorphologists]] to explain [[Erosion and tectonics|erosion patterns]] and other Earth-surface features.<ref> | Tectonic studies are important as guides for [[economic geology|economic geologists]] searching for [[fossil fuel]]s and [[ore deposit]]s of metallic and nonmetallic resources. An understanding of tectonic principles can help [[geomorphology|geomorphologists]] to explain [[Erosion and tectonics|erosion patterns]] and other Earth-surface features.<ref> | ||
| Line 69: | Line 71: | ||
==Main types of tectonic regime== | ==Main types of tectonic regime== | ||
===Extensional tectonics=== | ===Extensional tectonics=== | ||
{{Main article|Extensional tectonics}} | {{Main article|Extensional tectonics}} | ||
Extensional tectonics is associated with the stretching and thinning of the crust or the [[lithosphere]]. This type of tectonics is found at divergent plate boundaries, in continental [[rift]]s, during and after a period of [[continental collision]] caused by the lateral spreading of the thickened crust formed, at releasing bends in [[Fault (geology)#Strike-slip faults|strike-slip faults]], in [[back-arc basin]]s, and on the continental end of [[passive margin]] sequences where a [[Décollement|detachment layer]] is present.<ref>{{citation|url=http://bmeyer2.free.fr/pdf/2002-TerraNova.pdf|last1=Armijo|first1=R.|last2=Meyer|first2=B.|last3=Navarro|first3=S.|last4=King|first4=G.|last5=Barka|first5=A.|author-link5=Aykut Barka|year=2002|title=Asymmetric slip partitioning in the Sea of Marmara pull-apart: a clue to propagation processes of the North Anatolian Fault?|journal=Terra Nova|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|volume=14|issue=2|pages=80–86|doi=10.1046/j.1365-3121.2002.00397.x|bibcode=2002TeNov..14...80A|citeseerx=10.1.1.546.4111|s2cid=49553634 }}</ref><ref name="Sdrolias_&_Muller_2006">{{Cite journal|last1=Sdrolias|first1=M|last2=Muller|first2=R.D.|date=2006|title=Controls on back-arc basin formations|journal=Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems|volume=7|issue=4|pages=Q04016|bibcode=2006GGG.....7.4016S|doi=10.1029/2005GC001090|doi-access=free|s2cid=129068818}}</ref><ref name="Brun_&_Fort_2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Brun |first1=J,-P. |last2=Fort |first2=X. |title=Salt tectonics at passive margins: Geology versus models |journal=Marine and Petroleum Geology |date=2011 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1123–1145 |doi=10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2011.03.004|bibcode=2011MarPG..28.1123B }}</ref> | Extensional tectonics is associated with the stretching and thinning of the crust or the [[lithosphere]]. This type of tectonics is found at divergent plate boundaries, in continental [[rift]]s, during and after a period of [[continental collision]] caused by the lateral spreading of the thickened crust formed, at releasing bends in [[Fault (geology)#Strike-slip faults|strike-slip faults]], in [[back-arc basin]]s, and on the continental end of [[passive margin]] sequences where a [[Décollement|detachment layer]] is present.<ref>{{citation|url=http://bmeyer2.free.fr/pdf/2002-TerraNova.pdf|last1=Armijo|first1=R.|last2=Meyer|first2=B.|last3=Navarro|first3=S.|last4=King|first4=G.|last5=Barka|first5=A.|author-link5=Aykut Barka|year=2002|title=Asymmetric slip partitioning in the Sea of Marmara pull-apart: a clue to propagation processes of the North Anatolian Fault?|journal=Terra Nova|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|volume=14|issue=2|pages=80–86|doi=10.1046/j.1365-3121.2002.00397.x|bibcode=2002TeNov..14...80A|citeseerx=10.1.1.546.4111|s2cid=49553634 }}</ref><ref name="Sdrolias_&_Muller_2006">{{Cite journal|last1=Sdrolias|first1=M|last2=Muller|first2=R.D.|date=2006|title=Controls on back-arc basin formations|journal=Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems|volume=7|issue=4|pages=Q04016|bibcode=2006GGG.....7.4016S|doi=10.1029/2005GC001090|doi-access=free|s2cid=129068818}}</ref><ref name="Brun_&_Fort_2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Brun |first1=J,-P. |last2=Fort |first2=X. |title=Salt tectonics at passive margins: Geology versus models |journal=Marine and Petroleum Geology |date=2011 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1123–1145 |doi=10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2011.03.004|bibcode=2011MarPG..28.1123B }}</ref> | ||
===Thrust (contractional) tectonics=== | ===Thrust (contractional) tectonics=== | ||
{{Main article|Thrust tectonics}} | {{Main article|Thrust tectonics}} | ||
