Hejaz: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Geographic region of the Arabian Peninsula}} | {{Short description|Geographic region of the Arabian Peninsula}} | ||
{{About|the geographical and historical region|the mountain region| | {{About|the geographical and historical region|the mountain region|Hejaz Mountains|other uses|Hejaz (disambiguation)}} | ||
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2012}} | {{Use mdy dates|date=May 2012}} | ||
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'''Hejaz'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|h|iː|ˈ|dʒ|æ|z|,_|h|ɪ|ˈ|-|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Hijaz.wav}}, <small>also</small> {{IPAc-en|US|h|ɛ|ˈ|-}}; {{langx|ar|ٱلْحِجَاز|Al-Ḥijāz|lit=the Barrier}}, {{IPA|acw|alħɪˈdʒaːz}}}} is a [[ | '''Hejaz'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|h|iː|ˈ|dʒ|æ|z|,_|h|ɪ|ˈ|-|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Hijaz.wav}}, <small>also</small> {{IPAc-en|US|h|ɛ|ˈ|-}}; {{langx|ar|ٱلْحِجَاز|Al-Ḥijāz|lit=the Barrier}}, {{IPA|acw|alħɪˈdʒaːz}}}} is a [[historical region]] of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] that includes the majority of the western region of [[Saudi Arabia]], covering the cities of [[Mecca]], [[Medina]], [[Jeddah]], [[Tabuk, Saudi Arabia|Tabuk]], [[Yanbu]], [[Taif]] and [[Al Bahah|Al-Bahah]]. It is thus known as the "Western Province",<ref name="Mackey">Mackey, p. 101. "The Western Province, or the Hejaz[...]"</ref> and it is bordered in the west by the [[Red Sea]], in the north by [[Jordan]] and the [[Gulf of Suez]], in the east by the [[Najd]], and in the south by [[Greater Yemen|Yemen]].<ref name="MWGD2001">{{cite book |title=Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary |year=2001 |isbn=0-87779-546-0 |page=479 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC&pg=PA479 |access-date=17 March 2013 |last=Hopkins |first=Daniel J. |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]]}}</ref> Its largest city is Jeddah, which is the second-largest city in Saudi Arabia, with Mecca and Medina, respectively, being the third- and fourth-largest cities in the country.<ref name="Leatherdale1983">{{cite book |last=Leatherdale |first=Clive |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lt0-U4cUj9sC&pg=PA12 |title=Britain and Saudi Arabia, 1925–1939: The Imperial Oasis |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-7146-3220-9 |page=12 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis#Acquired companies and discontinued imprints|Psychology Press]]}}</ref> | ||
As the location of the [[Holy city|holy cities]] of Mecca<ref name="qref|48|22-29|b=y">{{qref|48|22-29|b=y}}</ref> and Medina,<ref name="qref|9|25-129|b=y">{{qref|9|25-129|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|33|09-73|b=y">{{qref|33|09-73|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|63|1-11|b=y">{{qref|63|1-11|b=y}}</ref> respectively the first and second [[holiest sites in Islam]], the Hejaz is significant in the Arabo-Islamic historical and political landscape. This region is the most populated in Saudi Arabia,<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/faith-europe_islam/mecca_3882.jsp|title=Mecca: Islam's cosmopolitan heart|quote=The Hijaz is the largest, most populated, and most culturally and religiously diverse region of Saudi Arabia, in large part because it was the traditional host area of all the [[pilgrim]]s to Mecca, many of whom settled and intermarried there.|access-date=July 8, 2014|archive-date=December 14, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214002857/https://www.opendemocracy.net/faith-europe_islam/mecca_3882.jsp|url-status=dead}}</ref> and Arabic is the predominant language, as in the rest of Saudi Arabia, with [[Hejazi Arabic]] being the most widely spoken dialect here. Some Hejazis are of ethnically diverse origins,<ref name="Leatherdale1983"/> although the vast majority are of [[Arabs|Arab]] origin.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Minahan |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2yFnAAAAMAAJ |title=Nations Without States: A Historical Dictionary of Contemporary National Movements |date=1996 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-28354-3 |pages=229 |language=en}}</ref> | As the location of the [[Holy city|holy cities]] of Mecca<ref name="qref|48|22-29|b=y">{{qref|48|22-29|b=y}}</ref> and Medina,<ref name="qref|9|25-129|b=y">{{qref|9|25-129|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|33|09-73|b=y">{{qref|33|09-73|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|63|1-11|b=y">{{qref|63|1-11|b=y}}</ref> respectively the first and second [[holiest sites in Islam]], the Hejaz is significant in the Arabo-Islamic historical and political landscape. This region is the most populated in Saudi Arabia,<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/faith-europe_islam/mecca_3882.jsp|title=Mecca: Islam's cosmopolitan heart|quote=The Hijaz is the largest, most populated, and most culturally and religiously diverse region of Saudi Arabia, in large part because it was the traditional host area of all the [[pilgrim]]s to Mecca, many of whom settled and intermarried there.|access-date=July 8, 2014|archive-date=December 14, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214002857/https://www.opendemocracy.net/faith-europe_islam/mecca_3882.jsp|url-status=dead}}</ref> and Arabic is the predominant language, as in the rest of Saudi Arabia, with [[Hejazi Arabic]] being the most widely spoken dialect here. Some Hejazis are of ethnically diverse origins,<ref name="Leatherdale1983"/> although the vast majority are of [[Arabs|Arab]] origin.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Minahan |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2yFnAAAAMAAJ |title=Nations Without States: A Historical Dictionary of Contemporary National Movements |date=1996 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-28354-3 |pages=229 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
