Cannabinoid: Difference between revisions

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'''Cannabinoids''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|n|æ|b|ə|n|ɔɪ|d|z|,|_|ˈ|k|æ|n|ə|b|ə|n|ɔɪ|d|z}}) are several structural classes of compounds found primarily in the ''[[Cannabis]]'' plant or as synthetic compounds.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Abyadeh M, Gupta V, Paulo JA, Gupta V, Chitranshi N, Godinez A, Saks D, Hasan M, Amirkhani A, McKay M, Salekdeh GH, Haynes PA, Graham SL, Mirzaei M | display-authors = 3 | title = A Proteomic View of Cellular and Molecular Effects of Cannabis | journal = Biomolecules | volume = 11 | issue = 10 | pages = 1411–1428 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34680044 | pmc = 8533448 | doi = 10.3390/biom11101411 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Marijuana, also called: Cannabis, Ganja, Grass, Hash, Pot, Weed |url=https://medlineplus.gov/marijuana.html |website=Medline Plus |date=3 July 2017 |access-date=19 February 2020 |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420163636/https://medlineplus.gov/marijuana.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The most notable cannabinoid is the [[phytocannabinoid]] [[tetrahydrocannabinol]] (THC) (delta-9-THC), the primary psychoactive compound in [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]].<ref name="lambert">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lambert DM, Fowler CJ | title = The endocannabinoid system: drug targets, lead compounds, and potential therapeutic applications | journal = Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 48 | issue = 16 | pages = 5059–5087 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16078824 | doi = 10.1021/jm058183t }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Cannabinoids |url=https://archive.org/details/cannabinoidshand00pert |url-access=limited | veditors = Pertwee R |publisher=Springer-Verlag |year=2005 |isbn=978-3-540-22565-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cannabinoidshand00pert/page/n11 2]}}</ref> [[Cannabidiol]] (CBD) is a major constituent of temperate cannabis plants and a minor constituent in tropical varieties.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1962-01-01_3_page005.html |title=Bulletin on Narcotics – 1962 Issue 3 – 004 |publisher=UNODC (United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime) |date=1962-01-01 |access-date=2014-01-15 |archive-date=2019-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402062238/http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1962-01-01_3_page005.html |url-status=live }}</ref> At least 113 distinct phytocannabinoids have been isolated from cannabis, although only four (THCA, CBDA, CBCA, and their common precursor CBGA) have a confirmed biogenetic origin.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aizpurua-Olaizola O, Soydaner U, Öztürk E, Schibano D, Simsir Y, Navarro P, Etxebarria N, Usobiaga A | display-authors = 6 | title = Evolution of the Cannabinoid and Terpene Content during the Growth of Cannabis sativa Plants from Different Chemotypes | journal = Journal of Natural Products | volume = 79 | issue = 2 | pages = 324–331 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26836472 | doi = 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00949 | bibcode = 2016JNAtP..79..324A | url = https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/5028338 | access-date = 2022-12-02 | archive-date = 2023-01-05 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230105025827/https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/Evolution_of_the_Cannabinoid_and_Terpene_Content_during_the_Growth_of_Cannabis_sativa_Plants_from_Different_Chemotypes/5028338 | url-status = live | url-access = subscription }}</ref> Phytocannabinoids are also found in other plants, such as [[rhododendron]], [[licorice]], and [[liverwort]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gülck T, Møller BL | title = Phytocannabinoids: Origins and Biosynthesis | journal = Trends in Plant Science | volume = 25 | issue = 10 | pages = 985–1004 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 32646718 | doi = 10.1016/j.tplants.2020.05.005 | s2cid = 220465067 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2020TPS....25..985G }}</ref>


'''Cannabinoids''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|n|æ|b|ə|n|ɔɪ|d|z|,|_|ˈ|k|æ|n|ə|b|ə|n|ɔɪ|d|z}}) are several structural classes of compounds found primarily in the ''[[Cannabis]]'' plant or as synthetic compounds.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Abyadeh M, Gupta V, Paulo JA, Gupta V, Chitranshi N, Godinez A, Saks D, Hasan M, Amirkhani A, McKay M, Salekdeh GH, Haynes PA, Graham SL, Mirzaei M | display-authors = 3 | title = A Proteomic View of Cellular and Molecular Effects of Cannabis | journal = Biomolecules | volume = 11 | issue = 10 | pages = 1411–1428 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34680044 | pmc = 8533448 | doi = 10.3390/biom11101411 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Marijuana, also called: Cannabis, Ganja, Grass, Hash, Pot, Weed |url=https://medlineplus.gov/marijuana.html |website=Medline Plus |date=3 July 2017 |access-date=19 February 2020 |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420163636/https://medlineplus.gov/marijuana.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The most notable cannabinoid is the [[phytocannabinoid]] [[tetrahydrocannabinol]] (THC) (delta-9-THC), the primary psychoactive compound in [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]].<ref name="lambert">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lambert DM, Fowler CJ | title = The endocannabinoid system: drug targets, lead compounds, and potential therapeutic applications | journal = Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 48 | issue = 16 | pages = 5059–5087 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16078824 | doi = 10.1021/jm058183t }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Cannabinoids |url=https://archive.org/details/cannabinoidshand00pert |url-access=limited | veditors = Pertwee R |publisher=Springer-Verlag |year=2005 |isbn=978-3-540-22565-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cannabinoidshand00pert/page/n11 2]}}</ref> [[Cannabidiol]] (CBD) is also a major constituent of temperate cannabis plants and a minor constituent in tropical varieties.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1962-01-01_3_page005.html |title=Bulletin on Narcotics – 1962 Issue 3 – 004 |publisher=UNODC (United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime) |date=1962-01-01 |access-date=2014-01-15 |archive-date=2019-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402062238/http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1962-01-01_3_page005.html |url-status=live }}</ref> At least 100 distinct phytocannabinoids have been isolated from cannabis, although only four (i.e., THCA, CBDA, CBCA and their common precursor CBGA) have been demonstrated to have a biogenetic origin.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aizpurua-Olaizola O, Soydaner U, Öztürk E, Schibano D, Simsir Y, Navarro P, Etxebarria N, Usobiaga A | display-authors = 6 | title = Evolution of the Cannabinoid and Terpene Content during the Growth of Cannabis sativa Plants from Different Chemotypes | journal = Journal of Natural Products | volume = 79 | issue = 2 | pages = 324–331 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26836472 | doi = 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00949 | bibcode = 2016JNAtP..79..324A | url = https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/5028338 | access-date = 2022-12-02 | archive-date = 2023-01-05 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230105025827/https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/Evolution_of_the_Cannabinoid_and_Terpene_Content_during_the_Growth_of_Cannabis_sativa_Plants_from_Different_Chemotypes/5028338 | url-status = live | url-access = subscription }}</ref> It was reported in 2020 that phytocannabinoids can be found in other plants such as [[rhododendron]], [[licorice]] and [[liverwort]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gülck T, Møller BL | title = Phytocannabinoids: Origins and Biosynthesis | journal = Trends in Plant Science | volume = 25 | issue = 10 | pages = 985–1004 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 32646718 | doi = 10.1016/j.tplants.2020.05.005 | s2cid = 220465067 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2020TPS....25..985G }}</ref> and earlier in [[Echinacea]].
Phytocannabinoids are multi-ring phenolic compounds structurally related to THC,<ref>Pate, DW (1999). Anandamide structure-activity relationships and mechanisms of action on intraocular pressure in the normotensive rabbit model. Kuopio University Publications A. Pharmaceutical Sciences Dissertation 37, {{ISBN|951-781-575-1}}</ref> while endocannabinoids are fatty acid derivatives. Nonclassical synthetic cannabinoids (cannabimimetics) include [[aminoalkylindole]]s, 1,5-diarylpyrazoles, [[quinoline]]s, and arylsulfonamides, as well as [[eicosanoid]]s related to endocannabinoids.<ref name="lambert" />


Phytocannabinoids are multi-ring phenolic compounds structurally related to THC,<ref>Pate, DW (1999). Anandamide structure-activity relationships and mechanisms of action on intraocular pressure in the normotensive rabbit model. Kuopio University Publications A. Pharmaceutical Sciences Dissertation 37, {{ISBN|951-781-575-1}}</ref> but endocannabinoids are fatty acid derivatives. Nonclassical synthetic cannabinoids (cannabimimetics) include [[aminoalkylindole]]s, 1,5-diarylpyrazoles, [[quinoline]]s, and arylsulfonamides as well as [[eicosanoid]]s related to endocannabinoids.<ref name="lambert" />
== Uses ==
Medical uses of cannabinoids include the treatment of [[nausea]] due to [[chemotherapy]], [[spasticity]], and possibly [[neuropathic pain]].<ref name=Al2018>{{cite journal | vauthors = Allan GM, Finley CR, Ton J, Perry D, Ramji J, Crawford K, Lindblad AJ, Korownyk C, Kolber MR | display-authors = 6 | title = Systematic review of systematic reviews for medical cannabinoids: Pain, nausea and vomiting, spasticity, and harms | journal = Canadian Family Physician | volume = 64 | issue = 2 | pages = e78–e94 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 29449262 | pmc = 5964405 }}</ref> Common side effects include dizziness, sedation, confusion, dissociation, and "feeling high".<ref name=Al2018 />


== Uses ==
=== Parkinson's Disease ===
Medical uses include the treatment of [[nausea]] due to [[chemotherapy]], [[spasticity]], and possibly [[neuropathic pain]].<ref name=Al2018 /> Common side effects include dizziness, sedation, confusion, dissociation, and "feeling high".<ref name=Al2018>{{cite journal | vauthors = Allan GM, Finley CR, Ton J, Perry D, Ramji J, Crawford K, Lindblad AJ, Korownyk C, Kolber MR | display-authors = 6 | title = Systematic review of systematic reviews for medical cannabinoids: Pain, nausea and vomiting, spasticity, and harms | journal = Canadian Family Physician | volume = 64 | issue = 2 | pages = e78–e94 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 29449262 | pmc = 5964405 }}</ref>
Cannabis may provide limited relief for some [[Parkinson's disease]] (PD) symptoms, such as pain, sleep issues, or anxiety, based on small human studies (2023–2024, 10–50 participants), but it does not improve motor symptoms like tremors or stiffness (no significant change in Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale scores).<ref name="Santos2024">{{cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=A. |last2=Moreno |first2=M. |date=2024 |title=Cannabis in movement disorders |journal=Movement Disorders |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=451–462 |doi=10.1002/mds.29876 |pmid=38247328|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Bougea2024">{{cite journal |last1=Bougea |first1=A. |last2=Paraskevas |first2=G.P. |date=2024 |title=Cannabis for non-motor symptoms in PD |journal=Parkinsonism & Related Disorders |volume=118 |article-number=105934 |doi=10.1016/j.parkreldis.2023.105934 |pmid=37952282}}</ref> A 2023 US survey found 46% of PD patients reported benefits for pain or sleep.<ref name="LeBourgeois2023">{{cite journal |last1=LeBourgeois |first1=S. |last2=Buhse |first2=M. |date=2023 |title=Medical cannabis use in PD |journal=Neurology |volume=100 |issue=15 |pages=702–710 |doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000206789 |pmid=36750386 |pmc=10103113 }}</ref> Raw [[Cannabis]] contains [[tetrahydrocannabinolic acid]] (THCA, 15–30% of the plant) and [[cannabidiolic acid]] (CBDA), which are non-psychoactive. Animal studies (2021–2024) suggest THCA and CBDA may reduce inflammation and protect brain cells in PD models, acting on CB2 receptors and other pathways (e.g., TRP channels, PPARγ), unlike [[tetrahydrocannabinol]] (THC) and [[cannabidiol]] (CBD), which form when cannabis is heated (e.g., smoking, 105–150°C).<ref name="Hazekamp2023">{{cite journal |last1=Hazekamp |first1=A. |last2=Fischedick |first2=J.T. |date=2023 |title=Cannabinoid profiling of raw cannabis: THCA dominance |journal=Journal of Cannabis Research |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=12 |doi=10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114570 |doi-access=free |pmid=37421987 |pmc=10329765}}</ref><ref name="Palmioli2024">{{cite journal |last1=Palmioli |first1=A. |last2=Mazzoni |first2=V. |date=2024 |title=THCA: Non-psychoactive therapeutic potential |journal=Frontiers in Pharmacology |volume=15 |page=1346142 |doi=10.3389/fphar.2024.1345645 |doi-access=free |pmid=38476328 |pmc=10932145}}</ref><ref name="DiMartino2021">{{cite journal |last1=Di Martino |first1=S. |last2=De Petrocellis |first2=L. |date=2021 |title=Acidic cannabinoids in neurological disorders |journal=Molecules |volume=26 |issue=15 |page=4686 |doi=10.3390/molecules26154686 |doi-access=free |pmid=34361841 |pmc=8346950}}</ref> No human studies have tested THCA or CBDA for PD as of 2025. In regions like India, raw cannabis is used traditionally for tremors, but scientific evidence is lacking.<ref name="Devi2024">{{cite journal |last1=Devi |first1=V. |last2=Sharma |first2=A. |date=2024 |title=Nutritional potential of cannabis leaves in traditional diets |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=312 |issue=6 |article-number=116432 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2023.116432 |pmid=38554891}}</ref> Risks include dizziness from THC (12–20% dropout in studies) and potential interactions with PD medications like levodopa.<ref name="Patel2023">{{cite journal |last1=Patel |first1=R.S. |last2=Camacho |first2=J. |date=2023 |title=Safety of medical cannabis in PD |journal=Journal of Clinical Neuroscience |volume=109 |pages=38–44 |doi=10.1016/j.jocn.2023.01.005 |pmid=36758353}}</ref>


== Cannabinoid receptors ==
== Cannabinoid receptors ==
Before the 1980s, cannabinoids were speculated to produce their [[physiological]] and behavioral effects via nonspecific interaction with [[cell membranes]], instead of interacting with specific [[membrane-bound]] [[Receptor (biochemistry)|receptors]]. The discovery of the first cannabinoid receptors in the 1980s helped to resolve this debate.<ref name="PMID 2848184">{{cite journal | vauthors = Devane WA, Dysarz FA, Johnson MR, Melvin LS, Howlett AC | title = Determination and characterization of a cannabinoid receptor in rat brain | journal = Molecular Pharmacology | volume = 34 | issue = 5 | pages = 605–613 | date = November 1988 | doi = 10.1016/S0026-895X(25)09876-1 | pmid = 2848184 | url = http://molpharm.aspetjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=2848184 | ref = 56 | access-date = 2015-12-24 | archive-date = 2023-04-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230420163537/https://molpharm.aspetjournals.org/content/34/5/605.long | url-status = live | url-access = subscription }}</ref> These receptors are common in animals. Two known cannabinoid receptors are termed [[CB1 receptor|CB<sub>1</sub>]] and [[CB2 receptor|CB<sub>2</sub>]],<ref name="pmid16968947">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pacher P, Bátkai S, Kunos G | title = The endocannabinoid system as an emerging target of pharmacotherapy | journal = Pharmacological Reviews | volume = 58 | issue = 3 | pages = 389–462 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16968947 | pmc = 2241751 | doi = 10.1124/pr.58.3.2 }}</ref> with mounting evidence of more.<ref name="pmid15866316">{{cite journal | vauthors = Begg M, Pacher P, Bátkai S, Osei-Hyiaman D, Offertáler L, Mo FM, Liu J, Kunos G | display-authors = 6 | title = Evidence for novel cannabinoid receptors | journal = Pharmacology & Therapeutics | volume = 106 | issue = 2 | pages = 133–145 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 15866316 | doi = 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2004.11.005 }}</ref> The human brain has more cannabinoid receptors than any other [[G protein-coupled receptor]] (GPCR) type.<ref name="Medical Physiology">{{cite book| veditors = Boron WG, Boulpaep EL |title=Medical Physiology: A Cellular and Molecular Approach |year=2009 |publisher=Saunders |isbn=978-1-4160-3115-4 |page=331}}</ref>
Before the 1980s, cannabinoids were thought to produce their effects via nonspecific interaction with [[cell membranes]], rather than specific [[membrane-bound]] [[Receptor (biochemistry)|receptors]]. The discovery of cannabinoid receptors in the 1980s resolved this debate.<ref name="PMID 2848184">{{cite journal | vauthors = Devane WA, Dysarz FA, Johnson MR, Melvin LS, Howlett AC | title = Determination and characterization of a cannabinoid receptor in rat brain | journal = Molecular Pharmacology | volume = 34 | issue = 5 | pages = 605–613 | date = November 1988 | doi = 10.1016/S0026-895X(25)09876-1 | pmid = 2848184 | url = http://molpharm.aspetjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=2848184 | access-date = 2015-12-24 | archive-date = 2023-04-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230420163537/https://molpharm.aspetjournals.org/content/34/5/605.long | url-status = live | url-access = subscription }}</ref> These receptors are common in animals, with two primary types, [[CB1 receptor|CB<sub>1</sub>]] and [[CB2 receptor|CB<sub>2</sub>]],<ref name="pmid16968947">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pacher P, Bátkai S, Kunos G | title = The endocannabinoid system as an emerging target of pharmacotherapy | journal = Pharmacological Reviews | volume = 58 | issue = 3 | pages = 389–462 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16968947 | pmc = 2241751 | doi = 10.1124/pr.58.3.2 }}</ref> and evidence suggests additional receptors may exist.<ref name="pmid15866316">{{cite journal | vauthors = Begg M, Pacher P, Bátkai S, Osei-Hyiaman D, Offertáler L, Mo FM, Liu J, Kunos G | display-authors = 6 | title = Evidence for novel cannabinoid receptors | journal = Pharmacology & Therapeutics | volume = 106 | issue = 2 | pages = 133–145 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 15866316 | doi = 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2004.11.005 }}</ref> The human brain has more cannabinoid receptors than any other [[G protein-coupled receptor]] (GPCR) type.<ref name="Medical Physiology">{{cite book| veditors = Boron WG, Boulpaep EL |title=Medical Physiology: A Cellular and Molecular Approach |year=2009 |publisher=Saunders |isbn=978-1-4160-3115-4 |page=331}}</ref>


