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[[File:WedgetailEagleCarrion.jpg|thumb|A [[wedge-tailed eagle]] and carrion ([[roadkill]] [[kangaroo]]) in the [[Pilbara]] region of [[Western Australia]]]] | [[File:WedgetailEagleCarrion.jpg|thumb|A [[wedge-tailed eagle]] and carrion ([[roadkill]] [[kangaroo]]) in the [[Pilbara]] region of [[Western Australia]].]] | ||
[[File:Fish-Food-in-the-Deep-Sea-Revisiting-the-Role-of-Large-Food-Falls-pone.0096016.s005.ogv|thumb|[[Zoarcidae|Zoarcid fish]] feeding on the carrion of a [[Mobula|mobulid ray]].]] | |||
'''Carrion''' ({{etymology|la|{{wikt-lang|la|caro}}|meat}}), also known as a '''carcass''', is the decaying flesh of dead animals. | '''Carrion''' ({{etymology|la|{{wikt-lang|la|caro}}|meat}}), also known as a '''carcass''', is the decaying flesh of dead animals. | ||
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Carrion is an important food source for large [[carnivore]]s and [[omnivore]]s in most ecosystems. Examples of carrion-eaters (or [[scavenger]]s) include [[crow]]s, [[vulture]]s, [[human]]s, [[hawk]]s, [[eagle]]s,<ref>Hovenden, Frank. [http://www.comoxvalleynaturalist.bc.ca/wild_side/2003/vulture.html The Carrion Eaters] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601062448/http://www.comoxvalleynaturalist.bc.ca/wild_side/2003/vulture.html |date=1 June 2010 }}. Comox Valley Naturalists Society. 7 May 2010.</ref> [[hyena]]s,<ref>[http://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/striped-hyena "San Diego Zoo's Animal Bytes: Striped hyena"]. San Diego Zoo. 7 May 2010.</ref> [[Virginia opossum]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Len McDougall|title=The Encyclopedia of Tracks and Scats: A Comprehensive Guide to the Trackable Animals of the United States and Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9XOc2_u7z6cC&pg=PA274|date=2004|publisher=Globe Pequot|isbn=978-1-59228-070-4|page=274}}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Tasmanian devil]]s,<ref>[http://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/tasmanian-devil "San Diego Zoo's Animal Bytes: Tasmanian Devil"]. San Diego Zoo. 7 May 2010.</ref> [[coyote]]s<ref>Stegemann, Eileen. [http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/wildlife_pdf/skullscience.pdf "Skull Science: Coyote"]. NYS Department of Environmental Conservation April 2006</ref> and [[Komodo dragon]]s. Many invertebrates, such as the [[Silphidae|carrion and burying beetle]]s,<ref>{{cite book|author=John George Wood|title=Insects abroad: Being a popular account of foreign insects; their structure, habits and transformations|url=https://archive.org/details/insectsabroadb00wood|access-date=27 November 2011|year=1892|publisher=Longmans|pages=[https://archive.org/details/insectsabroadb00wood/page/82 82]–}}</ref> as well as [[maggot]]s of [[Calliphoridae|calliphorid flies]] (such as one of the most important species in ''[[Calliphora vomitoria]]'') and [[Flesh-fly|flesh-flies]], also eat carrion, playing an important role in recycling nitrogen and carbon in animal remains.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ames|first1=C.|last2=Turner|first2=B.|s2cid=10805033|date=2003|title=Low temperature episodes in development of blowflies: implications for postmortem interval estimation|journal=Medical and Veterinary Entomology|language=en|volume=17|issue=2|pages=178–186|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2915.2003.00421.x|pmid=12823835|issn=1365-2915}}</ref> | Carrion is an important food source for large [[carnivore]]s and [[omnivore]]s in most ecosystems. Examples of carrion-eaters (or [[scavenger]]s) include [[crow]]s, [[vulture]]s, [[human]]s, [[hawk]]s, [[eagle]]s,<ref>Hovenden, Frank. [http://www.comoxvalleynaturalist.bc.ca/wild_side/2003/vulture.html The Carrion Eaters] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601062448/http://www.comoxvalleynaturalist.bc.ca/wild_side/2003/vulture.html |date=1 June 2010 }}. Comox Valley Naturalists Society. 7 May 2010.</ref> [[hyena]]s,<ref>[http://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/striped-hyena "San Diego Zoo's Animal Bytes: Striped hyena"]. San Diego Zoo. 7 May 2010.