According to [[Islamic mythology|Islamic tradition]], this region is the birthplace of the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]], who was born in Mecca, which | According to [[Islamic mythology|Islamic tradition]], this region is the birthplace of the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]], who was born in Mecca, which is held to be founded by his believed ancestors [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Ishmael in Islam|Ishmael]], and [[Hagar in Islam|Hagar]].<ref name="Lings1983">{{cite book |last=Lings |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Lings |title=Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources |publisher=Islamic Texts Society |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-946621-33-0|title-link=Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources }}</ref><ref name="Glasse1991">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Glassé |first=Cyril |title=Kaaba |encyclopedia=The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=[[HarperSanFrancisco]] |year=1991 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dlPuAAAAMAAJ |isbn=0-0606-3126-0}}</ref> The area became part of his empire through the [[early Muslim conquests]], and it formed part of successive caliphates, first the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], followed by the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], and finally the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] held partial control over the area; after its dissolution, an independent [[Kingdom of Hejaz]] existed briefly in 1925 before being conquered by the neighbouring [[Sultanate of Nejd]], creating the [[Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd]].<ref>{{citation |last=Yamani |first=M. |author-link=Mai Yamani |year=2009 |title=Cradle of Islam: the Hijaz and the quest for an Arabian identity |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |isbn=978-1-84511-824-2}} (Pbk. ed.)</ref> In September 1932, the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd joined the Saudi dominions of [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|Al-Hasa]] and [[Qatif]], creating the [[Unification of Saudi Arabia|unified]] Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.<ref>[[Madawi Al-Rasheed|Al-Rasheed, M.]] ''A History of Saudi Arabia''. Cambridge, England, UK: [[Cambridge University Press]], 2002. {{verify source |year=August 2019 |reason=This ref was deleted ([[Special:Diff/901919097]]) by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite at [[Special:Permalink/901471271]] cite #2 - please verify the cite's accuracy and remove this {verify source} template. [[User:GreenC bot/Job 18]]|date=July 2020}}</ref><ref>A Brief overview of Hejaz - [http://www.rogersstudy.co.uk/hejaz/about.html Hejaz history] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815012622/http://www.rogersstudy.co.uk/hejaz/about.html |date=August 15, 2018 }} {{verify source |year=August 2019 |reason=This ref was deleted ([[Special:Diff/901919097]]) by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite at [[Special:Permalink/901471271]] cite #3 - please verify the cite's accuracy and remove this {verify source} template. [[User:GreenC bot/Job 18]]|date=July 2020}}</ref> | ||
== Etymology == | == Etymology == | ||
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== History == | == History == | ||
{{See also|History of Saudi Arabia}} | {{See also|History of Saudi Arabia}} | ||
[[File:Al Ula (6708283401).jpg|thumb|The city of [[al-Ula]] in 2012. The city's archaeological district is in the foreground, with the [[ | [[File:Al Ula (6708283401).jpg|thumb|The city of [[al-Ula]] in 2012. The city's archaeological district is in the foreground, with the [[Hejaz Mountains]] in the background.]] | ||
=== Prehistoric and ancient times === | === Prehistoric and ancient times === | ||
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[[File:Qasr al Farid.JPG|thumb|The rock-carved ''Qaṣr Al-Farīd'' at ''Al-Ḥijr'' (Hegra) or ''Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ'' ("Cities of [[Salih|Saleh]]")]] | [[File:Qasr al Farid.JPG|thumb|The rock-carved ''Qaṣr Al-Farīd'' at ''Al-Ḥijr'' (Hegra) or ''Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ'' ("Cities of [[Salih|Saleh]]")]] | ||
Saudi Arabia's and Hejaz's first [[World Heritage Site]] that was recognized by the [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]] is that of [[Al-Hijr Archaeological Site|Al-Hijr]]. The name ''Al-Ḥijr'' ("The Land of Stones" or "The Rocky Place") occurs in the [[Quran|Qur'an]],<ref name="qref|15|80-84|b=y">{{qref|15|80-84|b=y}}</ref> and the site is known for having structures carved into rocks, similar to [[Petra]].<ref name="LonelyPlanet2010">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D8hmZIAaTGQC&pg=PA316 |title=Oman, UAE & Arabian Peninsula |author1=Butler, J. W. S. |author2=Schulte-Peevers, A. |author3=Shearer, I. |date=2010-10-01 |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |pages=316–333 |isbn=978-1-7417-9145-7}}</ref><ref name=unesco>{{cite web |title=Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih) |publisher=UNESCO |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293 |access-date=2014-04-07 |archive-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111004517/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Construction of the structures is credited to the people of [[Thamud]]. The location is also called ''Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ'' ("Cities of Saleh"),<ref name="qref|7|73-79|b=y">{{qref|7|73-79|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|11|61-69|b=y">{{qref|11|61-69|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|26|141-158|b=y">{{qref|26|141-158|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|54|23-31|b=y">{{qref|54|23-31|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|89|6-13|b=y">{{qref|89|6-13|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|91|11-15|b=y">{{qref|91|11-15|b=y}}</ref> as it is speculated to be the city in which the Islamic prophet [[Saleh (prophet)|Saleh]] was sent to the people of Thamud. After the disappearance of Thamud from Mada'in Saleh, it came under the influence of other people, such as the [[Nabataeans]], whose capital was Petra. Later, it would lie in a route used by [[Islamic pilgrimage|Muslim Pilgrims]] going to Mecca.