The [[endocannabinoid system]] (ECS) regulates many functions of the human body. The ECS plays an important role in multiple aspects of [[Neuron|neural]] functions, including the control of movement and motor coordination, learning and memory, emotion and motivation, addictive-like behavior and pain modulation, among others.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Kalant H | chapter = Effects of cannabis and cannabinoids in the human nervous system. | title = The effects of drug abuse on the human nervous system | date = January 2014 | pages = 387–422 | publisher = Academic Press | doi = 10.1016/B978-0-12-418679-8.00013-7 | isbn = 978-0-12-418679-8 }}</ref>
The [[endocannabinoid system]] (ECS) regulates multiple functions, including movement, motor coordination, learning, memory, emotion, motivation, addictive-like behavior, and pain modulation.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Kalant H | chapter = Effects of cannabis and cannabinoids in the human nervous system | title = The effects of drug abuse on the human nervous system | date = January 2014 | pages = 387–422 | publisher = Academic Press | doi = 10.1016/B978-0-12-418679-8.00013-7 | isbn = 978-0-12-418679-8 }}</ref>


=== Cannabinoid receptor type 1 ===
=== Cannabinoid receptor type 1 ===
{{Main|Cannabinoid receptor 1}}
{{Main|Cannabinoid receptor 1}}
CB<sub>1</sub> receptors are found primarily in the [[brain]], more specifically in the [[basal ganglia]] and in the [[limbic system]], including the [[hippocampus]]<ref name="pmid16968947" /> and the [[striatum]]. They are also found in the [[cerebellum]] and in both male and female [[reproductive system]]s. CB<sub>1</sub> receptors are absent in the [[medulla oblongata]], the part of the [[brain stem]] responsible for respiratory and cardiovascular functions. CB1 is also found in the human anterior eye and retina.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Straiker AJ, Maguire G, Mackie K, Lindsey J | title = Localization of cannabinoid CB1 receptors in the human anterior eye and retina | journal = Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science | volume = 40 | issue = 10 | pages = 2442–2448 | date = September 1999 | pmid = 10476817 }}</ref>
CB<sub>1</sub> receptors are found primarily in the [[brain]], particularly in the [[basal ganglia]], [[limbic system]], [[hippocampus]], and [[striatum]]. They are also present in the [[cerebellum]], and male and female [[reproductive system]]s, but absent in the [[medulla oblongata]], which controls respiratory and cardiovascular functions. CB1 is also found in the human anterior eye and retina.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Straiker AJ, Maguire G, Mackie K, Lindsey J | title = Localization of cannabinoid CB1 receptors in the human anterior eye and retina | journal = Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science | volume = 40 | issue = 10 | pages = 2442–2448 | date = September 1999 | pmid = 10476817 }}</ref>


=== Cannabinoid receptor type 2 ===
=== Cannabinoid receptor type 2 ===
{{Main|Cannabinoid receptor 2}}
{{Main|Cannabinoid receptor 2}}
 
CB<sub>2</sub> receptors are predominantly found in the [[immune system]] or immune-derived cells,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Marchand J, Bord A, Pénarier G, Lauré F, Carayon P, Casellas P | title = Quantitative method to determine mRNA levels by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction from leukocyte subsets purified by fluorescence-activated cell sorting: application to peripheral cannabinoid receptors | journal = Cytometry | volume = 35 | issue = 3 | pages = 227–234 | date = March 1999 | pmid = 10082303 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0320(19990301)35:3<227::AID-CYTO5>3.0.CO;2-4 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Galiègue S, Mary S, Marchand J, Dussossoy D, Carrière D, Carayon P, Bouaboula M, Shire D, Le Fur G, Casellas P | display-authors = 6 | title = Expression of central and peripheral cannabinoid receptors in human immune tissues and leukocyte subpopulations | journal = European Journal of Biochemistry | volume = 232 | issue = 1 | pages = 54–61 | date = August 1995 | pmid = 7556170 | doi = 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1995.tb20780.x | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid21295074">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pacher P, Mechoulam R | title = Is lipid signaling through cannabinoid 2 receptors part of a protective system? | journal = Progress in Lipid Research | volume = 50 | issue = 2 | pages = 193–211 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21295074 | pmc = 3062638 | doi = 10.1016/j.plipres.2011.01.001 }}</ref><ref name="Saroz acsptsci.9b00049">{{cite journal | vauthors = Saroz Y, Kho DT, Glass M, Graham ES, Grimsey NL | title = Cannabinoid Receptor 2 (CB<sub>2</sub>) Signals via G-alpha-s and Induces IL-6 and IL-10 Cytokine Secretion in Human Primary Leukocytes | journal = ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science | volume = 2 | issue = 6 | pages = 414–428 | date = December 2019 | pmid = 32259074 | pmc = 7088898 | doi = 10.1021/acsptsci.9b00049 }}</ref> with varying expression patterns. A subpopulation of [[microglia]] in the human [[cerebellum]] expresses CB<sub>2</sub>.<ref name="pmid15266552">{{cite journal | vauthors = Núñez E, Benito C, Pazos MR, Barbachano A, Fajardo O, González S, Tolón RM, Romero J | display-authors = 6 | title = Cannabinoid CB2 receptors are expressed by perivascular microglial cells in the human brain: an immunohistochemical study | journal = Synapse | volume = 53 | issue = 4 | pages = 208–213 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15266552 | doi = 10.1002/syn.20050 | s2cid = 40738073 }}</ref> CB<sub>2</sub> receptors are linked to immunomodulatory effects<ref name="Saroz acsptsci.9b00049" /> and potential therapeutic benefits in animal models.<ref name="pmid21295074" />
CB<sub>2</sub> receptors are predominantly found in the [[immune system]], or immune-derived cells<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Marchand J, Bord A, Pénarier G, Lauré F, Carayon P, Casellas P | title = Quantitative method to determine mRNA levels by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction from leukocyte subsets purified by fluorescence-activated cell sorting: application to peripheral cannabinoid receptors | journal = Cytometry | volume = 35 | issue = 3 | pages = 227–234 | date = March 1999 | pmid = 10082303 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0320(19990301)35:3<227::AID-CYTO5>3.0.CO;2-4 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Galiègue S, Mary S, Marchand J, Dussossoy D, Carrière D, Carayon P, Bouaboula M, Shire D, Le Fur G, Casellas P | display-authors = 6 | title = Expression of central and peripheral cannabinoid receptors in human immune tissues and leukocyte subpopulations | journal = European Journal of Biochemistry | volume = 232 | issue = 1 | pages = 54–61 | date = August 1995 | pmid = 7556170 | doi = 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1995.tb20780.x | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid21295074">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pacher P, Mechoulam R | title = Is lipid signaling through cannabinoid 2 receptors part of a protective system? | journal = Progress in Lipid Research | volume = 50 | issue = 2 | pages = 193–211 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21295074 | pmc = 3062638 | doi = 10.1016/j.plipres.2011.01.001 }}</ref><ref name="Saroz acsptsci.9b00049">{{cite journal | vauthors = Saroz Y, Kho DT, Glass M, Graham ES, Grimsey NL | title = Cannabinoid Receptor 2 (CB<sub>2</sub>) Signals via G-alpha-s and Induces IL-6 and IL-10 Cytokine Secretion in Human Primary Leukocytes | journal = ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science | volume = 2 | issue = 6 | pages = 414–428 | date = December 2019 | pmid = 32259074 | pmc = 7088898 | doi = 10.1021/acsptsci.9b00049 }}</ref> with varying expression patterns. While found only in the peripheral nervous system, a report does indicate that CB<sub>2</sub> is expressed by a subpopulation of [[microglia]] in the human [[cerebellum]].<ref name="pmid15266552">{{cite journal | vauthors = Núñez E, Benito C, Pazos MR, Barbachano A, Fajardo O, González S, Tolón RM, Romero J | display-authors = 6 | title = Cannabinoid CB2 receptors are expressed by perivascular microglial cells in the human brain: an immunohistochemical study | journal = Synapse | volume = 53 | issue = 4 | pages = 208–213 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15266552 | doi = 10.1002/syn.20050 | s2cid = 40738073 }}</ref> CB<sub>2</sub> receptors appear to be responsible for immunomodulatory<ref name="Saroz acsptsci.9b00049" /> and possibly other therapeutic effects of cannabinoid as seen in vitro and in animal models.<ref name="pmid21295074" />


== Phytocannabinoids ==
== Phytocannabinoids ==
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{{also|Conversion of CBD to THC}}
{{also|Conversion of CBD to THC}}


The best studied cannabinoids include [[tetrahydrocannabinol]] (THC), [[cannabidiol]] (CBD) and [[cannabinol]] (CBN).
The best-studied cannabinoids include [[tetrahydrocannabinol]] (THC), [[cannabidiol]] (CBD), and [[cannabinol]] (CBN).


==== Tetrahydrocannabinol ====
==== Tetrahydrocannabinol ====
{{Main|Tetrahydrocannabinol}}
{{Main|Tetrahydrocannabinol}}
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the primary psychoactive component of the Cannabis plant. ''Delta''-9-[[tetrahydrocannabinol]] (Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC, THC) and [[delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol]] (Δ<sup>8</sup>-THC), through intracellular CB<sub>1</sub> activation, induce [[anandamide]] and [[2-arachidonoylglycerol]] synthesis produced naturally in the body and brain{{citation needed|date=February 2019}}{{dubious|date=July 2019}}. These cannabinoids produce the effects associated with [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] by binding to the CB<sub>1</sub> cannabinoid receptors in the brain.<ref>{{cite report |date = July 2020 |title = Cannabis (Marijuana) Research Report |url = https://nida.nih.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/how-does-marijuana-produce-its-effects |access-date = 2023-05-28 |publisher = [[National Institute on Drug Abuse]] |chapter = How does marijuana produce its effects?|language=en|archive-date=2023-01-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105025954/https://nida.nih.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/how-does-marijuana-produce-its-effects|url-status=live}}</ref>
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the primary psychoactive component of the Cannabis plant. ''Delta''-9-[[tetrahydrocannabinol]] (Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC, THC) and [[delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol]] (Δ<sup>8</sup>-THC) induce [[anandamide]] and [[2-arachidonoylglycerol]] synthesis through intracellular CB<sub>1</sub> activation.<ref name="NIDA2020">{{cite report |date = July 2020 |title = Cannabis (Marijuana) Research Report |url = https://nida.nih.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/how-does-marijuana-produce-its-effects |access-date = 2023-05-28 |publisher = [[National Institute on Drug Abuse]] |chapter = How does marijuana produce its effects?|language=en|archive-date=2023-01-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105025954/https://nida.nih.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/how-does-marijuana-produce-its-effects}}</ref> These cannabinoids produce the psychoactive effects of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] by binding to CB<sub>1</sub> receptors in the brain.<ref name="NIDA2020" />


==== Cannabidiol ====
==== Cannabidiol ====
{{Main|Cannabidiol}}
{{Main|Cannabidiol}}
Cannabidiol (CBD) is mildly [[psychotropic]]. Evidence shows that the compound counteracts cognitive impairment associated with the use of cannabis.<ref name=2015CBDantipsychReview /> Cannabidiol has little affinity for [[Cannabinoid receptor#CB1|CB<sub>1</sub>]] and [[Cannabinoid receptor#CB2|CB<sub>2</sub>]] receptors but acts as an indirect antagonist of cannabinoid agonists.<ref name="recentadvances">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mechoulam R, Peters M, Murillo-Rodriguez E, Hanus LO | title = Cannabidiol--recent advances | journal = Chemistry & Biodiversity | volume = 4 | issue = 8 | pages = 1678–1692 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17712814 | doi = 10.1002/cbdv.200790147 | s2cid = 3689072 }}</ref> It was found to be an antagonist at the putative new cannabinoid receptor, [[GPR55]], a [[GPCR]] expressed in the [[caudate nucleus]] and [[putamen]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ryberg E, Larsson N, Sjögren S, Hjorth S, Hermansson NO, Leonova J, Elebring T, Nilsson K, Drmota T, Greasley PJ | display-authors = 6 | title = The orphan receptor GPR55 is a novel cannabinoid receptor | journal = British Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 152 | issue = 7 | pages = 1092–1101 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 17876302 | pmc = 2095107 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjp.0707460 }}</ref> Cannabidiol has also been shown to act as a [[5-HT1A receptor|5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor]] agonist.<ref name="pmid16258853">{{cite journal | vauthors = Russo EB, Burnett A, Hall B, Parker KK | title = Agonistic properties of cannabidiol at 5-HT1a receptors | journal = Neurochemical Research | volume = 30 | issue = 8 | pages = 1037–1043 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16258853 | doi = 10.1007/s11064-005-6978-1 | s2cid = 207222631 }}</ref> CBD can interfere with the uptake of [[adenosine]], which plays an important role in biochemical processes, such as energy transfer. It may play a role in promoting sleep and suppressing arousal.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Campos AC, Moreira FA, Gomes FV, Del Bel EA, Guimarães FS | title = Multiple mechanisms involved in the large-spectrum therapeutic potential of cannabidiol in psychiatric disorders | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 367 | issue = 1607 | pages = 3364–3378 | date = December 2012 | pmid = 23108553 | pmc = 3481531 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2011.0389 }}</ref>
Cannabidiol (CBD) is mildly [[psychotropic]] and counteracts cognitive impairment associated with cannabis use.<ref name="2015CBDantipsychReview">{{cite journal | vauthors = Iseger TA, Bossong MG | title = A systematic review of the antipsychotic properties of cannabidiol in humans | journal = Schizophrenia Research | volume = 162 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 153–161 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25667194 | doi = 10.1016/j.schres.2015.01.033 | s2cid = 3745655 }}</ref> CBD has low affinity for [[Cannabinoid receptor#CB1|CB<sub>1</sub>]] and [[Cannabinoid receptor#CB2|CB<sub>2</sub>]] receptors but acts as an indirect antagonist of cannabinoid agonists.<ref name="recentadvances">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mechoulam R, Peters M, Murillo-Rodriguez E, Hanus LO | title = Cannabidiol--recent advances | journal = Chemistry & Biodiversity | volume = 4 | issue = 8 | pages = 1678–1692 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17712814 | doi = 10.1002/cbdv.200790147 | s2cid = 3689072 }}</ref> It is an agonist at the [[5-HT1A receptor|5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor]]<ref name="pmid16258853">{{cite journal | vauthors = Russo EB, Burnett A, Hall B, Parker KK | title = Agonistic properties of cannabidiol at 5-HT1a receptors | journal = Neurochemical Research | volume = 30 | issue = 8 | pages = 1037–1043 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16258853 | doi = 10.1007/s11064-005-6978-1 | s2cid = 207222631 }}</ref> and may promote sleep and suppress arousal by interfering with [[adenosine]] uptake.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Campos AC, Moreira FA, Gomes FV, Del Bel EA, Guimarães FS | title = Multiple mechanisms involved in the large-spectrum therapeutic potential of cannabidiol in psychiatric disorders | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 367 | issue = 1607 | pages = 3364–3378 | date = December 2012 | pmid = 23108553 | pmc = 3481531 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2011.0389 }}</ref> CBD shares a precursor with THC and is the main cannabinoid in CBD-dominant ''Cannabis'' strains, potentially reducing [[cannabis and memory|short-term memory loss]] associated with THC.<ref name="NatureCBDMemory">{{Cite journal| vauthors = Frood A |title=Key ingredient staves off marijuana memory loss |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/news.2010.508|year=2010}}</ref> Tentative evidence suggests CBD may have anti-psychotic effects, though research is limited.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Leweke FM, Mueller JK, Lange B, Rohleder C | title = Therapeutic Potential of Cannabinoids in Psychosis | journal = Biological Psychiatry | volume = 79 | issue = 7 | pages = 604–612 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 26852073 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.11.018 | s2cid = 24160677 }}</ref><ref name="2015CBDantipsychReview" /> CBD and other cannabinoids have shown antimicrobial properties, potentially addressing antimicrobial resistance.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Berida TI, Adekunle YA, Dada-Adegbola H, Kdimy A, Roy S, Sarker SD | display-authors = 3 | title = Plant Antibacterials: The Challenges and Opportunities | journal = Heliyon | volume = 10 | issue = 10 | article-number = e31145 | date = 2024 | doi = 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31145 | doi-access = free | pmc = 11128932 | pmid = 38803958 | bibcode = 2024Heliy..1031145B }}</ref>
 