</ref> [[Virginia opossum]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Len McDougall|title=The Encyclopedia of Tracks and Scats: A Comprehensive Guide to the Trackable Animals of the United States and Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9XOc2_u7z6cC&pg=PA274|date=2004|publisher=Globe Pequot|isbn=978-1-59228-070-4|page=274}}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Tasmanian devil]]s,<ref>[http://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/tasmanian-devil "San Diego Zoo's Animal Bytes: Tasmanian Devil"]. San Diego Zoo. 7 May 2010.</ref> [[coyote]]s<ref>Stegemann, Eileen. [http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/wildlife_pdf/skullscience.pdf "Skull Science: Coyote"]. NYS Department of Environmental Conservation April 2006</ref> and [[Komodo dragon]]s. Many invertebrates, such as the [[Silphidae|carrion and burying beetle]]s,<ref>{{cite book|author=John George Wood|title=Insects abroad: Being a popular account of foreign insects; their structure, habits and transformations|url=https://archive.org/details/insectsabroadb00wood|access-date=27 November 2011|year=1892|publisher=Longmans|pages=[https://archive.org/details/insectsabroadb00wood/page/82 82]–}}</ref> as well as [[maggot]]s of [[Calliphoridae|calliphorid flies]] (such as one of the most important species in ''[[Calliphora vomitoria]]'') and [[Flesh-fly|flesh-flies]], also eat carrion, playing an important role in recycling nitrogen and carbon in animal remains.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ames|first1=C.|last2=Turner|first2=B.|s2cid=10805033|date=2003|title=Low temperature episodes in development of blowflies: implications for postmortem interval estimation|journal=Medical and Veterinary Entomology|language=en|volume=17|issue=2|pages=178–186|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2915.2003.00421.x|pmid=12823835|issn=1365-2915}}</ref> | ||
[[ | Carrion begins to decay at the moment of the animal's death, and it will increasingly attract insects and breed [[bacteria]]. Not long after the animal has died, its body will begin to exude a foul odor caused by the presence of bacteria and the emission of [[cadaverine]] and [[putrescine]].<ref name=":10">{{cite journal |last1=Mondor |first1=EB |last2=Tremblay |first2=MN |last3=Tomberlin|first3=JK|last4=Benbow|first4=EM|last5=Tarone|first5=AM|last6=Crippen|first6=TL|date=2012 |title=The ecology of carrion decomposition|journal=Nature Education Knowledge|volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=21 |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/the-ecology-of-carrion-decomposition-84118259/}}</ref> | ||
[[ | |||
Carrion can harbor many infectious and disease-causing agents including viruses (e.g. [[rabies virus]], [[West Nile virus]]),<ref name=":01">{{cite journal |last1= Schaefer |first1=JM|title=The viability of rabies in carrion |journal= Great Plains Wildlife Damage Control Workshop Proceedings|date=1983 |volume= |issue= |pages=288|url= https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/gpwdcwp/288/}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{cite journal |last1=Nemeth|first1=NM|last2=Beckett|first2=S|last3=Edwards |first3=E|last4=Klenk|first4=K|last5=Komar|first5=N|title=Avian mortality surveillance for West Nile virus in Colorado|journal=American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene|date=2007|volume=76|issue=3|pages=431-437|doi=10.4269/ajtmh.2007.76.431|pmid=17360863}}</ref> [[bacteria]] (e.g. ''[[Bacillus anthracis]]'', ''[[Francisella tularensis]]'', ''[[Listeria monocytogenes]]'', ''[[Pasteurella multocida]]''),<ref name=":03">{{cite journal |last1=Cushnie |first1=TP |last2=Luang-In |first2=V |last3=Sexton |first3=DW|title=Necrophages and necrophiles: a review of their antibacterial defenses and biotechnological potential |journal=Critical Reviews in Biotechnology |date=2025 |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=625-642|doi=10.1080/07388551.2024.2389175| pmid=39198023|url= https://zenodo.org/records/13889044 }}</ref> [[Microbial toxin#bacterial|bacterial toxins]] (e.g. [[botulinum toxin|botulinum]])<ref name=":03" /> and helminths (e.g. ''[[Trichinella]]'' species).