<ref name=romans/><ref name=hidden>{{cite web |last=Hizon |first=Danny |title=Madain Saleh: Arabia's Hidden Treasure – Saudi Arabia |url=http://www.bootsnall.com/articles/06-11/madain-saleh-arabias-hidden-treasure-madain-saleh-saudi-arabia.html |access-date=2009-09-17 |archive-date=July 24, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724111644/http://www.bootsnall.com/articles/06-11/madain-saleh-arabias-hidden-treasure-madain-saleh-saudi-arabia.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=whs>{{cite web |title=ICOMOS Evaluation of Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih) World Heritage Nomination |publisher=World Heritage Center |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1293.pdf |access-date=2009-09-16 |archive-date=November 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115061602/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293/documents/%23ABevaluation | Saudi Arabia's and Hejaz's first [[World Heritage Site]] that was recognized by the [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]] is that of [[Al-Hijr Archaeological Site|Al-Hijr]]. The name ''Al-Ḥijr'' ("The Land of Stones" or "The Rocky Place") occurs in the [[Quran|Qur'an]],<ref name="qref|15|80-84|b=y">{{qref|15|80-84|b=y}}</ref> and the site is known for having structures carved into rocks, similar to [[Petra]].<ref name="LonelyPlanet2010">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D8hmZIAaTGQC&pg=PA316 |title=Oman, UAE & Arabian Peninsula |author1=Butler, J. W. S. |author2=Schulte-Peevers, A. |author3=Shearer, I. |date=2010-10-01 |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |pages=316–333 |isbn=978-1-7417-9145-7}}</ref><ref name=unesco>{{cite web |title=Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih) |publisher=UNESCO |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293 |access-date=2014-04-07 |archive-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111004517/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Construction of the structures is credited to the people of [[Thamud]]. The location is also called ''Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ'' ("Cities of Saleh"),<ref name="qref|7|73-79|b=y">{{qref|7|73-79|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|11|61-69|b=y">{{qref|11|61-69|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|26|141-158|b=y">{{qref|26|141-158|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|54|23-31|b=y">{{qref|54|23-31|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|89|6-13|b=y">{{qref|89|6-13|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|91|11-15|b=y">{{qref|91|11-15|b=y}}</ref> as it is speculated to be the city in which the Islamic prophet [[Saleh (prophet)|Saleh]] was sent to the people of Thamud. After the disappearance of Thamud from Mada'in Saleh, it came under the influence of other people, such as the [[Nabataeans]], whose capital was Petra. Later, it would lie in a route used by [[Islamic pilgrimage|Muslim Pilgrims]] going to Mecca.<ref name=romans/><ref name=hidden>{{cite web |last=Hizon |first=Danny |title=Madain Saleh: Arabia's Hidden Treasure – Saudi Arabia |url=http://www.bootsnall.com/articles/06-11/madain-saleh-arabias-hidden-treasure-madain-saleh-saudi-arabia.html |access-date=2009-09-17 |archive-date=July 24, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724111644/http://www.bootsnall.com/articles/06-11/madain-saleh-arabias-hidden-treasure-madain-saleh-saudi-arabia.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=whs>{{cite web |title=ICOMOS Evaluation of Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih) World Heritage Nomination |publisher=World Heritage Center |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1293.pdf |access-date=2009-09-16 |archive-date=November 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115061602/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293/documents/%23ABevaluation |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
==== Era of Muhammad ==== | ==== Era of Muhammad ==== | ||
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=== Subsequent history === | === Subsequent history === | ||
{{Further|Rashidun Caliphate|Umayyad Caliphate|Abbasid Caliphate|Fatimids|Ayyubids|Mamluk Sultanate}} | {{Further|Rashidun Caliphate|Umayyad Caliphate|Abbasid Caliphate|Fatimids|Ayyubids|Mamluk Sultanate}} | ||
* | |||
[[File:Codice Casanatense Arabian Merchants.jpg|thumb|Hejazi Arabian merchant and wife (''[[Códice Casanatense]]'', c. 1540)]] | [[File:Codice Casanatense Arabian Merchants.jpg|thumb|Hejazi Arabian merchant and wife (''[[Códice Casanatense]]'', c. 1540)]] | ||
[[File:Hejaz Rail track laying near Tabuk 1906.jpg|thumb|Workers laying tracks for the [[Hejaz Railway]] near [[Tabuk, Saudi Arabia|Tabuk]], 1906]] | [[File:Hejaz Rail track laying near Tabuk 1906.jpg|thumb|Workers laying tracks for the [[Hejaz Railway]] near [[Tabuk, Saudi Arabia|Tabuk]], 1906]] | ||