CBD shares a [[wikt:Precursor|precursor]] with THC and is the main cannabinoid in CBD-dominant ''Cannabis'' strains. CBD has been shown to play a role in preventing [[cannabis and memory|the short-term memory loss associated with THC]].<ref name=NatureCBDMemory>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Frood A |title=Key ingredient staves off marijuana memory loss |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/news.2010.508|year=2010}}</ref>
 
There is tentative evidence that CBD has an anti-psychotic effect, but research in this area is limited.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Leweke FM, Mueller JK, Lange B, Rohleder C | title = Therapeutic Potential of Cannabinoids in Psychosis | journal = Biological Psychiatry | volume = 79 | issue = 7 | pages = 604–612 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 26852073 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.11.018 | s2cid = 24160677 }}</ref><ref name="2015CBDantipsychReview">{{cite journal | vauthors = Iseger TA, Bossong MG | title = A systematic review of the antipsychotic properties of cannabidiol in humans | journal = Schizophrenia Research | volume = 162 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 153–161 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25667194 | doi = 10.1016/j.schres.2015.01.033 | s2cid = 3745655 }}<!--|access-date=9 October 2015--></ref>


==== Cannabinol ====
==== Cannabinol ====
{{Main|Cannabinol}}
{{Main|Cannabinol}}
Cannabinol (CBN) is a mildly [[Psychoactive drug|psychoactive]] cannabinoid that acts as a low affinity [[partial agonist]] at both CB1 and CB2 receptors.'''<ref name="Rhee_1997">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Rhee MH, Vogel Z, Barg J, Bayewitch M, Levy R, Hanus L, Breuer A, Mechoulam R |date=September 1997 |title=Cannabinol derivatives: binding to cannabinoid receptors and inhibition of adenylylcyclase |journal=Journal of Medicinal Chemistry |volume=40 |issue=20 |pages=3228–3233 |doi=10.1021/jm970126f |pmid=9379442}}</ref>'''<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Sampson |first=Peter B. |date=2021-01-22 |title=Phytocannabinoid Pharmacology: Medicinal Properties of Cannabis sativa Constituents Aside from the "Big Two" |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33356248 |journal=Journal of Natural Products |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=142–160 |doi=10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c00965 |issn=1520-6025 |pmid=33356248 |bibcode=2021JNAtP..84..142S |s2cid=229694293 |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2022-11-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119033717/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33356248/ |url-status=live }}</ref>'''<ref name="NCI_C84510">{{Cite web |title=Cannabinol (Code C84510) |url=https://ncithesaurus.nci.nih.gov/ncitbrowser/ConceptReport.jsp?dictionary=NCI_Thesaurus&ns=ncit&code=C84510 |work=NCI Thesaurus |publisher=National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2022-11-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119033719/https://ncithesaurus.nci.nih.gov/ncitbrowser/ConceptReport.jsp?dictionary=NCI_Thesaurus&ns=ncit&code=C84510 |url-status=live }}</ref>''' Through its mechanism of partial agonism at the CB1R, CBN is thought to interact with other kinds of [[neurotransmission]] (e.g., dopaminergic, serotonergic, cholinergic, and noradrenergic).
Cannabinol (CBN) is a mildly [[Psychoactive drug|psychoactive]] cannabinoid acting as a low-affinity [[partial agonist]] at CB1 and CB2 receptors.<ref name="Rhee_1997">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Rhee MH, Vogel Z, Barg J, Bayewitch M, Levy R, Hanus L, Breuer A, Mechoulam R |date=September 1997 |title=Cannabinol derivatives: binding to cannabinoid receptors and inhibition of adenylylcyclase |journal=Journal of Medicinal Chemistry |volume=40 |issue=20 |pages=3228–3233 |doi=10.1021/jm970126f |pmid=9379442}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Sampson |first=Peter B. |date=2021-01-22 |title=Phytocannabinoid Pharmacology: Medicinal Properties of Cannabis sativa Constituents Aside from the "Big Two" |journal=Journal of Natural Products |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=142–160 |doi=10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c00965 |issn=1520-6025 |pmid=33356248 |bibcode=2021JNAtP..84..142S |s2cid=229694293 }}</ref><ref name="NCI_C84510">{{Cite web |title=Cannabinol (Code C84510) |url=https://evsexplore.semantics.cancer.gov/evsexplore/concept/ncit/C84510 |work=NCI Thesaurus |publisher=National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2022-11-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119033719/https://ncithesaurus.nci.nih.gov/ncitbrowser/ConceptReport.jsp?dictionary=NCI_Thesaurus&ns=ncit&code=C84510 |url-status=live }}</ref> CBN interacts with other neurotransmitter systems (e.g., dopaminergic, serotonergic), requiring higher doses for physiologic effects like mild sedation compared to THC.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Corroon |first=Jamie |date=2021-08-31 |title=Cannabinol and Sleep: Separating Fact from Fiction |journal=Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research |volume=6 |issue=5 |language=en |pages=366–371 |article-number=can.2021.0006 |doi=10.1089/can.2021.0006 |issn=2578-5125 |pmc=8612407 |pmid=34468204}}</ref> Isolated in the late 1800s, its structure was elucidated in the 1930s, and chemical synthesis was achieved by 1940.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pertwee RG |date=January 2006 |title=Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years |journal=British Journal of Pharmacology |volume=147 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S163–S171 |doi=10.1038/sj.bjp.0706406 |pmc=1760722 |pmid=16402100}}</ref>
 
CBN was the first cannabis compound to be isolated from [[cannabis]] extract in the late 1800s. Its structure and chemical synthesis were achieved by 1940'''<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pertwee RG |date=January 2006 |title=Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years |journal=British Journal of Pharmacology |volume=147 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S163–S171 |doi=10.1038/sj.bjp.0706406 |pmc=1760722 |pmid=16402100 |quote=Cannabinol (CBN; Figure 1), much of which is thought to be formed from THC during the storage of harvested cannabis, was the first of the plant cannabinoids (phytocannabinoids) to be isolated, from a red oil extract of cannabis, at the end of the 19th century. Its structure was elucidated in the early 1930s by R.S. Cahn, and its chemical synthesis first achieved in 1940 in the laboratories of R. Adams in the U.S.A. and Lord Todd in the U.K.}}</ref>''', followed by some of the first pre-clinical research studies to determine the effects of individual cannabis-derived compounds [[in vivo]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Pertwee |first=Roger G |date=2006 |title=Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years: Cannabinoid pharmacology |journal=British Journal of Pharmacology |language=en |volume=147 |issue=S1 |pages=S163–S171 |doi=10.1038/sj.bjp.0706406 |pmc=1760722 |pmid=16402100}}</ref> Although CBN shares the same [[mechanism of action]] as other more well-known [[phytocannabinoids]] (e.g., delta-9 [[tetrahydrocannabinol]] or D9THC), it has a lower [[Affinity (pharmacology)|affinity]] for CB1 receptors, meaning that much higher doses of CBN are required in order to experience physiologic effects (e.g., mild sedation) associated with CB1R agonism.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Corroon |first=Jamie |date=2021-08-31 |title=Cannabinol and Sleep: Separating Fact from Fiction |journal=Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research |volume=6 |issue=5 |language=en |pages=366–371 |doi=10.1089/can.2021.0006 |issn=2578-5125 |pmc=8612407 |pmid=34468204}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Although scientific reports are conflicting, the majority of findings suggest that CBN has a slightly higher affinity for CB2 as compared to CB1. Although CBN has been marketed as a sleep aid in recent years, there is a lack of scientific evidence to support these claims, warranting skepticism on the part of consumers.<ref name=":5" />


=== Biosynthesis ===
=== Biosynthesis ===
Cannabinoid production starts when an [[enzyme]] causes [[geranyl pyrophosphate]] and [[olivetolic acid]] to combine and form [[CBGA (cannabinoid)|CBGA]]. Next, CBGA is independently converted to either [[Cannabigerol|CBG]], [[Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid|THCA]], [[CBDA]] or [[CBCA (cannabinoid)|CBCA]] by four separate [[synthase]], FAD-dependent dehydrogenase enzymes. There is no evidence for enzymatic conversion of CBDA or CBD to THCA or THC. For the propyl homologues (THCVA, CBDVA and CBCVA), there is an analogous pathway that is based on CBGVA from divarinolic acid instead of olivetolic acid.
Cannabinoid production begins with an [[enzyme]] combining [[geranyl pyrophosphate]] and [[olivetolic acid]] to form [[CBGA (cannabinoid)|CBGA]]. CBGA is converted to [[Cannabigerol|CBG]], [[Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid|THCA]], [[CBDA]], or [[CBCA (cannabinoid)|CBCA]] by four separate [[synthase]], FAD-dependent dehydrogenase enzymes. There is no enzymatic conversion of CBDA or CBD to THCA or THC. Propyl homologues (THCVA, CBDVA, CBCVA) follow an analogous pathway from divarinolic acid.<ref name="FellermeierEisenreich2001" /><ref name="Hazekamp2023" />


=== Double bond position ===
=== Double bond position ===
In addition, each of the compounds above may be in different forms depending on the position of the double bond in the [[alicyclic compound|alicyclic]] carbon ring. There is potential for confusion because there are different numbering systems used to describe the position of this double bond. Under the dibenzopyran numbering system widely used today, the major form of THC is called Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC, while the minor form is called Δ<sup>8</sup>-THC. Under the alternate [[terpene]] numbering system, these same compounds are called Δ<sup>1</sup>-THC and Δ<sup>6</sup>-THC, respectively.
Each cannabinoid may exist in different forms depending on the double bond position in the [[alicyclic compound|alicyclic]] carbon ring. Under the dibenzopyran numbering system, the major form of THC is Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC, and the minor form is Δ<sup>8</sup>-THC. In the alternate [[terpene]] numbering system, these are Δ<sup>1</sup>-THC and Δ<sup>6</sup>-THC, respectively.


=== Length ===
=== Length ===
Most classical cannabinoids are 21-carbon compounds. However, some do not follow this rule, primarily because of variation in the length of the [[Side chain|side-chain]] attached to the [[aromatic hydrocarbon|aromatic]] ring. In THC, CBD, and CBN, this side-chain is a pentyl (5-carbon) chain. In the most common homologue, the pentyl chain is replaced with a propyl (3-carbon) chain. Cannabinoids with the propyl side chain are named using the suffix ''varin'' and are designated THCV, CBDV, or CBNV, while those with the heptyl side chain are named using the suffix ''phorol'' and are designated THCP and CBDP.
Most classical cannabinoids are 21-carbon compounds, but variations in the [[Side chain|side-chain]] length attached to the [[aromatic hydrocarbon|aromatic]] ring exist. In THC, CBD, and CBN, the side-chain is a pentyl (5-carbon) chain. Propyl (3-carbon) chain variants are named with the suffix ''varin'' (THCV, CBDV, CBNV), while heptyl (7-carbon) chain variants are named ''phorol'' (THCP, CBDP).


=== Cannabinoids in other plants ===
=== Cannabinoids in other plants ===
Phytocannabinoids occur in plants like ''[[Echinacea purpurea]]'', ''[[Echinacea angustifolia]]'', ''[[Acmella oleracea]]'', [[Helichrysum|''Helichrysum umbraculigerum'']], and ''[[Radula marginata]]''.<ref name="Woelkart-2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Woelkart K, Salo-Ahen OM, Bauer R | title = CB receptor ligands from plants | journal = Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = 173–186 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18289087 | doi = 10.2174/156802608783498023 }}</ref> ''Echinacea'' species contain [[Anandamide]]-like alkylamides, with at least 25 identified, some showing affinity for CB<sub>2</sub> receptors.<ref name="Bauer-1989">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bauer R, Remiger P | title = TLC and HPLC Analysis of Alkamides in Echinacea Drugs1,2 | journal = Planta Medica | volume = 55 | issue = 4 | pages = 367–371 | date = August 1989 | pmid = 17262436 | doi = 10.1055/s-2006-962030 | bibcode = 1989PlMed..55..367B | s2cid = 12138478 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Raduner S, Majewska A, Chen JZ, Xie XQ, Hamon J, Faller B, Altmann KH, Gertsch J | display-authors = 6 | title = Alkylamides from Echinacea are a new class of cannabinomimetics. Cannabinoid type 2 receptor-dependent and -independent immunomodulatory effects | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 281 | issue = 20 | pages = 14192–14206 | date = May 2006 | pmid = 16547349 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M601074200 | doi-access = free }}</ref> These are concentrated in roots and flowers.<ref name="Perry-1997">{{cite journal | vauthors = Perry NB, van Klink JW, Burgess EJ, Parmenter GA | title = Alkamide levels in Echinacea purpurea: a rapid analytical method revealing differences among roots, rhizomes, stems, leaves and flowers | journal = Planta Medica | volume = 63 | issue = 1 | pages = 58–62 | date = February 1997 | pmid = 17252329 | doi = 10.1055/s-2006-957605 | bibcode = 1997PlMed..63...58P | s2cid = 260280073 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = He X, Lin L, Bernart MW, Lian L |year=1998 |title=Analysis of alkamides in roots and achenes of Echinacea purpurea by liquid chromatography–electrospray mass spectrometry |journal=Journal of Chromatography A |volume=815 |issue=2 |pages=205–11 |doi=10.1016/S0021-9673(98)00447-6}}</ref> [[Yangonin]] in [[kava]] has significant CB1 receptor affinity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ligresti A, Villano R, Allarà M, Ujváry I, Di Marzo V | title = Kavalactones and the endocannabinoid system: the plant-derived yangonin is a novel CB₁ receptor ligand | journal = Pharmacological Research | volume = 66 | issue = 2 | pages = 163–169 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22525682 | doi = 10.1016/j.phrs.2012.04.003 }}</ref> Tea ([[Camellia sinensis]]) [[catechins]] show affinity for human cannabinoid receptors.<ref name="urlmissclasses.com">{{cite journal | vauthors = Korte G, Dreiseitel A, Schreier P, Oehme A, Locher S, Geiger S, Heilmann J, Sand PG | display-authors = 6 | title = Tea catechins' affinity for human cannabinoid receptors | journal = Phytomedicine | volume = 17 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–22 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 19897346 | doi = 10.1016/j.phymed.2009.10.001 }}</ref> [[Beta-caryophyllene]], a terpene in cannabis and other plants, is a selective CB<sub>2</sub> receptor agonist.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gertsch J, Leonti M, Raduner S, Racz I, Chen JZ, Xie XQ, Altmann KH, Karsak M, Zimmer A | display-authors = 6 | title = Beta-caryophyllene is a dietary cannabinoid | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 105 | issue = 26 | pages = 9099–9104 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18574142 | pmc = 2449371 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0803601105 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2008PNAS..105.9099G }}</ref> [[Black truffles]] contain anandamide.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pacioni G, Rapino C, Zarivi O, Falconi A, Leonardi M, Battista N, Colafarina S, Sergi M, Bonfigli A, Miranda M, Barsacchi D, Maccarrone M | display-authors = 6 | title = Truffles contain endocannabinoid metabolic enzymes and anandamide | journal = Phytochemistry | volume = 110 | pages = 104–110 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25433633 | doi = 10.1016/j.phytochem.2014.11.012 | bibcode = 2015PChem.110..104P }}</ref> [[Perrottetinene]], a moderately psychoactive cannabinoid, is found in ''[[Radula (plant)|Radula]]'' varieties.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chicca A, Schafroth MA, Reynoso-Moreno I, Erni R, Petrucci V, Carreira EM, Gertsch J | title = Uncovering the psychoactivity of a cannabinoid from liverworts associated with a legal high | journal = Science Advances | volume = 4 | issue = 10 | article-number = eaat2166 | date = October 2018 | pmid = 30397641 | pmc = 6200358 | doi = 10.1126/sciadv.aat2166 | bibcode = 2018SciA....4.2166C }}</ref> [[Machaeriol A]] and related compounds occur in ''[[Machaerium (plant)|Machaerium]]'' plants.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Muhammad I, Li XC, Jacob MR, Tekwani BL, Dunbar DC, Ferreira D | date = Jun 2003 | title = Antimicrobial and antiparasitic (+)-trans-hexahydrodibenzopyrans and analogues from Machaerium multiflorum | journal = J Nat Prod | volume = 66 | issue = 6| pages = 804–9 | doi = 10.1021/np030045o | pmid = 12828466 | bibcode = 2003JNAtP..66..804M }}</ref>