Thrust tectonics is associated with the shortening and thickening of the crust, or the lithosphere. This type of tectonics is found at zones of [[continental collision]], at restraining bends in strike-slip faults, and at the oceanward part of passive margin sequences where a detachment layer is present.<ref name="Butler_&_Bond_2020">{{Cite book |last=Butler |first=R. |title=Principles of Geologic Analysis |last2=Bond |first2=C. |publisher=Elsevier |year=2020 |isbn=9780444641359 |editor-last=Scarselli |editor-first=N. |edition=2 |series=Regional Geology and Tectonics |volume=1 |pages=149–167 |chapter=Chapter 9 – Thrust systems and contractional tectonics |doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-64134-2.00008-0 |editor-last2=Adam |editor-first2=J. |editor-last3=Chiarella |editor-first3=D.}}</ref> | Thrust tectonics is associated with the shortening and thickening of the crust, or the lithosphere. This type of tectonics is found at zones of [[continental collision]], at restraining bends in strike-slip faults, and at the oceanward part of passive margin sequences where a detachment layer is present.<ref name="Butler_&_Bond_2020">{{Cite book |last=Butler |first=R. |title=Principles of Geologic Analysis |last2=Bond |first2=C. |publisher=Elsevier |year=2020 |isbn=9780444641359 |editor-last=Scarselli |editor-first=N. |edition=2 |series=Regional Geology and Tectonics |volume=1 |pages=149–167 |chapter=Chapter 9 – Thrust systems and contractional tectonics |doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-64134-2.00008-0 |editor-last2=Adam |editor-first2=J. |editor-last3=Chiarella |editor-first3=D.}}</ref> | ||
===Strike-slip tectonics=== | ===Strike-slip tectonics=== | ||
{{Main article|Strike-slip tectonics}} | |||
[[File:Aerial-SanAndreas-CarrizoPlain.jpg|thumb|[[San Andreas Fault|San Andreas transform fault]] on the [[Carrizo Plain]]]] | [[File:Aerial-SanAndreas-CarrizoPlain.jpg|thumb|[[San Andreas Fault|San Andreas transform fault]] on the [[Carrizo Plain]]]] | ||
Strike-slip tectonics is associated with the relative lateral movement of parts of the crust or the lithosphere. This type of tectonics is found along oceanic and continental [[transform fault]]s which connect offset segments of [[mid-ocean ridge]]s. Strike-slip tectonics also occurs at lateral offsets in extensional and [[thrust fault]] systems. In areas involved with [[Continental collision|plate collisions]] strike-slip deformation occurs in the over-riding plate in zones of oblique collision and accommodates deformation in the [[Foreland basin|foreland]] to a collisional belt.<ref name="Burg_2017">{{Cite web |last=Burg |first=J.-P. |date=2017 |title=Strike-slip and Oblique-slip tectonics |url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/structuralgeology/jpb/files/english/5wrench.pdf |access-date=26 September 2022}}</ref> | Strike-slip tectonics is associated with the relative lateral movement of parts of the crust or the lithosphere. This type of tectonics is found along oceanic and continental [[transform fault]]s which connect offset segments of [[mid-ocean ridge]]s. Strike-slip tectonics also occurs at lateral offsets in extensional and [[thrust fault]] systems. In areas involved with [[Continental collision|plate collisions]] strike-slip deformation occurs in the over-riding plate in zones of oblique collision and accommodates deformation in the [[Foreland basin|foreland]] to a collisional belt.<ref name="Burg_2017">{{Cite web |last=Burg |first=J.-P. |date=2017 |title=Strike-slip and Oblique-slip tectonics |url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/structuralgeology/jpb/files/english/5wrench.pdf |access-date=26 September 2022}}</ref> | ||
| Line 87: | Line 91: | ||
{{Main article|Plate tectonics}} | {{Main article|Plate tectonics}} | ||
[[File:JPVD-NGTM2023-Network.jpg|upright=2|right|thumb|The Tectonic Network of | [[File:JPVD-NGTM2023-Network.jpg|upright=2|right|thumb|The Tectonic Network of Earth. Legend: Brown: Terrane (microplate) boundaries in the continents and Mobile Belts, Cyan: Terranes of the Oceanic Plates, Blue: Oceanic transform faults; Red and orange: Fault zones in the Continental and Mountain belt domain; Purple: Main subduction zones and suture zones; Green: Continental margins]] | ||