Due to the presence of the two holy cities in the Hejaz, the region was ruled by numerous empires. The Hejaz was at the center of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], in particular whilst its capital was Medina from 632 to 656 [[Common Era|ACE]]. The region was then under the control of regional powers, such as [[Egypt]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]], throughout much of its later history. After the Ottomans lost control of it, Hejaz became an independent state. | Due to the presence of the two holy cities in the Hejaz, the region was ruled by numerous empires. The Hejaz was at the center of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], in particular whilst its capital was Medina from 632 to 656 [[Common Era|ACE]]. The region was then under the control of regional powers, such as [[Egypt]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]], throughout much of its later history. After the Ottomans lost control of it, Hejaz became an independent state. | ||
Caliphates that directly ruled Hejaz: | |||
* [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] Caliphate (632–661 CE) | |||
* [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] Caliphate (661–750 CE) | |||
* [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] Caliphate (750–967 CE) | |||
Rule of the [[Sharif of Mecca|Sharifs]] (semi-sovereign [[Sharifate of Mecca]]) who ruled under the suzerainty of different caliphates and dynasties: | |||
* Abbasid Caliphate (967–969) | |||
* [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] Caliphate (969–1171) | |||
* Abbasid Caliphate (1171–1517) | |||
** ([[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid Sultanate]]) (1171–1254) | |||
** ([[Mamluk Sultanate]]) (1254–1517) | |||
* [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Caliphate ([[Hejaz Vilayet]]) (1517–1803) | |||
* [[First Saudi state|Emirate of Diriyah]] (1803–1813) | |||
* Ottoman Caliphate (Hejaz Vilayet) (1813–1916) | |||
==== Brief independence ==== | ==== Brief independence ==== | ||
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[[File:Kaust-night-view.jpg|thumb|[[King Abdullah University of Science and Technology]] (KAUST) campus in [[Jeddah]] at night]] | [[File:Kaust-night-view.jpg|thumb|[[King Abdullah University of Science and Technology]] (KAUST) campus in [[Jeddah]] at night]] | ||
On 23 September 1932, the two [[Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd|kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd]] were | After a series of [[Saudi conquest of Hejaz|wars between the Hashimites and Al Saud]], on 23 December 1925 [[Hussein, King of Hejaz|Sharif Hussein]] surrendered to the Saudis, bringing both the Kingdom of Hejaz and the Sharifate of Mecca to an end.<ref name="Peters 1994">{{cite book |last=Peters |first=Francis E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdb6F1qVDhkC&pg=PA397 |title=Mecca: A Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=9781400887361 |series=Princeton Legacy Library |location=[[Princeton, New Jersey]] and [[Woodstock, Oxfordshire]] |page=397 |oclc=468351969 |orig-date=1994}}</ref> On 23 September 1932, the two [[Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd|kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd]] were renamed as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.<ref name="Britannica history">{{cite encyclopedia|title=History of Arabia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31568/history-of-Arabia}}</ref> This day is commemorated as the [[Saudi National Day]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Saudi Arabia (The Saudi National Day 23, September). |url=https://www.pmu.edu.sa/News/News.aspx?ID=866|access-date=21 September 2018 |website=Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University |archive-date=December 6, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206142313/https://www.pmu.edu.sa/News/News.aspx?ID=866 |url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
== Culture == | == Culture == | ||
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* ''Jiddah'' ([[Jeddah]])<ref name="MWGD2001"/> | * ''Jiddah'' ([[Jeddah]])<ref name="MWGD2001"/> | ||
* ''Makkah'' ([[Mecca]])<ref name="MWGD2001"/> | * ''Makkah'' ([[Mecca]])<ref name="MWGD2001"/> | ||
* [[Rabigh|Rābigh]]<ref name="GeoNamesRabigh">{{cite web |publisher=GeoNames |title=Rābigh |url=http://www.geonames.org/103035/rabigh.html |access-date=2017-11-28 |archive-date=August 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803015323/https://www.geonames.org/103035/rabigh.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="HajjUmrahPlanner, Al-Juhfah">{{Cite web |url=http://hajjumrahplanner.com/al-juhfah/ |title=Al-Juhfah {{!}} Hajj & Umrah Planner |website=hajjumrahplanner.com |language=en-GB |access-date=2017-04-10 |archive-date=September 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921220523/https://hajjumrahplanner.com/al-juhfah/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | * [[Rabigh|Rābigh]]<ref name="GeoNamesRabigh">{{cite web |publisher=GeoNames |title=Rābigh |url=http://www.geonames.org/103035/rabigh.html |access-date=2017-11-28 |archive-date=August 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803015323/https://www.geonames.org/103035/rabigh.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="HajjUmrahPlanner, Al-Juhfah">{{Cite web |url=http://hajjumrahplanner.com/al-juhfah/ |title=Al-Juhfah {{!}} Hajj & Umrah Planner |website=hajjumrahplanner.com |date=April 10, 2017 |language=en-GB |access-date=2017-04-10 |archive-date=September 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921220523/https://hajjumrahplanner.com/al-juhfah/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
[[Tabuk Region]]: | [[Tabuk Region]]: | ||