Phytocannabinoids are known to occur in several plant species besides cannabis. These include ''[[Echinacea purpurea]]'', ''[[Echinacea angustifolia]]'', ''[[Acmella oleracea]]'', [[Helichrysum|''Helichrysum umbraculigerum'']], and ''[[Radula marginata]]''.<ref name="Woelkart-2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Woelkart K, Salo-Ahen OM, Bauer R | title = CB receptor ligands from plants | journal = Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = 173–186 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18289087 | doi = 10.2174/156802608783498023 }}</ref> The best-known cannabinoids that are not derived from Cannabis are the [[Anandamide]]-like alkylamides from ''[[Echinacea]]'' species, most notably the cis/trans [[isomers]] of dodeca-2E,4E,8Z,10E/Z-tetraenoic-acid-isobutylamide.<ref name="Woelkart-2008" /> At least 25 different [[alkylamide]]s have been identified, and some of them have shown affinities to the CB<sub>2</sub>-receptor.<ref name="Bauer-1989">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bauer R, Remiger P | title = TLC and HPLC Analysis of Alkamides in Echinacea Drugs1,2 | journal = Planta Medica | volume = 55 | issue = 4 | pages = 367–371 | date = August 1989 | pmid = 17262436 | doi = 10.1055/s-2006-962030 | bibcode = 1989PlMed..55..367B | s2cid = 12138478 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Raduner S, Majewska A, Chen JZ, Xie XQ, Hamon J, Faller B, Altmann KH, Gertsch J | display-authors = 6 | title = Alkylamides from Echinacea are a new class of cannabinomimetics. Cannabinoid type 2 receptor-dependent and -independent immunomodulatory effects | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 281 | issue = 20 | pages = 14192–14206 | date = May 2006 | pmid = 16547349 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M601074200 | doi-access = free }}</ref>  In some ''Echinacea'' species, cannabinoids are found throughout the plant structure, but are most concentrated in the roots and flowers.<ref name="Perry-1997">{{cite journal | vauthors = Perry NB, van Klink JW, Burgess EJ, Parmenter GA | title = Alkamide levels in Echinacea purpurea: a rapid analytical method revealing differences among roots, rhizomes, stems, leaves and flowers | journal = Planta Medica | volume = 63 | issue = 1 | pages = 58–62 | date = February 1997 | pmid = 17252329 | doi = 10.1055/s-2006-957605 | bibcode = 1997PlMed..63...58P | s2cid = 260280073 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = He X, Lin L, Bernart MW, Lian L |year=1998 |title=Analysis of alkamides in roots and achenes of Echinacea purpurea by liquid chromatography–electrospray mass spectrometry |journal=Journal of Chromatography A |volume=815 |issue=2 |pages=205–11 |doi=10.1016/S0021-9673(98)00447-6}}</ref> [[Yangonin]] found in the [[kava]] plant has significant affinity to the CB1 receptor.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ligresti A, Villano R, Allarà M, Ujváry I, Di Marzo V | title = Kavalactones and the endocannabinoid system: the plant-derived yangonin is a novel CB₁ receptor ligand | journal = Pharmacological Research | volume = 66 | issue = 2 | pages = 163–169 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22525682 | doi = 10.1016/j.phrs.2012.04.003 }}</ref> Tea ([[Camellia sinensis]]) [[catechins]] have an affinity for human cannabinoid receptors.<ref name="urlmissclasses.com">{{cite journal | vauthors = Korte G, Dreiseitel A, Schreier P, Oehme A, Locher S, Geiger S, Heilmann J, Sand PG | display-authors = 6 | title = Tea catechins' affinity for human cannabinoid receptors | journal = Phytomedicine | volume = 17 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–22 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 19897346 | doi = 10.1016/j.phymed.2009.10.001 }}</ref> A widespread dietary terpene, [[beta-caryophyllene]], a component from the [[Cannabis flower essential oil|essential oil of cannabis]] and other medicinal plants, has also been identified as a selective agonist of peripheral CB<sub>2</sub>-receptors, ''[[in vivo]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gertsch J, Leonti M, Raduner S, Racz I, Chen JZ, Xie XQ, Altmann KH, Karsak M, Zimmer A | display-authors = 6 | title = Beta-caryophyllene is a dietary cannabinoid | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 105 | issue = 26 | pages = 9099–9104 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18574142 | pmc = 2449371 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0803601105 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2008PNAS..105.9099G }}</ref> [[Black truffles]] contain anandamide.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pacioni G, Rapino C, Zarivi O, Falconi A, Leonardi M, Battista N, Colafarina S, Sergi M, Bonfigli A, Miranda M, Barsacchi D, Maccarrone M | display-authors = 6 | title = Truffles contain endocannabinoid metabolic enzymes and anandamide | journal = Phytochemistry | volume = 110 | pages = 104–110 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25433633 | doi = 10.1016/j.phytochem.2014.11.012 | bibcode = 2015PChem.110..104P }}</ref> [[Perrottetinene]], a moderately psychoactive cannabinoid,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chicca A, Schafroth MA, Reynoso-Moreno I, Erni R, Petrucci V, Carreira EM, Gertsch J | title = Uncovering the psychoactivity of a cannabinoid from liverworts associated with a legal high | journal = Science Advances | volume = 4 | issue = 10 | pages = eaat2166 | date = October 2018 | pmid = 30397641 | pmc = 6200358 | doi = 10.1126/sciadv.aat2166 | bibcode = 2018SciA....4.2166C }}</ref> has been isolated from different ''[[Radula (plant)|Radula]]'' varieties. [[Machaeriol A]] and related compounds are found in plants from the ''[[Machaerium (plant)|Machaerium]]'' family.<ref>Muhammad I, Li XC, Jacob MR, Tekwani BL, Dunbar DC, Ferreira D. Antimicrobial and antiparasitic (+)-trans-hexahydrodibenzopyrans and analogues from Machaerium multiflorum. ''J Nat Prod''. 2003 Jun;66(6):804-9. {{doi|10.1021/np030045o}} {{PMID|12828466}}</ref>
Most phytocannabinoids are nearly insoluble in water but soluble in [[lipid]]s, [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohols]], and other non-polar [[organic solvent]]s.
 
Most of the phytocannabinoids are nearly insoluble in water but are soluble in [[lipid]]s, [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohols]], and other non-polar [[organic solvent]]s.


=== Cannabis plant profile ===
=== Cannabis plant profile ===
Cannabis plants can exhibit wide variation in the quantity and type of cannabinoids they produce. The mixture of cannabinoids produced by a plant is known as the plant's cannabinoid profile. [[Selective breeding]] has been used to control the genetics of plants and modify the cannabinoid profile. For example, strains that are used as fiber (commonly called [[hemp]]) are bred such that they are low in psychoactive chemicals like THC. Strains used in medicine are often bred for high CBD content, and strains used for [[recreational drug use|recreational]] purposes are usually bred for high THC content or for a specific chemical balance.
Cannabis plants vary widely in their cannabinoid profiles due to [[selective breeding]]. [[Hemp]] strains are bred for low THC content, often for fiber, while medical strains may prioritize high CBD, and recreational strains target high THC or specific balances.<ref name="Hazekamp2023" /> [[Quantitative analysis (chemistry)|Quantitative analysis]] uses [[gas chromatography]] (GC), or GC combined with [[mass spectrometry]] (GC/MS), to measure cannabinoid content. [[Liquid chromatography]] (LC) can differentiate acid (e.g., THCA, CBDA) and neutral (e.g., THC, CBD) forms.<ref name=":0" /> Legal restrictions in many countries hinder consistent monitoring of cannabinoid profiles.
 
[[Quantitative analysis (chemistry)|Quantitative analysis]] of a plant's cannabinoid profile is often determined by [[gas chromatography]] (GC), or more reliably by gas chromatography combined with [[mass spectrometry]] (GC/MS). [[Liquid chromatography]] (LC) techniques are also possible and, unlike GC methods, can differentiate between the acid and neutral forms of the cannabinoids. There have been systematic attempts to monitor the cannabinoid profile of cannabis over time, but their accuracy is impeded by the illegal status of the plant in many countries.


=== Pharmacology ===
=== Pharmacology ===
Cannabinoids can be administered by smoking, vaporizing, oral ingestion, transdermal patch, intravenous injection, sublingual absorption, or rectal suppository. Once in the body, most cannabinoids are metabolized in the [[liver]], especially by [[cytochrome P450]] mixed-function oxidases, mainly [[CYP 2C9]].<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stout SM, Cimino NM | title = Exogenous cannabinoids as substrates, inhibitors, and inducers of human drug metabolizing enzymes: a systematic review | journal = Drug Metabolism Reviews | volume = 46 | issue = 1 | pages = 86–95 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24160757 | doi = 10.3109/03602532.2013.849268 | s2cid = 29133059 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1093138 | access-date = 2017-12-07 | archive-date = 2022-10-06 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221006071438/https://zenodo.org/record/1093138 | url-status = live }}</ref> Thus supplementing with CYP 2C9 [[Enzyme inhibitor|inhibitors]] leads to extended intoxication.<ref name=":1" />
Cannabinoids are administered via smoking, vaporizing, oral ingestion, transdermal patch, intravenous injection, sublingual absorption, or rectal suppository. Most are metabolized in the [[liver]] by [[cytochrome P450]] enzymes, mainly [[CYP 2C9]].<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stout SM, Cimino NM | title = Exogenous cannabinoids as substrates, inhibitors, and inducers of human drug metabolizing enzymes: a systematic review | journal = Drug Metabolism Reviews | volume = 46 | issue = 1 | pages = 86–95 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24160757 | doi = 10.3109/03602532.2013.849268 | s2cid = 29133059 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1093138 | access-date = 2017-12-07 | archive-date = 2022-10-06 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221006071438/https://zenodo.org/record/1093138 | url-status = live }}</ref> [[Enzyme inhibitor|Inhibiting]] CYP 2C9 can extend intoxication.<ref name=":1" /> Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC is metabolized to [[11-Hydroxy-THC|11-hydroxy-Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC]] and then [[11-nor-9-Carboxy-THC|9-carboxy-THC]], detectable in the body for weeks due to their [[lipophilic]] nature and storage in [[adipose|fat]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aizpurua-Olaizola O, Zarandona I, Ortiz L, Navarro P, Etxebarria N, Usobiaga A | title = Simultaneous quantification of major cannabinoids and metabolites in human urine and plasma by HPLC-MS/MS and enzyme-alkaline hydrolysis | journal = Drug Testing and Analysis | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 626–633 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 27341312 | doi = 10.1002/dta.1998 | s2cid = 27488987 | url = https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/5028359 | access-date = 2022-12-02 | archive-date = 2023-01-05 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230105025824/https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/Simultaneous_quantification_of_major_cannabinoids_and_metabolites_in_human_urine_and_plasma_by_HPLC-MS_MS_and_enzymealkaline_hydrolysis/5028359 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ashton CH | title = Pharmacology and effects of cannabis: a brief review | journal = The British Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 178 | issue = 2 | pages = 101–106 | date = February 2001 | pmid = 11157422 | doi = 10.1192/bjp.178.2.101 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The [[entourage effect]] suggests that [[terpenes]] modulate cannabinoid effects.<ref name="PMCentourage2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Russo EB | title = Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects | journal = British Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 163 | issue = 7 | pages = 1344–1364 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21749363 | pmc = 3165946 | doi = 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01238.x }}</ref>
 
Some is also stored in [[adipose|fat]] in addition to being metabolized in the liver. Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC is metabolized to [[11-Hydroxy-THC|11-hydroxy-Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC]], which is then metabolized to [[11-nor-9-Carboxy-THC|9-carboxy-THC]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aizpurua-Olaizola O, Zarandona I, Ortiz L, Navarro P, Etxebarria N, Usobiaga A | title = Simultaneous quantification of major cannabinoids and metabolites in human urine and plasma by HPLC-MS/MS and enzyme-alkaline hydrolysis | journal = Drug Testing and Analysis | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 626–633 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 27341312 | doi = 10.1002/dta.1998 | s2cid = 27488987 | url = https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/5028359 | access-date = 2022-12-02 | archive-date = 2023-01-05 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230105025824/https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/Simultaneous_quantification_of_major_cannabinoids_and_metabolites_in_human_urine_and_plasma_by_HPLC-MS_MS_and_enzymealkaline_hydrolysis/5028359 | url-status = live }}</ref> Some cannabis [[metabolite]]s can be detected in the body several weeks after administration. These metabolites are the chemicals recognized by common antibody-based "drug tests"; in the case of THC or others, these loads do not represent intoxication (compare to ethanol breath tests that measure instantaneous [[blood alcohol level]]s), but an integration of past consumption over an approximately month-long window. This is because they are fat-soluble, [[lipophilic]] molecules that accumulate in fatty tissues.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ashton CH | title = Pharmacology and effects of cannabis: a brief review | journal = The British Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 178 | issue = 2 | pages = 101–106 | date = February 2001 | pmid = 11157422 | doi = 10.1192/bjp.178.2.101 | quote = Because they are extremely lipid soluble, cannabinoids accumulate in fatty tissues, reaching peak concentrations in 4-5 days. They are then slowly released back into other body compartments, including the brain. They are then slowly released back into other body compartments, including the brain. Because of the sequestration in fat, the tissue elimination half-life of THC is about 7 days, and complete elimination of a single dose may take up to 30 days. | doi-access = free }}</ref>
 
Research shows the effect of cannabinoids might be modulated by aromatic compounds produced by the cannabis plant, called [[terpenes]]. This interaction would lead to the [[entourage effect]].<ref name="PMCentourage2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Russo EB | title = Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects | journal = British Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 163 | issue = 7 | pages = 1344–1364 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21749363 | pmc = 3165946 | doi = 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01238.x }}</ref>