<ref name=":04">{{cite book|last1=Roepstorff |first1=A| last2=Nansen |first2=P| year=1998|title=Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Control of Helminth Parasites of Swine|page=23|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|location=Rome|isbn=978-9-2510-4220-5 |url=https://www.fao.org/4/x0520e/x0520e.pdf}}</ref><ref name=":05">{{cite journal |last1=Stewart|first1=GL|last2=Kennedy|first2=RR|last3=Larsen |first3=E|title=Infectivity of ''Trichinella pseudospiralis'' isolated from carrion|journal=Journal of Parasitology|date=1990|volume=76|issue=5|pages=750-751|doi=10.2307/3282999|pmid= 2213425|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3282999|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Several outbreaks of disease, attributed to direct or indirect contact with carrion, have been reported in humans<ref name=":06">{{cite journal|last1=Kunanusont|first1=C |last2=Limpakarnjanarat|first2=K |last3=Foy |first3=HM|title= Outbreak of anthrax in Thailand|journal=Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology|date=1990|volume=84|issue=5|pages=507-512 |doi=10.1080/00034983.1990.11812502|pmid= 2124098}}</ref><ref name=":07">{{cite journal |last1=Middaugh|first1=J |last2=Lynn|first2=T|last3=Funk |first3=B|last4=Jilly |first4=B|last5=Maslanka|first5=S |last6=McLaughlin|first6=J|title=Outbreak of botulism type E associated with eating a beached whale--Western Alaska, July 2002 |journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report |date=2003|volume=52|issue=2|pages=24-26|pmid= 12608715 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5202a2.htm}}</ref> and animals.<ref name=":08">{{cite journal |last1=Galey|first1=FD|last2=Terra|first2=R|last3=Walker |first3=R|last4=Adaska|first4=J|last5=Etchebarne|first5=MA|last6=Puschner|first6=B|last7=Fisher|first7=E|last8=Whitlock|first8=RH|last9=Rocke|first9=T|last10=Willoughby|first10=D|last11=Tor|first11=E|title=Type C botulism in dairy cattle from feed contaminated with a dead cat|journal=Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation|date=2000|volume=12|issue=3|pages=204-209|doi=10.1177/104063870001200302|pmid=10826832}}</ref><ref name=":09">{{cite journal |last1=Evelsizer|first1=DD|last2=Clark|first2=RG|last3=Bollinger |first3=TK|title=Relationships between local carcass density and risk of mortality in molting mallards during avian botulism outbreaks|journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases|date=2010|volume=46|issue=2|pages=507-513|doi=10.7589/0090-3558-46.2.507|pmid=20688643}}</ref> | |||
==Consumption by humans== | |||
Humans, distinct among primates, have evolved a highly acidic stomach environment with a pH of 1–2, akin to that of carrion-feeding vultures, which effectively neutralizes many pathogens found in decaying meat.<ref>Beasley, D. E., Koltz, A. M., Lambert, J. E., Fierer, N., & Dunn, R. R. (2015). The evolution of stomach acidity and its relevance to the human microbiome. PLOS ONE, 10(7), e0134116. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0134116</ref> | |||
This physiological adaptation likely facilitated the inclusion of carrion in the ancestral human diet, offering a survival advantage by expanding dietary options during periods of scarcity and reducing risks from microbial contamination.<ref>Blum, J. C., & Nesse, R. M. (2010). The evolutionary significance of human dietary adaptations to meat consumption. Journal of Human Evolution, 58(4), 292–300. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.01.005</ref><ref>Carmody, R. N., & Wrangham, R. W. (2009). The energetic significance of cooking and scavenging in human evolution. Journal of Human Evolution, 57(4), 379–391. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.02.011</ref> | |||
Furthermore, numerous civilizations have refined techniques for controlled meat fermentation, producing foods such as European sausages, Inuit igunaq, and Icelandic hákarl, which reflect a deep cultural history of safely consuming partially decayed meat.<ref>Leroy, F., Geyzen, A., Scholliers, P., & Vuyst, L. D. (2015). Fermented meats and the anthropology of controlled decay. Food, Culture & Society, 18(2), 205–224. doi:10.2752/175174415X14180391604356</ref><ref>Kristjánsson, T., & Stefánsson, G. (2017). Traditional Icelandic food: The role of fermentation in dietary practices. Scandinavian Journal of Food Studies, 2(1), 45–59.</ref> These practices underscore humanity's evolutionary and cultural adaptations to carrion consumption, transforming a potentially hazardous food source into a nutritionally viable and culturally significant dietary component.<ref>Speth, J. D. (2017). Putrid meat and fish in the Eurasian Middle and Upper Paleolithic: Are we missing a key part of Neanderthal and modern human diet? PaleoAnthropology, 2017, 44–72. doi:10.4207/PA.2017.ART104</ref> | |||