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The Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia,<ref name=":0" /> containing 35% of the population of Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Saudi Arabia Population Statistics 2011 (Arabic)|url=http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115051640/http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf|archive-date=November 15, 2013|page=11|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Most people of Hejaz are [[Sunni]]s with a [[Shia]] minority in the cities of Medina, Mecca and Jeddah. Many consider themselves more cosmopolitan because Hejaz was for centuries a part of the great empires of Islam from the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]] to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Riedel|first=Bruce|year=2011|title=Brezhnev in the Hejaz|url=http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=The National Interest|volume=115|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115051640/http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf|archive-date=November 15, 2013|access-date=April 23, 2012|df=mdy-all}}</ref> People of Hejaz, who feel particularly connected to the holy places of Mecca and Medina, have probably the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia.<ref name="Beranek2009">{{cite journal |last=Beranek |first=Ondrej |title=Divided We Survive: A Landscape of Fragmentation in Saudi Arabia |journal=Middle East Brief |date=January 2009 |volume=33 |pages=1–7 |url=https://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/meb/MEB33.pdf |access-date=29 June 2019 |archive-date=August 10, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810232954/https://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/meb/MEB33.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | The Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia,<ref name=":0" /> containing 35% of the population of Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Saudi Arabia Population Statistics 2011 (Arabic)|url=http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115051640/http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf|archive-date=November 15, 2013|page=11|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Most people of Hejaz are [[Sunni]]s with a [[Shia]] minority in the cities of Medina, Mecca and Jeddah. Many consider themselves more cosmopolitan because Hejaz was for centuries a part of the great empires of Islam from the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]] to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Riedel|first=Bruce|year=2011|title=Brezhnev in the Hejaz|url=http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=The National Interest|volume=115|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115051640/http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf|archive-date=November 15, 2013|access-date=April 23, 2012|df=mdy-all}}</ref> People of Hejaz, who feel particularly connected to the holy places of Mecca and Medina, have probably the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia.<ref name="Beranek2009">{{cite journal |last=Beranek |first=Ondrej |title=Divided We Survive: A Landscape of Fragmentation in Saudi Arabia |journal=Middle East Brief |date=January 2009 |volume=33 |pages=1–7 |url=https://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/meb/MEB33.pdf |access-date=29 June 2019 |archive-date=August 10, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810232954/https://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/meb/MEB33.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
==Culture== | |||
{{empty section|date=June 2025}} | |||
== Notable people == | == Notable people == | ||
Latest revision as of 18:29, 2 November 2025
Template:Short description Script error: No such module "about". Template:Use mdy dates
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HejazTemplate:Efn is a historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes the majority of the western region of Saudi Arabia, covering the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, Tabuk, Yanbu, Taif and Al-Bahah. It is thus known as the "Western Province",[1] and it is bordered in the west by the Red Sea, in the north by Jordan and the Gulf of Suez, in the east by the Najd, and in the south by Yemen.[2] Its largest city is Jeddah, which is the second-largest city in Saudi Arabia, with Mecca and Medina, respectively, being the third- and fourth-largest cities in the country.[3]
As the location of the holy cities of Mecca48|22-29|b=y-4|[4] and Medina,9|25-129|b=y-5|[5]33|09-73|b=y-6|[6]63|1-11|b=y-7|[7] respectively the first and second holiest sites in Islam, the Hejaz is significant in the Arabo-Islamic historical and political landscape. This region is the most populated in Saudi Arabia,[8] and Arabic is the predominant language, as in the rest of Saudi Arabia, with Hejazi Arabic being the most widely spoken dialect here. Some Hejazis are of ethnically diverse origins,[3] although the vast majority are of Arab origin.[9]
According to Islamic tradition, this region is the birthplace of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, who was born in Mecca, which is held to be founded by his believed ancestors Abraham, Ishmael, and Hagar.[10][11] The area became part of his empire through the early Muslim conquests, and it formed part of successive caliphates, first the Rashidun Caliphate, followed by the Umayyad Caliphate, and finally the Abbasid Caliphate. The Ottoman Empire held partial control over the area; after its dissolution, an independent Kingdom of Hejaz existed briefly in 1925 before being conquered by the neighbouring Sultanate of Nejd, creating the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd.[12] In September 1932, the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd joined the Saudi dominions of Al-Hasa and Qatif, creating the unified Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[13][14]
Etymology
The name of the region is derived from a verb ḥajaza (Script error: No such module "Lang".), from the Arabic root ḥ-j-z (Script error: No such module "Lang".), meaning "to separate",[15] and it is so called as it separates the land of the Najd in the east from the land of Tihāmah in the west.