In plate tectonics, the outermost part of | In plate tectonics, the outermost part of Earth known as the [[lithosphere]] (the [[Crust (geology)|crust]] and uppermost [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]]) act as a single mechanical layer. The lithosphere is divided into separate "plates" that move relative to each other on the underlying, relatively weak [[asthenosphere]] in a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. There are three main types of plate boundaries: [[Divergent boundary|divergent]], where plates move apart from each other and new lithosphere is formed in the process of [[sea-floor spreading]]; [[Transform fault|transform]], where plates slide past each other, and [[convergent boundary|convergent]], where plates converge and lithosphere is "consumed" by the process of [[subduction]]. Convergent and transform boundaries are responsible for most of the world's major ([[Moment magnitude scale|M<sub>w</sub>]] > 7) [[earthquake]]s. Convergent and divergent boundaries are also the site of most of the world's [[volcano]]es, such as around the Pacific [[Ring of Fire]]. Most of the deformation in the lithosphere is related to the interaction between plates at or near plate boundaries. | ||
The latest studies, based on the integration of available geological data, and satellite imagery and Gravimetric and magnetic anomaly datasets have shown that the crust of | The latest studies, based on the integration of available geological data, and satellite imagery and Gravimetric and magnetic anomaly datasets have shown that the crust of Earth is dissected by thousands of different types of tectonic elements which define the subdivision into numerous smaller microplates which have amalgamated into the larger Plates.<ref name ='van Dijk_2023'>van Dijk, J.P. (2023); The New Global Tectonic Map – Analyses and Implications. Terra Nova, 2023, 27 pp. {{doi|10.1111/TER.12662}}</ref> | ||
==Other fields of tectonic studies== | ==Other fields of tectonic studies== | ||
===Salt tectonics=== | ===Salt tectonics=== | ||
{{Main article|Salt tectonics}} | {{Main article|Salt tectonics}} | ||
Salt tectonics is concerned with the structural geometries and deformation processes associated with the presence of significant thicknesses of [[rock salt]] within a sequence of rocks. This is due both to the low density of salt, which does not increase with burial, and its low strength.<ref name="Hudec_&_Jackson_2007">{{Cite journal |last=Hudec |first=M.R. |last2=Jackson |first2=M.P.A. |date=2007 |title=Terra infirma: Understanding salt tectonics |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |volume=82 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2007.01.001}}</ref> | Salt tectonics is concerned with the structural geometries and deformation processes associated with the presence of significant thicknesses of [[rock salt]] within a sequence of rocks. This is due both to the low density of salt, which does not increase with burial, and its low strength.<ref name="Hudec_&_Jackson_2007">{{Cite journal |last=Hudec |first=M.R. |last2=Jackson |first2=M.P.A. |date=2007 |title=Terra infirma: Understanding salt tectonics |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |volume=82 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2007.01.001}}</ref> | ||
===Neotectonics=== | ===Neotectonics=== | ||
{{Main article|Neotectonics}} | {{Main article|Neotectonics}} | ||
Neotectonics is the study of the motions and deformations of | |||
Neotectonics is the study of the motions and deformations of [[Earth's crust]] ([[geology|geological]] and [[geomorphology|geomorphological]] processes) that are current or recent in [[Geologic time scale|geological time]]. The term may also refer to the motions and deformations themselves. The corresponding time frame is referred to as the ''neotectonic period''. Accordingly, the preceding time is referred to as ''palaeotectonic period''.<ref>"Encyclopedia of Coastal Science" (2005), Springer, {{ISBN|978-1-4020-1903-6}}, Chapter 1: "Tectonics and Neotectonics" {{doi|10.1007/1-4020-3880-1}} | |||
</ref> | </ref> | ||
===Tectonophysics=== | ===Tectonophysics=== | ||
{{Main article|Tectonophysics}} | {{Main article|Tectonophysics}} | ||