==In religious literature== | |||
===In Noahide law=== | |||
{{main|Noahide laws}} | |||
The thirty-count laws of [[Ulla (Talmudist)]] include the prohibition of humans consuming carrion.<ref>Talmud, Hullin 92b</ref> This count is in addition to the standard seven law count and has been recently{{when|date=September 2018}} published from the Judeo-Arabic writing of [[Shmuel ben Hophni Gaon]] after having been lost for centuries.<ref>[[Mossad HaRav Kook]] edition of Gaon's commentary to Genesis.</ref> | |||
===In Islam=== | |||
Animals killed by strangling, a violent blow, a headlong fall, being gored to death, or from which a predatory animal has partially eaten are considered types of carrion, and are forbidden in Islam.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Halal Food Handbook |date=2019 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc |isbn=978-1-118-82311-8 |editor-last=Al-Teinaz |editor-first=Yunes Ramadan |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |editor-last2=Spear |editor-first2=Stuart |editor-last3=Abd El-Rahim |editor-first3=Ibrahim H. A.}}</ref> | |||
==In English literature== | |||
Sometimes carrion is used to describe an infected carcass that is diseased and should not be touched. An example of carrion being used to describe dead and rotting bodies in literature may be found in [[William Shakespeare]]'s play ''[[Julius Caesar (play)|Julius Caesar]]'' (III.i):<ref>[http://shakespeare.mit.edu/julius_caesar/julius_caesar.3.1.html The Life and Death of Julius Caesar]. Scene I. Rome. Before the Capitol; the Senate sitting above.</ref> | Sometimes carrion is used to describe an infected carcass that is diseased and should not be touched. An example of carrion being used to describe dead and rotting bodies in literature may be found in [[William Shakespeare]]'s play ''[[Julius Caesar (play)|Julius Caesar]]'' (III.i):<ref>[http://shakespeare.mit.edu/julius_caesar/julius_caesar.3.1.html The Life and Death of Julius Caesar]. Scene I. Rome. Before the Capitol; the Senate sitting above.</ref> | ||
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Another example can be found in Daniel Defoe's ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' when the title character kills an unknown bird for food but finds "its flesh was carrion, and fit for nothing". | Another example can be found in Daniel Defoe's ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' when the title character kills an unknown bird for food but finds "its flesh was carrion, and fit for nothing". | ||
== | ==Carrion flowers and stinkhorn mushrooms== | ||
Some plants and [[fungus|fungi]] smell like [[Decomposition|decomposing]] carrion and attract insects that aid in reproduction. Plants that exhibit this behavior are known as [[carrion flower]]s.<ref name=":11" /> [[Phallaceae|Stinkhorn mushroom]]s are examples of fungi with this characteristic.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=SD|last2=Jürgens |first2=A|date=2010 |title=Convergent evolution of carrion and faecal scent mimicry in fly-pollinated angiosperm flowers and a stinkhorn fungus |journal=South African Journal of Botany |language=en |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=796–807 |doi=10.1016/j.sajb.2010.07.012 |issn=0254-6299 |doi-access=free }}</ref> | |||
== | ==Other images== | ||
<gallery class="left" widths="200" heights="200"> | |||
File:Coyoteelk.jpg|A [[mountain coyote|coyote]] feeding on [[elk]] carrion in [[Yellowstone National Park]]'s Lamar Valley during winter. | |||
File:Flies settle on a sheep carrion.jpg|[[Fly|Flies]] settling on [[sheep]] carrion. | |||
</gallery> | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
Latest revision as of 11:46, 24 June 2025
Template:Short description Script error: No such module "other uses". Template:Use dmy dates
Carrion (Template:Etymology), also known as a carcass, is the decaying flesh of dead animals.