History
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Prehistoric and ancient times
One or possibly two megalithic dolmen have been found in Hejaz.[16]
The Hejaz includes both the Mahd adh-Dhahab ("Cradle of the Gold") (Template:Coord) and a water source, now dried out, that used to flow Template:Convert north east to the Persian Gulf via the Wādi Al-Rummah and Wādi Al-Bātin system. Archaeological research led by of Boston University and the University of Qassim indicates that the river system was active in 2500–3000 BCE.[17]
According to Al-Masudi the northern part of Hejaz was a dependency of ancient Israel,[18] and according to Butrus al-Bustani the Jews in Hejaz established a sovereign state.[19] The German orientalist Ferdinand Wüstenfeld believed that the Jews established a state in northern Hejaz.[20]
Era of Abraham and Ishmael
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According to Arab and Islamic sources, the civilization of Mecca started after Ibrāhīm (Abraham) brought his son Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) and wife Hājar (Hagar) here, for the latter two to stay. The Adnanites were a tribal confederation of the Ishmaelite Arabs, who trace their lineage back to Ishmael son of the Islamic prophet and patriarch Abraham and his wife Hagar through Adnan, who originate from the Hejaz.[21] Some people from the Yemeni tribe of Jurhum settled with them, and Isma'il reportedly married two women, one after divorcing another, at least one of them from this tribe, and helped his father to construct or re-construct the Ka'bah,2|127|t=y|b=y-22|[22]3|96|t=y|b=y-23|[23]22|25-37|b=y-24|[24] which would have social, religious, political and historical implications for the site and region.[10][11]
For example, in Arab or Islamic belief, the tribe of Quraysh would descend from Isma'il ibn Ibrahim, be based in the vicinity of the Ka'bah,106|1-4|b=y-25|[25] and include Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim ibn Abd Manaf. From the Period of Jāhiliyyah ('Ignorance') to the days of Muhammad, the often-warring Arab tribes would cease their hostilities during the time of Pilgrimage, and go on pilgrimage to Mecca, as inspired by Ibrahim.22|25-37|b=y-24|[24] It was during such an occasion that Muhammad met some Madanis who would allow him to migrate to Medina, to escape persecution by his opponents in Mecca.[26][27][28][29][30][31]
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Era of Shuaib
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The Midianites of the Bible lived in Hejaz.[32] Shuaib, who is revered as a prophet by both Muslims and Druze,[33] was from this community,7|85-91|b=y-34|[34]11|61-94|b=y-35|[35] who are also known as the Aṣḥāb al-Aykah ("Companions of the Wood").15|78-79|b=y-36|[36]23|20|b=y-37|[37]26|176-189|b=y-38|[38]38|13-15|b=y-39|[39]50|12-14|b=y-40|[40][41] The historical area of Midian roughly corresponds to what is now region of Tabuk.[42][43] Also, the northern part of the Hejaz was part of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea.[44]
Era of Saleh
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Saudi Arabia's and Hejaz's first World Heritage Site that was recognized by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is that of Al-Hijr. The name Al-Ḥijr ("The Land of Stones" or "The Rocky Place") occurs in the Qur'an,15|80-84|b=y-45|[45] and the site is known for having structures carved into rocks, similar to Petra.[46][47] Construction of the structures is credited to the people of Thamud. The location is also called Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ ("Cities of Saleh"),7|73-79|b=y-48|[48]11|61-69|b=y-49|[49]26|141-158|b=y-50|[50]54|23-31|b=y-51|[51]89|6-13|b=y-52|[52]91|11-15|b=y-53|[53] as it is speculated to be the city in which the Islamic prophet Saleh was sent to the people of Thamud. After the disappearance of Thamud from Mada'in Saleh, it came under the influence of other people, such as the Nabataeans, whose capital was Petra. Later, it would lie in a route used by Muslim Pilgrims going to Mecca.[44][54][55]
Era of Muhammad
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As the land of Mecca48|22-29|b=y-4|[4] and Medina,9|25-129|b=y-5|[5]33|09-73|b=y-6|[6]63|1-11|b=y-7|[7] the Hejaz was where Muhammad was born, and where he founded a Monotheistic Ummah of followers, bore patience with his foes or struggled against them, migrated from one place to another, preached or implemented his beliefs, lived and died. Given that he had both followers and enemies here, a number of battles or expeditions were carried out in this area, like those of Al-Aḥzāb ("The Confederates"), Badr3|110-128|b=y-56|[56] and Ḥunayn. They involved both Makkan companions, such as Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib, Ubayda ibn al-Harith and Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, and Madani companions.9|25-129|b=y-5|[5][30][31][57][58] The Hejaz fell under Muhammad's influence as he emerged victorious over his opponents, and was thus a part of his empire.[10][26][28][29][59][60][61]
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Makkah Al Mukarramah Library near the Sacred Mosque. Because it is believed to be built on the spot where Amina bint Wahb gave birth to Muhammad, it is also known as Bayt al-Mawlid (House of the Birth).