==== Modulation of mitochondrial activity ====
==== Modulation of mitochondrial activity ====
Evidence has shown that cannabinoids play a role in the modulation of various mitochondrial processes, including intracellular calcium regulation, activation of apoptosis, impairment of electron transport chain activity, disruption of mitochondrial respiration and ATP production, and regulation of mitochondrial dynamics. These processes contribute to various aspects of cellular biology and can be modified in response to external stimuli. The interaction between cannabinoids and mitochondria is complex, and various molecular mechanisms have been proposed, including direct effects on mitochondrial membranes and receptor-mediated effects. However, an integrated hypothesis of cannabinoids' actions on these processes has yet to be formulated due to conflicting data and the complexity of the pathways involved.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Malheiro |first1=Rui Filipe |last2=Carmo |first2=Helena |last3=Carvalho |first3=Félix |last4=Silva |first4=João Pedro |date=January 2023 |title=Cannabinoid-mediated targeting of mitochondria on the modulation of mitochondrial function and dynamics |journal=Pharmacological Research |language=en |volume=187 |pages=106603 |doi=10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106603 |pmid=36516885 |s2cid=254581177 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Cannabinoids influence mitochondrial processes, including calcium regulation, apoptosis, electron transport chain activity, mitochondrial respiration and ATP production. Mitochondrial dynamics—encompassing the processes of fusion and fission, as well as alterations in morphology and organelle mobility, are also affected by cannabinoid exposure.<ref>Malheiro, R.F., Costa, A.C., Carmo, H. et al. The synthetic cannabinoid THJ-2201 modulates mitochondrial activity and enhances mitochondrial recruitment to newly-forming neurites during neurodifferentiation of NG108-15 cells. Arch Toxicol (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-025-04217-7</ref> In addition, cannabinoids have been shown to modulate mitochondrial biogenesis through the dysregulation of PGC-1α levels.<ref>MALHEIRO, Rui Filipe et al. The synthetic cannabinoids ADB-FUBINACA and AMB-FUBINACA enhance in vitro neurodifferentiation of NG108-15 cells, along with PGC-1α dysregulation and mitochondrial dysfunction. Toxicology, p. 154213, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2025.154213</ref> These effects are complex, involving direct membrane interactions and receptor-mediated pathways, but a unified hypothesis is lacking due to conflicting data.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Malheiro |first1=Rui Filipe |last2=Carmo |first2=Helena |last3=Carvalho |first3=Félix |last4=Silva |first4=João Pedro |date=January 2023 |title=Cannabinoid-mediated targeting of mitochondria on the modulation of mitochondrial function and dynamics |journal=Pharmacological Research |volume=187 |article-number=106603 |doi=10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106603 |pmid=36516885 |s2cid=254581177 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


==== Cannabinoid-based pharmaceuticals ====
==== Cannabinoid-based pharmaceuticals ====
[[Nabiximols]] (brand name Sativex) is an aerosolized mist for oral administration containing a near 1:1 ratio of CBD and THC.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Keating GM | title = Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol/Cannabidiol Oromucosal Spray (Sativex<sup>®</sup>): A Review in Multiple Sclerosis-Related Spasticity | journal = Drugs | volume = 77 | issue = 5 | pages = 563–574 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28293911 | doi = 10.1007/s40265-017-0720-6 | s2cid = 2884550 }}</ref> Also included are minor cannabinoids and [[terpenoids]], [[ethanol]] and [[propylene glycol]] [[excipients]], and peppermint flavoring.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | vauthors = Russo EB | title = Cannabinoids in the management of difficult to treat pain | journal = Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 245–259 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 18728714 | pmc = 2503660 | doi = 10.2147/TCRM.S1928 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The drug, made by [[GW Pharmaceuticals]], was first approved by Canadian authorities in 2005 to alleviate pain associated with [[multiple sclerosis]], making it the first cannabis-based medicine. It is marketed by Bayer in Canada.<ref>{{cite news |vauthors=Cooper R |title=GW Pharmaceuticals launches world's first prescription cannabis drug in Britain |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/pharmaceuticalsandchemicals/7842794/GW-Pharmaceuticals-launches-worlds-first-prescription-cannabis-drug-in-Britain.html |access-date=29 November 2018 |date=21 June 2010 |archive-date=30 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130030419/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/pharmaceuticalsandchemicals/7842794/GW-Pharmaceuticals-launches-worlds-first-prescription-cannabis-drug-in-Britain.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Sativex has been approved in 25 countries; clinical trials are underway in the United States to gain FDA approval.<ref name="USATodaySativex">{{cite web |title=3 prescription drugs that come from marijuana |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/personalfinance/2014/03/17/three-drugs-that-come-from-marijuana/6531291/ |website=USA Today |access-date=30 November 2018 |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420163531/https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/personalfinance/2014/03/17/three-drugs-that-come-from-marijuana/6531291/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2007, it was approved for treatment of cancer pain.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> In Phase III trials, the most common adverse effects were dizziness, drowsiness and disorientation; 12% of subjects stopped taking the drug because of the side effects.<ref name="Schubert">{{cite book | vauthors = Schubert-Zsilavecz M, Wurglics M | title = Neue Arzneimittel | date = 2011–2012 | language = de }}</ref>
[[Nabiximols]] (Sativex) is an aerosolized mist with a near 1:1 ratio of CBD and THC, used for [[multiple sclerosis]]-related pain and spasticity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Keating GM | title = Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol/Cannabidiol Oromucosal Spray (Sativex<sup>®</sup>): A Review in Multiple Sclerosis-Related Spasticity | journal = Drugs | volume = 77 | issue = 5 | pages = 563–574 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28293911 | doi = 10.1007/s40265-017-0720-6 | s2cid = 2884550 }}</ref> [[Dronabinol]] (Marinol, Syndros) and [[Nabilone]] (Cesamet) are synthetic THC analogs for [[HIV/AIDS]]-induced [[anorexia (symptom)|anorexia]] and [[chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting]].<ref name="fda">{{cite web |title=FDA and Cannabis: Research and Drug Approval Process |url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/public-health-focus/fda-and-cannabis-research-and-drug-approval-process |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212132738/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/public-health-focus/fda-and-cannabis-research-and-drug-approval-process |archive-date=12 December 2019 |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |access-date=23 May 2023 |date=24 February 2023}}</ref> [[Cannabidiol|CBD]] drug Epidiolex is approved for [[Dravet syndrome|Dravet]] and [[Lennox–Gastaut syndrome|Lennox–Gastaut]] syndromes.<ref name="fda18">{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm611046.htm|title=FDA approves first drug {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} an active ingredient derived from marijuana to treat rare, severe forms of epilepsy|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|date=25 June 2018|access-date=25 June 2018|archive-date=23 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423071605/https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm611046.htm}}</ref>
 
[[Dronabinol]] (brand names Marinol and Syndros) is a delta-9-THC containing drug for treating [[HIV/AIDS]]-induced [[anorexia (symptom)|anorexia]] and [[chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting]].<ref name="fda">{{cite web |title=FDA and Cannabis: Research and Drug Approval Process |url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/public-health-focus/fda-and-cannabis-research-and-drug-approval-process |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212132738/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/public-health-focus/fda-and-cannabis-research-and-drug-approval-process |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 December 2019 |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |access-date=23 May 2023 |date=24 February 2023}}</ref>
 
The [[Cannabidiol|CBD]] drug Epidiolex has been approved by the [[Food and Drug Administration]] for treatment of two rare and severe forms of [[epilepsy]],<ref name="fda18">{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm611046.htm|title=FDA approves first drug {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} an active ingredient derived from marijuana to treat rare, severe forms of epilepsy|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|date=25 June 2018|access-date=25 June 2018|archive-date=23 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423071605/https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm611046.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Dravet syndrome|Dravet]] and [[Lennox-Gastaut syndrome|Lennox-Gastaut]] syndromes.<ref name="CNNDravet">{{cite web|vauthors=Scutti S|url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/06/25/health/fda-approves-first-cannabis-drug-bn/index.html|title=FDA approves first cannabis-based drug|website=CNN|date=25 June 2018|access-date=1 December 2018|archive-date=2 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202070652/https://www.cnn.com/2018/06/25/health/fda-approves-first-cannabis-drug-bn/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
[[Nabilone]] (Cesamet) is an FDA approved synthetic analog of THC, prescribed for the treatment of nausea and vomiting induced by chemotherapy treatment in people who have failed to respond adequately to conventional antiemetic treatments.<ref name=fda/>


=== Separation ===
=== Separation ===
Cannabinoids can be separated from the plant by [[solvent extraction|extraction]] with organic [[solvent]]s. [[Hydrocarbon]]s and [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohols]] are often used as solvents. However, these solvents are flammable and many are toxic.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Romano LL, Hazekamp A |title=Cannabis Oil: chemical evaluation of an upcoming cannabis-based medicine |journal=Cannabinoids |date=2013 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |url=http://www.cannabis-med.org/data/pdf/en_2013_01_1.pdf |access-date=2017-12-07 |archive-date=2017-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215093111/http://www.cannabis-med.org/data/pdf/en_2013_01_1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Butane may be used, which evaporates extremely quickly. Supercritical solvent extraction with [[carbon dioxide]] is an alternative technique. Once extracted, isolated components can be separated using wiped film vacuum distillation or other [[distillation]] techniques.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Rovetto LJ, Aieta NV |title=Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L.|journal=The Journal of Supercritical Fluids|date=November 2017|volume=129|pages=16–27|doi=10.1016/j.supflu.2017.03.014|hdl=11336/43849|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Also, techniques such as SPE or SPME are found useful in the extraction of these compounds.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Jain R, Singh R |title=Microextraction techniques for analysis of cannabinoids|journal=TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry|volume=80|pages=156–166|doi=10.1016/j.trac.2016.03.012|year=2016}}</ref>
Cannabinoids are extracted using organic [[solvent]]s like [[Hydrocarbon|hydrocarbons]] or [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohols]], which are flammable or toxic, or supercritical [[carbon dioxide]], a safer alternative.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Rovetto LJ, Aieta NV |title=Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L.|journal=The Journal of Supercritical Fluids|date=November 2017|volume=129|pages=16–27|doi=10.1016/j.supflu.2017.03.014|hdl=11336/43849|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Isolated components are separated using wiped film vacuum distillation or other [[distillation]] techniques.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Jain R, Singh R |title=Microextraction techniques for analysis of cannabinoids|journal=TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry|volume=80|pages=156–166|doi=10.1016/j.trac.2016.03.012|year=2016}}</ref>


=== History ===
=== History ===
The first discovery of an individual cannabinoid was made, when British chemist [[Robert W. Cahn|Robert S. Cahn]] reported the partial structure of Cannabinol (CBN), which he later identified as fully formed in 1940.
Cannabinol (CBN) was the first cannabinoid isolated in the late 1800s, with its structure elucidated in the 1930s and synthesized by 1940.<ref name=":3" /> In 1942, [[Roger Adams]] discovered [[Cannabidiol]] (CBD),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cbdorigin.com/history-of-cbd/|title=The History Of CBD – A Brief Overview|vauthors=Cadena A|date=2019-03-08|website=CBD Origin|publisher=CBDOrigin.com|access-date=2019-03-16|archive-date=2019-06-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606164902/https://cbdorigin.com/history-of-cbd/|url-status=live}}</ref> followed by [[Raphael Mechoulam]]'s identification of CBD stereochemistry in 1963 and THC stereochemistry in 1964.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pertwee RG | title = Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years | journal = British Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 147 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = S163–S171 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16402100 | pmc = 1760722 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjp.0706406 }}</ref> CBD and THC are produced independently from the precursor CBG, not via conversion.<ref name="FellermeierEisenreich2001" />
 
Two years later, in 1942,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://issuu.com/freedomleaf/docs/freedomleafissue34issuu|title=U.S. Chemist Roger Adams Isolated CBD 75 Years Ago|vauthors=Weinberg B|date=Fall 2018|website=Freedom Leaf|via=Issuu.com|access-date=2019-03-16|edition=34|archive-date=2019-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406122157/https://issuu.com/freedomleaf/docs/freedomleafissue34issuu|url-status=live}}</ref> American chemist, [[Roger Adams]], made history when he discovered Cannabidiol (CBD).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cbdorigin.com/history-of-cbd/|title=The History Of CBD – A Brief Overview|vauthors=Cadena A|date=2019-03-08|website=CBD Origin|publisher=CBDOrigin.com|access-date=2019-03-16|archive-date=2019-06-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606164902/https://cbdorigin.com/history-of-cbd/|url-status=live}}</ref> Progressing from Adams research, in 1963<ref name=":2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pertwee RG | title = Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years | journal = British Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 147 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = S163–S171 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16402100 | pmc = 1760722 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjp.0706406 }}</ref> Israeli professor Raphael Mechoulam<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cannabinoids.huji.ac.il/people/raphael-mechoulam|title=Raphael Mechoulam Ph.D.|vauthors=Mechoulam R|website=cannabinoids.huji.ac.il|publisher=The Hebrew University of Jerusalem|type=Biography|access-date=2019-03-16|archive-date=2019-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402090908/https://cannabinoids.huji.ac.il/people/raphael-mechoulam|url-status=live}}</ref> later identified the [[stereochemistry]] of CBD. The following year, in 1964,<ref name=":2" /> Mechoulam and his team identified the stereochemistry of Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).{{citation needed|date=December 2013}}
 
Due to molecular similarity and ease of synthetic conversion, CBD was originally believed to be a natural precursor to THC. However, it is now known that CBD and THC are produced independently in the Cannabis plant from the precursor CBG.{{citation needed|date=December 2013}}


==== Emergence of derived psychoactive cannabis products ====
==== Emergence of derived psychoactive cannabis products ====
{{Further|Delta-8-Tetrahydrocannabinol#Legality_in_the_United_States}}
{{Further|Delta-8-Tetrahydrocannabinol#Legality_in_the_United_States}}
The [[Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018]] has been interpreted as allowing any hemp-derived product not exceeding 0.3% '''Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC''' to be sold legally in the US. Because the law limited only Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC levels, many other cannabinoids are generally considered legal to sell and are widely available in stores and online, including [[Delta-8-Tetrahydrocannabinol|Δ<sup>8</sup>-THC]], [[Delta-10-Tetrahydrocannabinol|Δ<sup>10</sup>-THC]], [[Hexahydrocannabinol|HHC]], and [[THCP]],<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Florko N |title=How I found 'Trips Ahoy' and 'Blackberry Diesel' 'weed' vapes in a state where marijuana is very much illegal |url=https://www.statnews.com/2023/02/23/easy-to-buy-thc-0-hhc-even-where-marijuana-illegal/ |website=statnews.com |date=23 February 2023 |publisher=Stat |access-date=2 April 2023 |archive-date=2 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402060523/https://www.statnews.com/2023/02/23/easy-to-buy-thc-0-hhc-even-where-marijuana-illegal/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-07-09|title=Delta 8 THC: Everything You Need To Know|url=https://www.laweekly.com/delta-8-thc-everything-you-need-to-know/|access-date=2020-07-14|website=LA Weekly|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-07-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710111113/https://www.laweekly.com/delta-8-thc-everything-you-need-to-know/|url-status=live}}</ref> but have not had the same in-depth research that the Δ<sup>9</sup> isomer has on the human body; carrying potential risks in the short- or long-term. Other concerns include difficulties for [[drug testing]] due to novel [[metabolite]]s, or high potency/[[binding affinity]] of isomers for [[cannabinoid receptor]]s showing potential for [[Substance abuse|abuse]] (i.e., THCP, which has 33× the binding affinity of Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC)<ref>{{cite web |title=The problems with Cannabinoid Analogs (Delta-8 THC, Delta-10 THC and CBD) and their metabolites detectability in urine drug testing for potential cannabinoid abuse. |url=https://nij.ojp.gov/funding/awards/15pnij-21-gg-04188-ress |website=National Institute of Justice |publisher=USDOJ |access-date=20 July 2023 |language=en |date=9 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nagarkatti |first1=Prakash |last2=Nagarkatti |first2=Mitzi |title=Cannabis-derived products like delta-8 THC and delta-10 THC have flooded the US market |url=https://sc.edu/uofsc/posts/2023/04/conversation_cannabis_derived_products.php |website=University of South Carolina |publisher=USC |access-date=29 May 2023 |language=en |date=28 April 2023}}</ref> From 2021 to 2023, the Δ<sup>8</sup>-THC market generated US$2 billion in revenue.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Sabaghi D |title=Delta-8 THC Generated $2 Billion In Revenue In Two Years, Report Finds |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/dariosabaghi/2023/01/16/delta-8-thc-generated-2-billion-in-revenue-in-2-years-report-finds/?sh=6f49eca34a62 |work=Forbes |access-date=2 April 2023 |archive-date=2 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402060526/https://www.forbes.com/sites/dariosabaghi/2023/01/16/delta-8-thc-generated-2-billion-in-revenue-in-2-years-report-finds/?sh=6f49eca34a62 |url-status=live }}</ref> Many substances are scheduled at the state level under various synonyms owing to the different dibenzopyran and monoterpenoid naming conventions. Delta-1, Delta-6, and Delta 3,4-Tetrahydrocannabinol are alternative names for Delta-9, Delta-8, and Delta-6a10a Tetrahydrocannabinol, respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence Critical Review |url=https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/controlled-substances/isomersthc.pdf?sfvrsn=8d45f582_2&download=true |page=22 |access-date=2023-03-05 |archive-date=2022-06-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602175627/https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/controlled-substances/isomersthc.pdf?sfvrsn=8d45f582_2&download=true |url-status=live }}</ref>
The [[Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018]] allows hemp-derived products with ≤0.3% Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC to be sold legally in the US, leading to widespread availability of cannabinoids like [[Delta-8-Tetrahydrocannabinol|Δ<sup>8</sup>-THC]], [[Delta-10-Tetrahydrocannabinol|Δ<sup>10</sup>-THC]], [[Hexahydrocannabinol|HHC]], and [[THCP]].<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Florko N |title=How I found 'Trips Ahoy' and 'Blackberry Diesel' 'weed' vapes in a state where marijuana is very much illegal |url=https://www.statnews.com/2023/02/23/easy-to-buy-thc-0-hhc-even-where-marijuana-illegal/ |website=statnews.com |date=23 February 2023 |publisher=Stat |access-date=2 April 2023 |archive-date=2 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402060523/https://www.statnews.com/2023/02/23/easy-to-buy-thc-0-hhc-even-where-marijuana-illegal/ |url-status=live }}</ref> These compounds lack the extensive research of Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC, posing potential risks and challenges for [[drug testing]] due to novel [[metabolite]]s and high potency (e.g., THCP's 33× binding affinity).<ref>{{cite web |title=The problems with Cannabinoid Analogs (Delta-8 THC, Delta-10 THC and CBD) and their metabolites detectability in urine drug testing for potential cannabinoid abuse. |url=https://nij.ojp.gov/funding/awards/15pnij-21-gg-04188-ress |website=National Institute of Justice |publisher=USDOJ |access-date=20 July 2023 |language=en |date=9 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nagarkatti |first1=Prakash |last2=Nagarkatti |first2=Mitzi |title=Cannabis-derived products like delta-8 THC and delta-10 THC have flooded the US market |url=https://sc.edu/uofsc/posts/2023/04/conversation_cannabis_derived_products.php |website=University of South Carolina |publisher=USC |access-date=29 May 2023 |language=en |date=28 April 2023}}</ref> A 2023 paper proposed the term "derived psychoactive cannabis products" to distinguish these substances.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rossheim ME, LoParco CR, Henry D, Trangenstein PJ, Walters ST | title = Delta-8, Delta-10, HHC, THC-O, THCP, and THCV: What should we call these products? | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | date = March 2023 | volume = 84 | issue = 3 | pages = 357–360 | pmid = 36971760 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.23-00008 | s2cid = 257552536 }}</ref>