Overview
Carrion is an important food source for large carnivores and omnivores in most ecosystems. Examples of carrion-eaters (or scavengers) include crows, vultures, humans, hawks, eagles,[1] hyenas,[2] Virginia opossum,[3] Tasmanian devils,[4] coyotes[5] and Komodo dragons. Many invertebrates, such as the carrion and burying beetles,[6] as well as maggots of calliphorid flies (such as one of the most important species in Calliphora vomitoria) and flesh-flies, also eat carrion, playing an important role in recycling nitrogen and carbon in animal remains.[7]
Carrion begins to decay at the moment of the animal's death, and it will increasingly attract insects and breed bacteria. Not long after the animal has died, its body will begin to exude a foul odor caused by the presence of bacteria and the emission of cadaverine and putrescine.[8]
Carrion can harbor many infectious and disease-causing agents including viruses (e.g. rabies virus, West Nile virus),[9][10] bacteria (e.g. Bacillus anthracis, Francisella tularensis, Listeria monocytogenes, Pasteurella multocida),[11] bacterial toxins (e.g. botulinum)[11] and helminths (e.g. Trichinella species).[12][13] Several outbreaks of disease, attributed to direct or indirect contact with carrion, have been reported in humans[14][15] and animals.[16][17]
Consumption by humans
Humans, distinct among primates, have evolved a highly acidic stomach environment with a pH of 1–2, akin to that of carrion-feeding vultures, which effectively neutralizes many pathogens found in decaying meat.[18] This physiological adaptation likely facilitated the inclusion of carrion in the ancestral human diet, offering a survival advantage by expanding dietary options during periods of scarcity and reducing risks from microbial contamination.[19][20]
Furthermore, numerous civilizations have refined techniques for controlled meat fermentation, producing foods such as European sausages, Inuit igunaq, and Icelandic hákarl, which reflect a deep cultural history of safely consuming partially decayed meat.[21][22] These practices underscore humanity's evolutionary and cultural adaptations to carrion consumption, transforming a potentially hazardous food source into a nutritionally viable and culturally significant dietary component.[23]
In religious literature
In Noahide law
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". The thirty-count laws of Ulla (Talmudist) include the prohibition of humans consuming carrion.[24] This count is in addition to the standard seven law count and has been recentlyTemplate:When published from the Judeo-Arabic writing of Shmuel ben Hophni Gaon after having been lost for centuries.[25]
In Islam
Animals killed by strangling, a violent blow, a headlong fall, being gored to death, or from which a predatory animal has partially eaten are considered types of carrion, and are forbidden in Islam.[26]
In English literature
Sometimes carrion is used to describe an infected carcass that is diseased and should not be touched. An example of carrion being used to describe dead and rotting bodies in literature may be found in William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar (III.i):[27]
Cry 'Havoc,' and let slip the dogs of war;
That this foul deed shall smell above the earth
With carrion men, groaning for burial.
Another example can be found in Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe when the title character kills an unknown bird for food but finds "its flesh was carrion, and fit for nothing".
Carrion flowers and stinkhorn mushrooms
Some plants and fungi smell like decomposing carrion and attract insects that aid in reproduction. Plants that exhibit this behavior are known as carrion flowers.[28] Stinkhorn mushrooms are examples of fungi with this characteristic.[28]
Other images
References
External links
- ↑ Hovenden, Frank. The Carrion Eaters Template:Webarchive. Comox Valley Naturalists Society. 7 May 2010.
- ↑ "San Diego Zoo's Animal Bytes: Striped hyena". San Diego Zoo. 7 May 2010.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Template:Dead link
- ↑ "San Diego Zoo's Animal Bytes: Tasmanian Devil". San Diego Zoo. 7 May 2010.
- ↑ Stegemann, Eileen. "Skull Science: Coyote". NYS Department of Environmental Conservation April 2006
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Beasley, D. E., Koltz, A. M., Lambert, J. E., Fierer, N., & Dunn, R. R. (2015). The evolution of stomach acidity and its relevance to the human microbiome. PLOS ONE, 10(7), e0134116. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0134116
- ↑ Blum, J. C., & Nesse, R. M. (2010). The evolutionary significance of human dietary adaptations to meat consumption. Journal of Human Evolution, 58(4), 292–300. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.01.005
- ↑ Carmody, R. N., & Wrangham, R. W. (2009). The energetic significance of cooking and scavenging in human evolution. Journal of Human Evolution, 57(4), 379–391. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.02.011
- ↑ Leroy, F., Geyzen, A., Scholliers, P., & Vuyst, L. D. (2015). Fermented meats and the anthropology of controlled decay. Food, Culture & Society, 18(2), 205–224. doi:10.2752/175174415X14180391604356
- ↑ Kristjánsson, T., & Stefánsson, G. (2017). Traditional Icelandic food: The role of fermentation in dietary practices. Scandinavian Journal of Food Studies, 2(1), 45–59.
- ↑ Speth, J. D. (2017). Putrid meat and fish in the Eurasian Middle and Upper Paleolithic: Are we missing a key part of Neanderthal and modern human diet? PaleoAnthropology, 2017, 44–72. doi:10.4207/PA.2017.ART104
- ↑ Talmud, Hullin 92b
- ↑ Mossad HaRav Kook edition of Gaon's commentary to Genesis.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ The Life and Death of Julius Caesar. Scene I. Rome. Before the Capitol; the Senate sitting above.
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".