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Muhammad's Mosque in Medina, his place-of-residence after the Hijrah (Migration) from Mecca. Muhammad is buried underneath the Green Dome.
Subsequent history
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Due to the presence of the two holy cities in the Hejaz, the region was ruled by numerous empires. The Hejaz was at the center of the Rashidun Caliphate, in particular whilst its capital was Medina from 632 to 656 ACE. The region was then under the control of regional powers, such as Egypt and the Ottoman Empire, throughout much of its later history. After the Ottomans lost control of it, Hejaz became an independent state.
Caliphates that directly ruled Hejaz:
Rule of the Sharifs (semi-sovereign Sharifate of Mecca) who ruled under the suzerainty of different caliphates and dynasties:
- Abbasid Caliphate (967–969)
- Fatimid Caliphate (969–1171)
- Abbasid Caliphate (1171–1517)
- (Ayyubid Sultanate) (1171–1254)
- (Mamluk Sultanate) (1254–1517)
- Ottoman Caliphate (Hejaz Vilayet) (1517–1803)
- Emirate of Diriyah (1803–1813)
- Ottoman Caliphate (Hejaz Vilayet) (1813–1916)
Brief independence
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After the end of the Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia, in 1916, Hussein bin Ali became the leader of an independent State of Hejaz.[62] In 1924, Ali bin Hussein succeeded as the King of Hejaz. Then Ibn Saud succeeded Hussein as the King of Hejaz and Nejd. Ibn Saud ruled the two as separate units, known as the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd from 1926 to 1932.
In modern Saudi Arabia
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After a series of wars between the Hashimites and Al Saud, on 23 December 1925 Sharif Hussein surrendered to the Saudis, bringing both the Kingdom of Hejaz and the Sharifate of Mecca to an end.[63] On 23 September 1932, the two kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd were renamed as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[64] This day is commemorated as the Saudi National Day.[65]
Culture
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Religion
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The cultural setting of Hejaz is greatly influenced by that of Islam, especially as it contains its 2 holiest cities, Mecca and Medina. Moreover, the Quran is considered the constitution of Saudi Arabia, and the Sharia is the main legal source. In Saudi Arabia, Islam is not just adhered politically by the government but also it has a great influence on the people's culture and everyday life.[66][67] The society is in general deeply religious, conservative, traditional, and family-oriented. Many attitudes and traditions are centuries-old, derived from Arab civilization and Islamic heritage.
-
The camp of Mina on the outskirts of Mecca, where Muslim pilgrims gather for the Hajj (Greater Pilgrimage). Masjid Al-Khayf is visible to the right.
-
Muslim pilgrims gathering at the plain of Mount Arafat
Cuisine
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Hejazi cuisine has mostly Arabian dishes like the rest of Saudi Arabia, Some dishes are native to the Hejaz, like Saleeg.[68] Other Dishes were imported from other cultures through Saudis of different origins, like Mantu (Script error: No such module "Lang".), Yaghmush (Script error: No such module "Lang".) and Ruz Bukhāri (Script error: No such module "Lang".) from Central Asia, Burēk (Script error: No such module "Lang".) and Šurēk Script error: No such module "Lang". and Kabab almīru (Script error: No such module "Lang".) from Turkey and the Balkans, Mandi (Script error: No such module "Lang".) and Mutabbag (Script error: No such module "Lang".) from Yemen, Biryāni Script error: No such module "Lang". and Kābli (Script error: No such module "Lang".) rice dishes from South Asia. Grilled meat dishes such as shawarma and kebab are well-known in Hejaz. The Hejazi dishes are known for their spice.