A 2023 paper seeking the regulation of cannabinoid [[terminology]] coined the term "derived psychoactive cannabis products" to accurately and usefully distinguish said products whilst excluding unrelated substances.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rossheim ME, LoParco CR, Henry D, Trangenstein PJ, Walters ST | title = Delta-8, Delta-10, HHC, THC-O, THCP, and THCV: What should we call these products? | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | date = March 2023 | volume = 84 | issue = 3 | pages = 357–360 | pmid = 36971760 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.23-00008 | s2cid = 257552536 }}</ref>
== Endocannabinoids ==
 
== Endocannabinoids<span class="anchor" id="Endocannabinoid"></span><span class="anchor" id="Endocannabinoids"></span> ==
<div id="endo"><!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not move it out of the section heading, even though it disrupts edit summary generation (you can manually fix the edit summary before you save your changes). Please do not modify it, even if you modify the section title. It is always best to anchor an old section header that has been changed so that links to it won't be broken. See [[Template:Anchor]] for details. (This text: [[Template:Anchor comment]]) -->
{{Further|topic=the functions and regulation of the endocannabinoids|Endocannabinoid system}}
{{Further|topic=the functions and regulation of the endocannabinoids|Endocannabinoid system}}
[[File:Anandamid.svg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|[[Anandamide]], an endogenous [[ligand]] of CB<sub>1</sub> and CB<sub>2</sub>]]</div>
[[File:Anandamid.svg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|[[Anandamide]], an endogenous [[ligand]] of CB<sub>1</sub> and CB<sub>2</sub>]]
Endocannabinoids are substances produced from within the body that activate [[cannabinoid receptor]]s. After the discovery of the first cannabinoid receptor in 1988, scientists began searching for endogenous [[Ligand (biochemistry)|ligands]] for the receptors.<ref name="PMID 2848184" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Katona I, Freund TF | title = Multiple functions of endocannabinoid signaling in the brain | journal = Annual Review of Neuroscience | volume = 35 | pages = 529–558 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22524785 | pmc = 4273654 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-neuro-062111-150420 }}</ref>
Endocannabinoids are substances produced within the body that activate [[cannabinoid receptor]]s. After the discovery of the first cannabinoid receptor in 1988, researchers identified endogenous [[Ligand (biochemistry)|ligands]].<ref name="PMID 2848184" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Katona I, Freund TF | title = Multiple functions of endocannabinoid signaling in the brain | journal = Annual Review of Neuroscience | volume = 35 | pages = 529–558 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22524785 | pmc = 4273654 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-neuro-062111-150420 }}</ref>


=== Types of endocannabinoid ligands ===
=== Types of endocannabinoid ligands ===
==== Arachidonoylethanolamine (Anandamide or AEA) ====
==== Arachidonoylethanolamine (Anandamide or AEA) ====
{{Main|Arachidonoylethanolamine}}
{{Main|Arachidonoylethanolamine}}
[[Anandamide]] was the first such compound identified as [[arachidonic acid|arachidonoyl]] ethanolamine. The name is derived from ''ananda'', the [[Sanskrit]] word for bliss. It has a pharmacology similar to [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]], although its structure is quite different. Anandamide binds to the central (CB<sub>1</sub>) and, to a lesser extent, peripheral (CB<sub>2</sub>) cannabinoid receptors, where it acts as a partial agonist. Anandamide is about as potent as THC at the CB<sub>1</sub> receptor.<ref name="grotenhermen 2005">{{cite journal | vauthors = Grotenhermen F | title = Cannabinoids | journal = Current Drug Targets. CNS and Neurological Disorders | volume = 4 | issue = 5 | pages = 507–530 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16266285 | doi = 10.2174/156800705774322111 }}</ref> Anandamide is found in nearly all tissues in a wide range of animals.<ref name="pmid10462059">{{cite journal | vauthors = Martin BR, Mechoulam R, Razdan RK | title = Discovery and characterization of endogenous cannabinoids | journal = Life Sciences | volume = 65 | issue = 6–7 | pages = 573–595 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10462059 | doi = 10.1016/S0024-3205(99)00281-7 }}</ref> Anandamide has also been found in plants, including small amounts in chocolate.<ref name="pmid8751435">{{cite journal | vauthors = di Tomaso E, Beltramo M, Piomelli D | title = Brain cannabinoids in chocolate | journal = Nature | volume = 382 | issue = 6593 | pages = 677–678 | date = August 1996 | pmid = 8751435 | doi = 10.1038/382677a0 | type = Submitted manuscript | s2cid = 4325706 | bibcode = 1996Natur.382..677D | url = https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2kk1604c | access-date = 2022-10-02 | archive-date = 2022-10-02 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221002083834/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2kk1604c | url-status = live }}</ref>
[[Anandamide]], derived from [[arachidonic acid]], is a partial agonist at CB<sub>1</sub> and CB<sub>2</sub> receptors, with potency similar to THC at CB<sub>1</sub>.<ref name="grotenhermen 2005">{{cite journal | vauthors = Grotenhermen F | title = Cannabinoids | journal = Current Drug Targets. CNS and Neurological Disorders | volume = 4 | issue = 5 | pages = 507–530 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16266285 | doi = 10.2174/156800705774322111 }}</ref> Found in nearly all tissues and plants like chocolate, it also acts on [[TRPV1|vanilloid receptors]].<ref name="pmid10462059">{{cite journal | vauthors = Martin BR, Mechoulam R, Razdan RK | title = Discovery and characterization of endogenous cannabinoids | journal = Life Sciences | volume = 65 | issue = 6–7 | pages = 573–595 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10462059 | doi = 10.1016/S0024-3205(99)00281-7 }}</ref><ref name="pmid8751435">{{cite journal | vauthors = di Tomaso E, Beltramo M, Piomelli D | title = Brain cannabinoids in chocolate | journal = Nature | volume = 382 | issue = 6593 | pages = 677–678 | date = August 1996 | pmid = 8751435 | doi = 10.1038/382677a0 | type = Submitted manuscript | s2cid = 4325706 | bibcode = 1996Natur.382..677D | url = https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2kk1604c | access-date = 2022-10-02 | archive-date = 2022-10-02 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221002083834/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2kk1604c | url-status = live }}</ref>
 
Two analogs of anandamide, [[docosatetraenoylethanolamide|7,10,13,16-docosatetraenoylethanolamide]] and ''homo''-γ-linolenoylethanolamine, have similar [[pharmacology]]. All of these compounds are members of a family of signalling lipids called [[N-acylethanolamine|''N''-acylethanolamines]], which also includes the noncannabimimetic [[palmitoylethanolamide]] and [[oleoylethanolamide]], which possess [[anti-inflammatory]] and [[anorexigenic]] effects, respectively. Many ''N''-acylethanolamines have also been identified in plant seeds<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chapman KD, Venables B, Markovic R, Bettinger C | title = N-Acylethanolamines in seeds. Quantification Of molecular species and their degradation upon imbibition | journal = Plant Physiology | volume = 120 | issue = 4 | pages = 1157–1164 | date = August 1999 | pmid = 10444099 | pmc = 59349 | doi = 10.1104/pp.120.4.1157 }}</ref> and in molluscs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sepe N, De Petrocellis L, Montanaro F, Cimino G, Di Marzo V | title = Bioactive long chain N-acylethanolamines in five species of edible bivalve molluscs. Possible implications for mollusc physiology and sea food industry | journal = Biochimica et Biophysica Acta | volume = 1389 | issue = 2 | pages = 101–111 | date = January 1998 | pmid = 9461251 | doi = 10.1016/S0005-2760(97)00132-X }}</ref>


==== 2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) ====
==== 2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) ====
{{Main|2-Arachidonoylglycerol}}
{{Main|2-Arachidonoylglycerol}}
Another endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonoylglycerol, binds to both the CB<sub>1</sub> and CB<sub>2</sub> receptors with similar affinity, acting as a full agonist at both.<ref name="grotenhermen 2005" /> 2-AG is present at significantly higher concentrations in the brain than anandamide,<ref name="stella 1997">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stella N, Schweitzer P, Piomelli D | title = A second endogenous cannabinoid that modulates long-term potentiation | journal = Nature | volume = 388 | issue = 6644 | pages = 773–778 | date = August 1997 | pmid = 9285589 | doi = 10.1038/42015 | type = Submitted manuscript | s2cid = 4422311 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 1997Natur.388..773S }}</ref> and there is some controversy over whether 2-AG rather than anandamide is chiefly responsible for endocannabinoid signalling ''[[in vivo]]''.<ref name="pmid16968947" /> In particular, one ''[[in vitro]]'' study suggests that 2-AG is capable of stimulating higher [[G-protein]] activation than anandamide, although the physiological implications of this finding are not yet known.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Savinainen JR, Järvinen T, Laine K, Laitinen JT | title = Despite substantial degradation, 2-arachidonoylglycerol is a potent full efficacy agonist mediating CB(1) receptor-dependent G-protein activation in rat cerebellar membranes | journal = British Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 134 | issue = 3 | pages = 664–672 | date = October 2001 | pmid = 11588122 | pmc = 1572991 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjp.0704297 }}</ref>
2-AG, a full agonist at CB<sub>1</sub> and CB<sub>2</sub>, is present at higher brain concentrations than anandamide, potentially playing a larger role in endocannabinoid signaling.<ref name="grotenhermen 2005" /><ref name="stella 1997">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stella N, Schweitzer P, Piomelli D | title = A second endogenous cannabinoid that modulates long-term potentiation | journal = Nature | volume = 388 | issue = 6644 | pages = 773–778 | date = August 1997 | pmid = 9285589 | doi = 10.1038/42015 | type = Submitted manuscript | s2cid = 4422311 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 1997Natur.388..773S }}</ref>


==== 2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether (noladin ether) ====
==== Other endocannabinoids ====
{{Main|2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether}}
Other endocannabinoids include [[2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether|noladin ether]], [[N-Arachidonoyl dopamine|NADA]], [[Virodhamine|OAE]], and [[Lysophosphatidylinositol|LPI]], each with varying receptor affinities and effects.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hanus L, Abu-Lafi S, Fride E, Breuer A, Vogel Z, Shalev DE, Kustanovich I, Mechoulam R | display-authors = 6 | title = 2-arachidonyl glyceryl ether, an endogenous agonist of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 98 | issue = 7 | pages = 3662–3665 | date = March 2001 | pmid = 11259648 | pmc = 31108 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.061029898 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2001PNAS...98.3662H }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bisogno T, Melck D, Gretskaya NM, Bezuglov VV, De Petrocellis L, Di Marzo V | title = N-acyl-dopamines: novel synthetic CB(1) cannabinoid-receptor ligands and inhibitors of anandamide inactivation with cannabimimetic activity in vitro and in vivo | journal = The Biochemical Journal | volume = 351 | issue = 3 | pages = 817–824 | date = November 2000 | pmid = 11042139 | pmc = 1221424 | doi = 10.1042/bj3510817 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Porter AC, Sauer JM, Knierman MD, Becker GW, Berna MJ, Bao J, Nomikos GG, Carter P, Bymaster FP, Leese AB, Felder CC | display-authors = 6 | title = Characterization of a novel endocannabinoid, virodhamine, with antagonist activity at the CB1 receptor | journal = The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics | volume = 301 | issue = 3 | pages = 1020–1024 | date = June 2002 | pmid = 12023533 | doi = 10.1124/jpet.301.3.1020 | url = http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ab53/846ea9f65d5a673d2e4552933c2a26409b00.pdf | s2cid = 26156181 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190303094035/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ab53/846ea9f65d5a673d2e4552933c2a26409b00.pdf | archive-date = 2019-03-03 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Piñeiro R, Falasca M | title = Lysophosphatidylinositol signalling: new wine from an old bottle | journal = Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids | volume = 1821 | issue = 4 | pages = 694–705 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22285325 | doi = 10.1016/j.bbalip.2012.01.009 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/895487 | access-date = 2019-09-13 | archive-date = 2021-02-11 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210211052458/https://zenodo.org/record/895487 | url-status = live }}</ref>
In 2001, a third, [[ether]]-type endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonyl glyceryl ether (noladin ether), was isolated from [[porcine]] brain.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hanus L, Abu-Lafi S, Fride E, Breuer A, Vogel Z, Shalev DE, Kustanovich I, Mechoulam R | display-authors = 6 | title = 2-arachidonyl glyceryl ether, an endogenous agonist of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 98 | issue = 7 | pages = 3662–3665 | date = March 2001 | pmid = 11259648 | pmc = 31108 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.061029898 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2001PNAS...98.3662H }}</ref> Prior to this discovery, it had been synthesized as a stable analog of 2-AG; indeed, some controversy remains over its classification as an endocannabinoid, as another group failed to detect the substance at "any appreciable amount" in the brains of several different mammalian species.<ref name="Oka 2003">{{cite journal | vauthors = Oka S, Tsuchie A, Tokumura A, Muramatsu M, Suhara Y, Takayama H, Waku K, Sugiura T | display-authors = 6 | title = Ether-linked analogue of 2-arachidonoylglycerol (noladin ether) was not detected in the brains of various mammalian species | journal = Journal of Neurochemistry | volume = 85 | issue = 6 | pages = 1374–1381 | date = June 2003 | pmid = 12787057 | doi = 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2003.01804.x | s2cid = 39905742 | doi-access = free }}</ref> It binds to the CB<sub>1</sub> cannabinoid receptor (''K''<sub>i</sub> = 21.2 [[nanomole|nmol]]/L) and causes sedation, hypothermia, intestinal immobility, and mild antinociception in mice. It binds primarily to the CB<sub>1</sub> receptor, and only weakly to the CB<sub>2</sub> receptor.<ref name="grotenhermen 2005" />
 