Tectonophysics is the study of the physical processes associated with deformation of the crust and mantle from the scale of individual mineral grains up to that of tectonic plates.<ref>{{Citation |last=Foulger |first=Gillian R. |title=The Plate Theory for Volcanism |date=2021 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780081029084001053 |work=Encyclopedia of Geology |pages=879–890 |access-date=2023-10-23 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-102908-4.00105-3 |isbn=978-0-08-102909-1|url-access=subscription }}</ref> | Tectonophysics is the study of the physical processes associated with deformation of the crust and mantle from the scale of individual mineral grains up to that of tectonic plates.<ref>{{Citation |last=Foulger |first=Gillian R. |title=The Plate Theory for Volcanism |date=2021 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780081029084001053 |work=Encyclopedia of Geology |pages=879–890 |access-date=2023-10-23 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-102908-4.00105-3 |isbn=978-0-08-102909-1|url-access=subscription }}</ref> | ||
===Seismotectonics=== | ===Seismotectonics=== | ||
{{Main article|Seismotectonics}} | {{Main article|Seismotectonics}} | ||
Seismotectonics is the study of the relationship between earthquakes, active tectonics, and individual [[Fault (geology)|faults]] in a region. It seeks to understand which faults are responsible for seismic activity in an area by analysing a combination of regional tectonics, recent instrumentally recorded events, accounts of historical earthquakes, and geomorphological evidence. This information can then be used to quantify the [[seismic hazard]] of an area.<ref name="Slejko_2012">{{Cite book |title=Recent Evolution and Seismicity of the Mediterranean Region |date=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9789401120166 |editor-last=E. Boschi |editor-first=E. |chapter=A review of the Eastern Alps – Northern Dinarides Seismotectonics |editor-last2=Mantovani |editor-first2=E. |editor-last3=Morelli |editor-first3=A. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gbbvCAAAQBAJ&dq=seismotectonics+definition&pg=PA251}}</ref> | Seismotectonics is the study of the relationship between earthquakes, active tectonics, and individual [[Fault (geology)|faults]] in a region. It seeks to understand which faults are responsible for seismic activity in an area by analysing a combination of regional tectonics, recent instrumentally recorded events, accounts of historical earthquakes, and geomorphological evidence. This information can then be used to quantify the [[seismic hazard]] of an area.<ref name="Slejko_2012">{{Cite book |title=Recent Evolution and Seismicity of the Mediterranean Region |date=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9789401120166 |editor-last=E. Boschi |editor-first=E. |chapter=A review of the Eastern Alps – Northern Dinarides Seismotectonics |editor-last2=Mantovani |editor-first2=E. |editor-last3=Morelli |editor-first3=A. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gbbvCAAAQBAJ&dq=seismotectonics+definition&pg=PA251}}</ref> | ||
| Line 118: | Line 125: | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
{{ | {{Portal|Geology}} | ||
* [[Glarus thrust]] ([[UNESCO]] World Heritage Site]]) | |||
* [[Mohorovičić discontinuity]] | |||
* [[Seismology]] | |||
* [[Tectonophysics]] | * [[Tectonophysics]] | ||
* [[Volcanology]] | * [[Volcanology]] | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{ | {{reflist}} | ||
==Further reading== | ==Further reading== | ||
| Line 134: | Line 141: | ||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
{{wiktionary | tectonics|tectonic}} | {{wiktionary|tectonics|tectonic}} | ||
* [http://www.tectonic-forces.org The Origin and the Mechanics of the Forces Responsible for Tectonic Plate Movements] | * [http://www.tectonic-forces.org/ The Origin and the Mechanics of the Forces Responsible for Tectonic Plate Movements] | ||
* [http://www.scotese.com/ The Paleomap Project] | * [http://www.scotese.com/ The Paleomap Project] | ||
{{Structural geology}} | {{Structural geology}} | ||
{{Authority control}} | {{Authority control}} | ||
[[Category:Tectonics| ]] | [[Category:Tectonics| ]] | ||
Latest revision as of 03:20, 28 July 2025
Template:Short description Script error: No such module "For". Script error: No such module "redirect hatnote". Template:Use dmy dates
Tectonics (Template:Etymology via Latin Template:Wikt-lang)[1] are the processes that result in the structure and properties of Earth's crust and its evolution through time. The field of planetary tectonics extends the concept to other planets and moons.[2][3]
These processes include those of mountain-building, the growth and behavior of the strong, old cores of continents known as cratons, and the ways in which the relatively rigid plates that constitute Earth's outer shell interact with each other. Principles of tectonics also provide a framework for understanding the earthquake and volcanic belts that directly affect much of the global population.