==== ''N''-Arachidonoyl dopamine (NADA) ====
{{Main|N-Arachidonoyl dopamine|l1=''N''-Arachidonoyl dopamine}}
Discovered in 2000, NADA preferentially binds to the CB<sub>1</sub> receptor.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bisogno T, Melck D, Gretskaya NM, Bezuglov VV, De Petrocellis L, Di Marzo V | title = N-acyl-dopamines: novel synthetic CB(1) cannabinoid-receptor ligands and inhibitors of anandamide inactivation with cannabimimetic activity in vitro and in vivo | journal = The Biochemical Journal | volume = 351 Pt 3 | issue = 3 | pages = 817–824 | date = November 2000 | pmid = 11042139 | pmc = 1221424 | doi = 10.1042/bj3510817 }}</ref> Like anandamide, NADA is also an agonist for the [[TRPV1|vanilloid receptor subtype 1]] (TRPV1), a member of the [[vanilloid]] receptor family.<ref name="Bisogno 2005">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bisogno T, Ligresti A, Di Marzo V | title = The endocannabinoid signalling system: biochemical aspects | journal = Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior | volume = 81 | issue = 2 | pages = 224–238 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 15935454 | doi = 10.1016/j.pbb.2005.01.027 | s2cid = 14186359 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ralevic V | title = Cannabinoid modulation of peripheral autonomic and sensory neurotransmission | journal = European Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 472 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 1–21 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12860468 | doi = 10.1016/S0014-2999(03)01813-2 }}</ref>
 
==== Virodhamine (OAE) ====
{{Main|Virodhamine}}
A fifth endocannabinoid, virodhamine, or ''O''-arachidonoyl-ethanolamine (OAE), was discovered in June 2002. Although it is a full [[agonist]] at CB<sub>2</sub> and a partial agonist at CB<sub>1</sub>, it behaves as a CB<sub>1</sub> antagonist ''[[in vivo]]''. In rats, virodhamine was found to be present at comparable or slightly lower concentrations than [[anandamide]] in the [[brain]], but 2- to 9-fold higher concentrations peripherally.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Porter AC, Sauer JM, Knierman MD, Becker GW, Berna MJ, Bao J, Nomikos GG, Carter P, Bymaster FP, Leese AB, Felder CC | display-authors = 6 | title = Characterization of a novel endocannabinoid, virodhamine, with antagonist activity at the CB1 receptor | journal = The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics | volume = 301 | issue = 3 | pages = 1020–1024 | date = June 2002 | pmid = 12023533 | doi = 10.1124/jpet.301.3.1020 | url = http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ab53/846ea9f65d5a673d2e4552933c2a26409b00.pdf | url-status = dead | s2cid = 26156181 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190303094035/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ab53/846ea9f65d5a673d2e4552933c2a26409b00.pdf | archive-date = 2019-03-03 }}</ref>
 
==== Lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI) ====
[[Lysophosphatidylinositol]] is the endogenous ligand to novel endocannabinoid receptor [[GPR55]], making it a strong contender as the sixth endocannabinoid.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Piñeiro R, Falasca M | title = Lysophosphatidylinositol signalling: new wine from an old bottle | journal = Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids | volume = 1821 | issue = 4 | pages = 694–705 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22285325 | doi = 10.1016/j.bbalip.2012.01.009 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/895487 | access-date = 2019-09-13 | archive-date = 2021-02-11 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210211052458/https://zenodo.org/record/895487 | url-status = live }}</ref>


=== Function ===
=== Function ===
{{More citations needed|section|date=October 2018}}
Endocannabinoids act as [[lipid signaling|lipid messengers]], released from one cell to activate cannabinoid receptors on nearby cells.<ref>{{cite web |title=What to know about endocannabinoids and the endocannabinoid system |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/endocannabinoid |website=Medical news Today |date=27 February 2021 |access-date=4 August 2021 |archive-date=4 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804052706/https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/endocannabinoid |url-status=live }}</ref> Unlike [[monoamine]] [[neurotransmitter]]s, they are [[lipophilic]], insoluble in water, and synthesized on-demand rather than stored.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kano M, Ohno-Shosaku T, Maejima T | title = Retrograde signaling at central synapses via endogenous cannabinoids | journal = Molecular Psychiatry | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | pages = 234–235 | year = 2002 | pmid = 11920149 | doi = 10.1038/sj.mp.4000999 | s2cid = 3200861 | doi-access = free }}</ref> They act locally due to their hydrophobic nature, unlike hormones. The endocannabinoid [[2-AG]] is found in [[bovine]] and human maternal milk.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fride E, Bregman T, Kirkham TC | title = Endocannabinoids and food intake: newborn suckling and appetite regulation in adulthood | journal = Experimental Biology and Medicine | volume = 230 | issue = 4 | pages = 225–234 | date = April 2005 | pmid = 15792943 | doi = 10.1177/153537020523000401 | s2cid = 25430588 }}</ref> Cannabinoids enhance sweet taste by increasing Tlc1 receptor expression and suppressing leptin, impacting energy homeostasis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yoshida R, Ohkuri T, Jyotaki M, Yasuo T, Horio N, Yasumatsu K, Sanematsu K, Shigemura N, Yamamoto T, Margolskee RF, Ninomiya Y | display-authors = 6 | title = Endocannabinoids selectively enhance sweet taste | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 107 | issue = 2 | pages = 935–939 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 20080779 | pmc = 2818929 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0912048107 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2010PNAS..107..935Y }}</ref>
Endocannabinoids serve as [[Cellular communication (biology)#Intercellular communication|intercellular]] '[[lipid signaling|lipid messengers]]',<ref>{{cite web |title=What to know about endocannabinoids and the endocannabinoid system |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/endocannabinoid |website=Medical news Today |date=27 February 2021 |access-date=4 August 2021 |archive-date=4 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804052706/https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/endocannabinoid |url-status=live }}</ref> signaling molecules that are released from one cell and activating the cannabinoid receptors present on other nearby cells. Although in this intercellular signaling role they are similar to the well-known [[monoamine]] [[neurotransmitter]]s such as [[dopamine]], endocannabinoids differ in numerous ways from them. For instance, they are used in [[retrograde signaling]] between neurons.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kano M, Ohno-Shosaku T, Maejima T | title = Retrograde signaling at central synapses via endogenous cannabinoids | journal = Molecular Psychiatry | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | pages = 234–235 | year = 2002 | pmid = 11920149 | doi = 10.1038/sj.mp.4000999 | s2cid = 3200861 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Furthermore, endocannabinoids are [[lipophilic]] molecules that are not very soluble in water. They are not stored in vesicles and exist as integral constituents of the membrane bilayers that make up cells. They are believed to be synthesized 'on-demand' rather than made and stored for later use.
 
As [[hydrophobic]] molecules, endocannabinoids cannot travel unaided for long distances in the aqueous medium surrounding the cells from which they are released and therefore act locally on nearby target cells. Hence, although emanating diffusely from their source cells, they have much more restricted spheres of influence than do [[hormone]]s, which can affect cells throughout the body.
 
The mechanisms and enzymes underlying the biosynthesis of endocannabinoids remain elusive and continue to be an area of active research.
 
The endocannabinoid [[2-AG]] has been found in [[bovine]] and human maternal milk.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fride E, Bregman T, Kirkham TC | title = Endocannabinoids and food intake: newborn suckling and appetite regulation in adulthood | journal = Experimental Biology and Medicine | volume = 230 | issue = 4 | pages = 225–234 | date = April 2005 | pmid = 15792943 | doi = 10.1177/153537020523000401 | s2cid = 25430588 }}</ref>
 
A review by Matties et al. (1994) summed up the phenomenon of gustatory enhancement by certain cannabinoids.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mattes RD, Shaw LM, Engelman K | title = Effects of cannabinoids (marijuana) on taste intensity and hedonic ratings and salivary flow of adults | journal = Chemical Senses | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 125–140 | date = April 1994 | pmid = 8055263 | doi = 10.1093/chemse/19.2.125 }}</ref> The sweet receptor (Tlc1) is stimulated by indirectly increasing its expression and suppressing the activity of leptin, the Tlc1 antagonist. It is proposed that the competition of leptin and cannabinoids for Tlc1 is implicated in energy homeostasis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yoshida R, Ohkuri T, Jyotaki M, Yasuo T, Horio N, Yasumatsu K, Sanematsu K, Shigemura N, Yamamoto T, Margolskee RF, Ninomiya Y | display-authors = 6 | title = Endocannabinoids selectively enhance sweet taste | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 107 | issue = 2 | pages = 935–939 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 20080779 | pmc = 2818929 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0912048107 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2010PNAS..107..935Y }}</ref>


==== Retrograde signal ====
==== Retrograde signal ====
Conventional neurotransmitters are released from a 'presynaptic' cell and activate appropriate receptors on a 'postsynaptic' cell, where presynaptic and postsynaptic designate the sending and receiving sides of a synapse, respectively. Endocannabinoids, on the other hand, are described as [[Retrograde signaling|retrograde transmitters]] because they most commonly travel 'backward' against the usual synaptic transmitter flow. They are, in effect, released from the postsynaptic cell and act on the presynaptic cell, where the target receptors are densely concentrated on axonal terminals in the zones from which conventional neurotransmitters are released. Activation of cannabinoid receptors temporarily reduces the amount of conventional neurotransmitter released. This endocannabinoid-mediated system permits the postsynaptic cell to control its own incoming synaptic traffic. The ultimate effect on the endocannabinoid-releasing cell depends on the nature of the conventional transmitter being controlled. For instance, when the release of the inhibitory transmitter [[GABA]] is reduced, the net effect is an increase in the excitability of the endocannabinoid-releasing cell. On the converse, when release of the excitatory neurotransmitter [[Glutamate (neurotransmitter)|glutamate]] is reduced, the net effect is a decrease in the excitability of the endocannabinoid-releasing cell.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Vaughan CW, Christie MJ | title = Cannabinoids | chapter = Retrograde signalling by endocannabinoids | series = Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology | volume = 168 | issue = 168 | pages = 367–383 | date = 2005 | pmid = 16596781 | doi = 10.1007/3-540-26573-2_12 | isbn = 3-540-22565-X }}</ref> {{citation needed|date=December 2013}}
Endocannabinoids are [[Retrograde signaling|retrograde transmitters]], released from postsynaptic cells to act on presynaptic cells, reducing conventional neurotransmitter release (e.g., [[GABA]] or [[Glutamate (neurotransmitter)|glutamate]]).<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Vaughan CW, Christie MJ | title = Cannabinoids | chapter = Retrograde signalling by endocannabinoids | series = Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology | volume = 168 | issue = 168 | pages = 367–383 | date = 2005 | pmid = 16596781 | doi = 10.1007/3-540-26573-2_12 | isbn = 3-540-22565-X }}</ref>


==== "Runner's high" ====
==== "Runner's high" ====
The [[Neurobiological effects of physical exercise|runner's high]], the feeling of euphoria that sometimes accompanies aerobic exercise, has often been attributed to the release of [[endorphins]], but newer research suggests that it might be due to endocannabinoids instead.<ref>{{Cite news |vauthors=Reynolds G |date=2021-03-10 |title=Getting to the Bottom of the Runner's High |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/10/well/move/running-exercise-mental-effects.html |access-date=2021-03-16 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=2021-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210315225202/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/10/well/move/running-exercise-mental-effects.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
Some studies suggest that the [[Neurobiological effects of physical exercise|runner's high]] should be attributed to endocannabinoids rather than to [[endorphins]].<ref>{{Cite news |vauthors=Reynolds G |date=2021-03-10 |title=Getting to the Bottom of the Runner's High |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/10/well/move/running-exercise-mental-effects.html |access-date=2021-03-16 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=2021-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210315225202/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/10/well/move/running-exercise-mental-effects.html |url-status=live }}</ref>


== Synthetic cannabinoids ==
== Synthetic cannabinoids ==
{{anchor|Synthetic_and_patented_cannabinoids}}
{{Main|Synthetic cannabinoid}}
{{Main|Synthetic cannabinoid}}
Historically, laboratory synthesis of cannabinoids was often based on the structure of herbal cannabinoids, and a large number of analogs have been produced and tested, especially in a group led by [[Roger Adams]] as early as 1941 and later in a group led by [[Raphael Mechoulam]].<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Mechoulam R, Lander N, Breuer A, Zahalka J |date=1990|title=Synthesis of the individual, pharmacologically distinct, enantiomers of a tetrahydrocannabinol derivative|journal=Tetrahedron: Asymmetry|volume=1|issue=5|pages=315–318|doi=10.1016/S0957-4166(00)86322-3}}</ref> Newer compounds are no longer related to natural cannabinoids or are based on the structure of the endogenous cannabinoids.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Elsohly MA, Gul W, Wanas AS, Radwan MM | title = Synthetic cannabinoids: analysis and metabolites | journal = Life Sciences | volume = 97 | issue = 1 | pages = 78–90 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24412391 | doi = 10.1016/j.lfs.2013.12.212 | series = Special Issue: Emerging Trends in the Abuse of Designer Drugs and Their Catastrophic Health Effects: Update on Chemistry, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Addiction Potential }}</ref>
Synthetic cannabinoids, historically based on herbal cannabinoids, have been developed since the 1940s.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Mechoulam R, Lander N, Breuer A, Zahalka J |date=1990|title=Synthesis of the individual, pharmacologically distinct, enantiomers of a tetrahydrocannabinol derivative|journal=Tetrahedron: Asymmetry|volume=1|issue=5|pages=315–318|doi=10.1016/S0957-4166(00)86322-3}}</ref> Modern compounds may not resemble natural cannabinoids but are designed to interact with cannabinoid receptors.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Elsohly MA, Gul W, Wanas AS, Radwan MM | title = Synthetic cannabinoids: analysis and metabolites | journal = Life Sciences | volume = 97 | issue = 1 | pages = 78–90 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24412391 | doi = 10.1016/j.lfs.2013.12.212 }}</ref> They are used to study structure-activity relationships but pose health risks when used recreationally.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.grassley.senate.gov/sites/default/files/news/upload/3-factor%20analysis%20AB-CHMINACA%20AB-PINACA%20THJ2201%2012172014.pdf | title = N-(1-amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide(AB-CHMINACA), N-(1-amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-pentyl-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide (AB-PINACA)and[1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indazol-3-yl](naphthalen-1-yl)methanone(THJ-2201) | publisher = Drug and Chemical Evaluation Section, Office of Diversion Control, [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] | date = December 2014 | access-date = 2015-01-09 | archive-date = 2018-09-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180927020404/https://www.grassley.senate.gov/sites/default/files/news/upload/3-factor%20analysis%20AB-CHMINACA%20AB-PINACA%20THJ2201%2012172014.pdf }}</ref> Examples include [[Dronabinol]], [[Nabilone]], and [[Rimonabant]].<ref name="fda" />
 
Synthetic cannabinoids are particularly useful in experiments to determine the relationship between the structure and activity of cannabinoid compounds, by making systematic, incremental modifications of cannabinoid molecules.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lauritsen KJ, Rosenberg H | title = Comparison of outcome expectancies for synthetic cannabinoids and botanical marijuana | journal = The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 377–384 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 26910181 | doi = 10.3109/00952990.2015.1135158 | s2cid = 4389339 }}</ref>
 
When synthetic cannabinoids are used recreationally, they present significant health dangers to users.<ref name=DCES>{{cite web | url = http://www.grassley.senate.gov/sites/default/files/news/upload/3-factor%20analysis%20AB-CHMINACA%20AB-PINACA%20THJ2201%2012172014.pdf | title = N-(1-amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide(AB-CHMINACA), N-(1-amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-pentyl-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide (AB-PINACA)and[1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indazol-3-yl](naphthalen-1-yl)methanone(THJ-2201) | publisher = Drug and Chemical Evaluation Section, Office of Diversion Control, [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] | date = December 2014 | journal = | access-date = 2015-01-09 | archive-date = 2018-09-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180927020404/https://www.grassley.senate.gov/sites/default/files/news/upload/3-factor%20analysis%20AB-CHMINACA%20AB-PINACA%20THJ2201%2012172014.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> In the period of 2012 through 2014, over 10,000 contacts to [[poison control center]]s in the United States were related to use of synthetic cannabinoids.<ref name=DCES />
 
Medications containing natural or synthetic cannabinoids or cannabinoid analogs:
* [[Dronabinol]] (Marinol), is synthetic Δ<sup>9</sup>-[[tetrahydrocannabinol]] (THC), used as an appetite stimulant, [[antiemetic]], and [[analgesic]]
* [[Nabilone]] (Cesamet, Canemes), a synthetic cannabinoid and an analog of Marinol. It is [[Controlled Substances Act#Schedule II controlled substances|Schedule II]] unlike Marinol, which is [[Controlled Substances Act#Schedule III controlled substances|Schedule III]]
* [[Rimonabant]] (SR141716), a selective cannabinoid (CB<sub>1</sub>) receptor [[inverse agonist]] once used as an [[anti-obesity drug]] under the proprietary name Acomplia. It was also used for [[smoking cessation]]
 
Other notable synthetic cannabinoids include:
* [[JWH-018]], a potent synthetic [[cannabinoid agonist]] discovered by [[John W. Huffman]] at [[Clemson University]]. It was often sold in legal smoke blends collectively known as [[Spice (drug)|"spice"]]. Several countries and states have moved to ban it legally.
* [[JWH-073]]
* [[CP-55940]], produced in 1974, this synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist is many times more potent than THC.
* [[Dimethylheptylpyran]]
* [[HU-210]], about 100 times as potent as THC<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marijuana.org/mydna10-12-05.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051221183347/http://www.marijuana.org/mydna10-12-05.htm |archive-date=2005-12-21 |title=More medicinal uses for marijuana |publisher=Marijuana.org |date=October 18, 2005 |access-date=2014-01-15}}</ref>
* [[Dexanabinol|HU-211]], a synthetic cannabinoid derived drug that acts on NMDA instead of endocannabinoid system
* [[HU-331]] a potential anti-cancer drug derived from [[cannabidiol]] that specifically inhibits [[topoisomerase II]].
* [[SR144528]], a CB<sub>2</sub> [[receptor antagonist]]/inverse agonist<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rinaldi-Carmona M, Barth F, Millan J, Derocq JM, Casellas P, Congy C, Oustric D, Sarran M, Bouaboula M, Calandra B, Portier M, Shire D, Brelière JC, Le Fur GL | display-authors = 6 | title = SR 144528, the first potent and selective antagonist of the CB2 cannabinoid receptor | journal = The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics | volume = 284 | issue = 2 | pages = 644–650 | date = February 1998 | doi = 10.1016/S0022-3565(24)37266-0 | pmid = 9454810 }}</ref>
* [[WIN 55,212-2]], a potent cannabinoid receptor [[agonist]]
* [[JWH-133]], a potent selective CB<sub>2</sub> receptor agonist
* [[Levonantradol]] (Nantrodolum), an antiemetic and analgesic but not currently in use in medicine
* [[AM-2201]], a potent cannabinoid receptor agonist
Recently, the term ''neocannabinoid'' has been introduced to distinguish these [[New psychoactive substance|designer drugs]] from synthetic phytocannabinoids (obtained by chemical synthesis) or synthetic endocannabinoids''.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Riboulet-Zemouli K |date=2020|title='Cannabis' ontologies I: Conceptual issues with Cannabis and cannabinoids terminology |journal=Drug Science, Policy and Law|language=en|volume=6|pages=25–29|doi=10.1177/2050324520945797|s2cid=234435350|issn=2050-3245|ref=ont|doi-access=free}}</ref>''


== See also ==
== See also ==
{{Portal|Cannabis}}
{{Portal|Cannabis}}
* [[List of cannabinoids]]
* [[List of hallucinogens]]
* [[Cancer and nausea#Cannabinoids|Cancer and nausea § Cannabinoid]]
* [[Cancer and nausea#Cannabinoids|Cancer and nausea § Cannabinoid]]
* [[Cannabinoid receptor antagonist]]
* [[Cannabinoid receptor antagonist]]

Latest revision as of 15:21, 23 November 2025

Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Cannabis sidebar Cannabinoids (Template:IPAc-en) are several structural classes of compounds found primarily in the Cannabis plant or as synthetic compounds.[1][2] The most notable cannabinoid is the phytocannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (delta-9-THC), the primary psychoactive compound in cannabis.[3][4] Cannabidiol (CBD) is a major constituent of temperate cannabis plants and a minor constituent in tropical varieties.[5] At least 113 distinct phytocannabinoids have been isolated from cannabis, although only four (THCA, CBDA, CBCA, and their common precursor CBGA) have a confirmed biogenetic origin.[6] Phytocannabinoids are also found in other plants, such as rhododendron, licorice, and liverwort.[7]

Phytocannabinoids are multi-ring phenolic compounds structurally related to THC,[8] while endocannabinoids are fatty acid derivatives. Nonclassical synthetic cannabinoids (cannabimimetics) include aminoalkylindoles, 1,5-diarylpyrazoles, quinolines, and arylsulfonamides, as well as eicosanoids related to endocannabinoids.[3]

Uses

Medical uses of cannabinoids include the treatment of nausea due to chemotherapy, spasticity, and possibly neuropathic pain.[9] Common side effects include dizziness, sedation, confusion, dissociation, and "feeling high".[9]

Parkinson's Disease

Cannabis may provide limited relief for some Parkinson's disease (PD) symptoms, such as pain, sleep issues, or anxiety, based on small human studies (2023–2024, 10–50 participants), but it does not improve motor symptoms like tremors or stiffness (no significant change in Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale scores).[10][11] A 2023 US survey found 46% of PD patients reported benefits for pain or sleep.[12] Raw Cannabis contains tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA, 15–30% of the plant) and cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), which are non-psychoactive. Animal studies (2021–2024) suggest THCA and CBDA may reduce inflammation and protect brain cells in PD models, acting on CB2 receptors and other pathways (e.g., TRP channels, PPARγ), unlike tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), which form when cannabis is heated (e.g., smoking, 105–150°C).[13][14][15] No human studies have tested THCA or CBDA for PD as of 2025. In regions like India, raw cannabis is used traditionally for tremors, but scientific evidence is lacking.[16] Risks include dizziness from THC (12–20% dropout in studies) and potential interactions with PD medications like levodopa.[17]

Cannabinoid receptors

Before the 1980s, cannabinoids were thought to produce their effects via nonspecific interaction with cell membranes, rather than specific membrane-bound receptors. The discovery of cannabinoid receptors in the 1980s resolved this debate.[18] These receptors are common in animals, with two primary types, CB1 and CB2,[19] and evidence suggests additional receptors may exist.[20] The human brain has more cannabinoid receptors than any other G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) type.[21]

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) regulates multiple functions, including movement, motor coordination, learning, memory, emotion, motivation, addictive-like behavior, and pain modulation.[22]

Cannabinoid receptor type 1

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". CB1 receptors are found primarily in the brain, particularly in the basal ganglia, limbic system, hippocampus, and striatum. They are also present in the cerebellum, and male and female reproductive systems, but absent in the medulla oblongata, which controls respiratory and cardiovascular functions. CB1 is also found in the human anterior eye and retina.[23]

Cannabinoid receptor type 2

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". CB2 receptors are predominantly found in the immune system or immune-derived cells,[24][25][26][27] with varying expression patterns. A subpopulation of microglia in the human cerebellum expresses CB2.[28] CB2 receptors are linked to immunomodulatory effects[27] and potential therapeutic benefits in animal models.[26]

Phytocannabinoids

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File:Kolkata-Kut.jpg
The bracts surrounding a cluster of Cannabis sativa flowers are coated with cannabinoid-laden trichomes.
File:Cannabis indica.jpg
Cannabis indica plant

The classical cannabinoids are concentrated in a viscous resin produced in structures known as glandular trichomes. At least 113 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the Cannabis plant.[6]

All classes derive from cannabigerol-type (CBG) compounds and differ mainly in the way this precursor is cyclized.[29] The classical cannabinoids are derived from their respective 2-carboxylic acids (2-COOH) by decarboxylation (catalyzed by heat, light, or alkaline conditions).[30]

Well known cannabinoids

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The best-studied cannabinoids include tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabinol (CBN).

Tetrahydrocannabinol

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the primary psychoactive component of the Cannabis plant. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC, THC) and delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC) induce anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol synthesis through intracellular CB1 activation.[31] These cannabinoids produce the psychoactive effects of cannabis by binding to CB1 receptors in the brain.[31]

Cannabidiol

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Cannabidiol (CBD) is mildly psychotropic and counteracts cognitive impairment associated with cannabis use.[32] CBD has low affinity for CB1 and CB2 receptors but acts as an indirect antagonist of cannabinoid agonists.[33] It is an agonist at the 5-HT1A receptor[34] and may promote sleep and suppress arousal by interfering with adenosine uptake.[35] CBD shares a precursor with THC and is the main cannabinoid in CBD-dominant Cannabis strains, potentially reducing short-term memory loss associated with THC.[36] Tentative evidence suggests CBD may have anti-psychotic effects, though research is limited.[37][32] CBD and other cannabinoids have shown antimicrobial properties, potentially addressing antimicrobial resistance.[38]

Cannabinol

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Cannabinol (CBN) is a mildly psychoactive cannabinoid acting as a low-affinity partial agonist at CB1 and CB2 receptors.[39][40][41] CBN interacts with other neurotransmitter systems (e.g., dopaminergic, serotonergic), requiring higher doses for physiologic effects like mild sedation compared to THC.[42] Isolated in the late 1800s, its structure was elucidated in the 1930s, and chemical synthesis was achieved by 1940.[43]

Biosynthesis

Cannabinoid production begins with an enzyme combining geranyl pyrophosphate and olivetolic acid to form CBGA. CBGA is converted to CBG, THCA, CBDA, or CBCA by four separate synthase, FAD-dependent dehydrogenase enzymes. There is no enzymatic conversion of CBDA or CBD to THCA or THC. Propyl homologues (THCVA, CBDVA, CBCVA) follow an analogous pathway from divarinolic acid.[29][13]

Double bond position

Each cannabinoid may exist in different forms depending on the double bond position in the alicyclic carbon ring. Under the dibenzopyran numbering system, the major form of THC is Δ9-THC, and the minor form is Δ8-THC. In the alternate terpene numbering system, these are Δ1-THC and Δ6-THC, respectively.

Length

Most classical cannabinoids are 21-carbon compounds, but variations in the side-chain length attached to the aromatic ring exist. In THC, CBD, and CBN, the side-chain is a pentyl (5-carbon) chain. Propyl (3-carbon) chain variants are named with the suffix varin (THCV, CBDV, CBNV), while heptyl (7-carbon) chain variants are named phorol (THCP, CBDP).

Cannabinoids in other plants

Phytocannabinoids occur in plants like Echinacea purpurea, Echinacea angustifolia, Acmella oleracea, Helichrysum umbraculigerum, and Radula marginata.[44] Echinacea species contain Anandamide-like alkylamides, with at least 25 identified, some showing affinity for CB2 receptors.[45][46] These are concentrated in roots and flowers.[47][48] Yangonin in kava has significant CB1 receptor affinity.[49] Tea (Camellia sinensis) catechins show affinity for human cannabinoid receptors.[50] Beta-caryophyllene, a terpene in cannabis and other plants, is a selective CB2 receptor agonist.[51] Black truffles contain anandamide.[52] Perrottetinene, a moderately psychoactive cannabinoid, is found in Radula varieties.[53] Machaeriol A and related compounds occur in Machaerium plants.[54]

Most phytocannabinoids are nearly insoluble in water but soluble in lipids, alcohols, and other non-polar organic solvents.

Cannabis plant profile

Cannabis plants vary widely in their cannabinoid profiles due to selective breeding. Hemp strains are bred for low THC content, often for fiber, while medical strains may prioritize high CBD, and recreational strains target high THC or specific balances.[13] Quantitative analysis uses gas chromatography (GC), or GC combined with mass spectrometry (GC/MS), to measure cannabinoid content. Liquid chromatography (LC) can differentiate acid (e.g., THCA, CBDA) and neutral (e.g., THC, CBD) forms.[6] Legal restrictions in many countries hinder consistent monitoring of cannabinoid profiles.

Pharmacology

Cannabinoids are administered via smoking, vaporizing, oral ingestion, transdermal patch, intravenous injection, sublingual absorption, or rectal suppository. Most are metabolized in the liver by cytochrome P450 enzymes, mainly CYP 2C9.[55] Inhibiting CYP 2C9 can extend intoxication.[55] Δ9-THC is metabolized to 11-hydroxy-Δ9-THC and then 9-carboxy-THC, detectable in the body for weeks due to their lipophilic nature and storage in fat.[56][57] The entourage effect suggests that terpenes modulate cannabinoid effects.[58]

Modulation of mitochondrial activity

Cannabinoids influence mitochondrial processes, including calcium regulation, apoptosis, electron transport chain activity, mitochondrial respiration and ATP production. Mitochondrial dynamics—encompassing the processes of fusion and fission, as well as alterations in morphology and organelle mobility, are also affected by cannabinoid exposure.[59] In addition, cannabinoids have been shown to modulate mitochondrial biogenesis through the dysregulation of PGC-1α levels.[60] These effects are complex, involving direct membrane interactions and receptor-mediated pathways, but a unified hypothesis is lacking due to conflicting data.[61]

Cannabinoid-based pharmaceuticals

Nabiximols (Sativex) is an aerosolized mist with a near 1:1 ratio of CBD and THC, used for multiple sclerosis-related pain and spasticity.[62] Dronabinol (Marinol, Syndros) and Nabilone (Cesamet) are synthetic THC analogs for HIV/AIDS-induced anorexia and chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting.[63] CBD drug Epidiolex is approved for Dravet and Lennox–Gastaut syndromes.[64]

Separation

Cannabinoids are extracted using organic solvents like hydrocarbons or alcohols, which are flammable or toxic, or supercritical carbon dioxide, a safer alternative.[65] Isolated components are separated using wiped film vacuum distillation or other distillation techniques.[66]

History

Cannabinol (CBN) was the first cannabinoid isolated in the late 1800s, with its structure elucidated in the 1930s and synthesized by 1940.[43] In 1942, Roger Adams discovered Cannabidiol (CBD),[67] followed by Raphael Mechoulam's identification of CBD stereochemistry in 1963 and THC stereochemistry in 1964.[68] CBD and THC are produced independently from the precursor CBG, not via conversion.[29]

Emergence of derived psychoactive cannabis products

Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote". The Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018 allows hemp-derived products with ≤0.3% Δ9-THC to be sold legally in the US, leading to widespread availability of cannabinoids like Δ8-THC, Δ10-THC, HHC, and THCP.[69] These compounds lack the extensive research of Δ9-THC, posing potential risks and challenges for drug testing due to novel metabolites and high potency (e.g., THCP's 33× binding affinity).[70][71] A 2023 paper proposed the term "derived psychoactive cannabis products" to distinguish these substances.[72]

Endocannabinoids

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File:Anandamid.svg
Anandamide, an endogenous ligand of CB1 and CB2

Endocannabinoids are substances produced within the body that activate cannabinoid receptors. After the discovery of the first cannabinoid receptor in 1988, researchers identified endogenous ligands.[18][73]

Types of endocannabinoid ligands

Arachidonoylethanolamine (Anandamide or AEA)

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Anandamide, derived from arachidonic acid, is a partial agonist at CB1 and CB2 receptors, with potency similar to THC at CB1.[74] Found in nearly all tissues and plants like chocolate, it also acts on vanilloid receptors.[75][76]

2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG)

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". 2-AG, a full agonist at CB1 and CB2, is present at higher brain concentrations than anandamide, potentially playing a larger role in endocannabinoid signaling.[74][77]

Other endocannabinoids

Other endocannabinoids include noladin ether, NADA, OAE, and LPI, each with varying receptor affinities and effects.[78][79][80][81]

Function

Endocannabinoids act as lipid messengers, released from one cell to activate cannabinoid receptors on nearby cells.[82] Unlike monoamine neurotransmitters, they are lipophilic, insoluble in water, and synthesized on-demand rather than stored.[83] They act locally due to their hydrophobic nature, unlike hormones. The endocannabinoid 2-AG is found in bovine and human maternal milk.[84] Cannabinoids enhance sweet taste by increasing Tlc1 receptor expression and suppressing leptin, impacting energy homeostasis.[85]

Retrograde signal

Endocannabinoids are retrograde transmitters, released from postsynaptic cells to act on presynaptic cells, reducing conventional neurotransmitter release (e.g., GABA or glutamate).[86]

"Runner's high"

Some studies suggest that the runner's high should be attributed to endocannabinoids rather than to endorphins.[87]

Synthetic cannabinoids

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Synthetic cannabinoids, historically based on herbal cannabinoids, have been developed since the 1940s.[88] Modern compounds may not resemble natural cannabinoids but are designed to interact with cannabinoid receptors.[89] They are used to study structure-activity relationships but pose health risks when used recreationally.[90] Examples include Dronabinol, Nabilone, and Rimonabant.[63]

See also

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References

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Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

External links

Script error: No such module "Navbox". Template:Cannabinoid receptor modulators Script error: No such module "Navbox". Template:Transient receptor potential channel modulators Template:Chemical classes of psychoactive drugs Template:Authority control

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