Tectonic studies are important as guides for economic geologists searching for fossil fuels and ore deposits of metallic and nonmetallic resources. An understanding of tectonic principles can help geomorphologists to explain erosion patterns and other Earth-surface features.[4]
<templatestyles src="Template:TOC_right/styles.css" />
Main types of tectonic regime
Extensional tectonics
Extensional tectonics is associated with the stretching and thinning of the crust or the lithosphere. This type of tectonics is found at divergent plate boundaries, in continental rifts, during and after a period of continental collision caused by the lateral spreading of the thickened crust formed, at releasing bends in strike-slip faults, in back-arc basins, and on the continental end of passive margin sequences where a detachment layer is present.[5][6][7]
Thrust (contractional) tectonics
Thrust tectonics is associated with the shortening and thickening of the crust, or the lithosphere. This type of tectonics is found at zones of continental collision, at restraining bends in strike-slip faults, and at the oceanward part of passive margin sequences where a detachment layer is present.[8]
Strike-slip tectonics
Strike-slip tectonics is associated with the relative lateral movement of parts of the crust or the lithosphere. This type of tectonics is found along oceanic and continental transform faults which connect offset segments of mid-ocean ridges. Strike-slip tectonics also occurs at lateral offsets in extensional and thrust fault systems. In areas involved with plate collisions strike-slip deformation occurs in the over-riding plate in zones of oblique collision and accommodates deformation in the foreland to a collisional belt.[9]
Plate tectonics
In plate tectonics, the outermost part of Earth known as the lithosphere (the crust and uppermost mantle) act as a single mechanical layer. The lithosphere is divided into separate "plates" that move relative to each other on the underlying, relatively weak asthenosphere in a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. There are three main types of plate boundaries: divergent, where plates move apart from each other and new lithosphere is formed in the process of sea-floor spreading; transform, where plates slide past each other, and convergent, where plates converge and lithosphere is "consumed" by the process of subduction. Convergent and transform boundaries are responsible for most of the world's major (Mw > 7) earthquakes. Convergent and divergent boundaries are also the site of most of the world's volcanoes, such as around the Pacific Ring of Fire. Most of the deformation in the lithosphere is related to the interaction between plates at or near plate boundaries. The latest studies, based on the integration of available geological data, and satellite imagery and Gravimetric and magnetic anomaly datasets have shown that the crust of Earth is dissected by thousands of different types of tectonic elements which define the subdivision into numerous smaller microplates which have amalgamated into the larger Plates.[10]
Other fields of tectonic studies
Salt tectonics
Salt tectonics is concerned with the structural geometries and deformation processes associated with the presence of significant thicknesses of rock salt within a sequence of rocks. This is due both to the low density of salt, which does not increase with burial, and its low strength.[11]
Neotectonics
Neotectonics is the study of the motions and deformations of Earth's crust (geological and geomorphological processes) that are current or recent in geological time. The term may also refer to the motions and deformations themselves. The corresponding time frame is referred to as the neotectonic period. Accordingly, the preceding time is referred to as palaeotectonic period.[12]
Tectonophysics
Tectonophysics is the study of the physical processes associated with deformation of the crust and mantle from the scale of individual mineral grains up to that of tectonic plates.[13]
Seismotectonics
Seismotectonics is the study of the relationship between earthquakes, active tectonics, and individual faults in a region. It seeks to understand which faults are responsible for seismic activity in an area by analysing a combination of regional tectonics, recent instrumentally recorded events, accounts of historical earthquakes, and geomorphological evidence. This information can then be used to quantify the seismic hazard of an area.[14]
Impact tectonics
Impact tectonics is the study of modification of the lithosphere through high velocity impact cratering events.[15]
Planetary tectonics
Techniques used in the analysis of tectonics on Earth have also been applied to the study of the planets and their moons, especially icy moons.[3]
See also
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- Glarus thrust (UNESCO World Heritage Site]])
- Mohorovičić discontinuity
- Seismology
- Tectonophysics
- Volcanology
References
<templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Geologists (as distinct from architects) may define tectonics as "the architecture of the Earth's crust" - Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ van Dijk, J.P. (2023); The New Global Tectonic Map – Analyses and Implications. Terra Nova, 2023, 27 pp. Script error: No such module "CS1 identifiers".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ "Encyclopedia of Coastal Science" (2005), Springer, Template:ISBN, Chapter 1: "Tectonics and Neotectonics" Script error: No such module "CS1 identifiers".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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Further reading
- Edward A. Keller (2001) Active Tectonics: Earthquakes, Uplift, and Landscape Prentice Hall; 2nd edition, Template:ISBN
- Stanley A. Schumm, Jean F. Dumont and John M. Holbrook (2002) Active Tectonics and Alluvial Rivers, Cambridge University Press; Reprint edition, Template:ISBN
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".