Geography
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The region is located along the Red Sea Rift. It is also known for its darker, more volcanic sand. Depending on the previous definition, the Hejaz includes some of the mountains of the Sarat range, which topographically separate the Najd from Tehamah. Bdellium plants are also abundant in the Hejaz. Saudi Arabia, and in particular the Hejaz, is home to more than 2000 dormant volcanoes.[69] Lava fields in the Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of ḥarrāt (Script error: No such module "Lang"., singular: ḥarrah (Script error: No such module "Lang".)), form one of Earth's largest alkali basalt regions, covering some Template:Cvt, an area greater than the state of Missouri.[70]
-
The village of Dhi 'Ain in Al-Bahah Province
-
Mount Uhud in the area of Medina
-
Harrat Khaybar, as seen from the International Space Station
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Cities
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The old city of Jeddah on the coast of the Tihamah
-
Al-Bahah City, located Template:Convert above sea level
Tourism
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As a component of Saudi Vision 2030, a tourist destination with an area of Template:Convert is under development,[77] between the towns of Umluj (Template:Coord) and Al-Wajh (Template:Coord), on the coast of the Red Sea. The project will involve "the development of 22 of the 90+ islands"[78] that lie along the coast to create a "fully integrated luxury mixed-use destination",[79] and will be "governed by laws on par with international standards".[80]
Demographics
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The Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia,[8] containing 35% of the population of Saudi Arabia.[81] Most people of Hejaz are Sunnis with a Shia minority in the cities of Medina, Mecca and Jeddah. Many consider themselves more cosmopolitan because Hejaz was for centuries a part of the great empires of Islam from the Umayyads to the Ottomans.[82] People of Hejaz, who feel particularly connected to the holy places of Mecca and Medina, have probably the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia.[83]
Culture
Notable people
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- Salih of Thamud[46]Template:Efn
- Shuaib of Midian[32]
Al-Abwa'
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- Musa al-Kazim ibn Jaʿfar al-Sadiq, descendant of Muhammad[84]
Mecca
Pre–6th century CE
- Qusai ibn Kilab ibn Murrah ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr ibn Malik ibn An-Nadr ibn Kinanah[85] ibn Khuzaymah ibn Mudrikah ibn Ilyas ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma'add ibn Adnan the descendant of Isma'il ibn Ibrahim ibn Azar ibn Nahor ibn Serug ibn Reu ibn Peleg ibn Eber ibn Shelakh,[86][87] Chief of the Tribe of Quraysh, and an ancestor of Muhammad[88]
- Qusai's son Abd-al-Dar[89][90] the father of Uthman the father of Abdul-Uzza the father of Barrah the maternal grandmother of Muhammad
- Abd Manaf ibn Qusai, paternal ancestor of Muhammad[91]
- Abdul-Uzza, son of Qusai, and an ancestor of Barrah bint Abdul-Uzza
- Hashim, son of Abd Manaf, paternal great-grandfather of Muhammad, and the progenitor of Banu Hashim in the tribe of Quraysh
- Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim, paternal grandfather of Muhammad
- Hubbah bint Hulail ibn Hubshiyyah ibn Salul ibn Kaʿb ibn Amr al-Khuzaʿi, wife of Qusai, and an ancestor of Muhammad
- Atikah bint Murrah ibn Hilal ibn Falij ibn Dhakwan, wife of Abd Manaf, and an ancestor of Muhammad[91]
Since
- Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim[30][31]
- Abu Bakr[30][31] Abdullah ibn Uthman Abu Quhafah ibn Amir ibn Amr ibn Ka'b ibn Sa'd ibn Taym ibn Murrah ibn Ka'b, father-in-law of Muhammad, and Caliph
- Umar[30][31] ibn Al-Khattab ibn Nufayl ibn Abdul-Uzza the descendant of Adi ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy, father-in-law of Muhammad, and Caliph
- Ali ibn Abi Talib,[30][31] cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, and Caliph
- Hamzah, son of Abdul-Muttalib, and a paternal uncle of Muhammad, and other Muhajirun9|25-129|b=y-5|[5] or Makkan followers of Muhammad, including Ubaydah and Sa'd[30][31][57]
- Abu Talib, son of Abdul-Muttalib,[30][31] chief of Banu Hashim, paternal uncle of Muhammad, and the father of Ali
- Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim,[30][31] Chief of Bani Hashim, and the paternal grandfather of Muhammad
- Khadija bint Khuwaylid[92] ibn Asad ibn Abdul-Uzza ibn Qusai, and other Meccan wives of Muhammad
- Fatimah,[92] other daughters of Muhammad, and other Muhajir women
- Umm Ammar Sumayyah bint Khayyat, wife of Yasir ibn Amir ibn Malik al-Ansi, believed to be the first martyr from the followers of Muhammad
- Aminah[30][31][88] bint Wahb ibn Abd Manaf ibn Zuhrah ibn Kilab ibn Murrah, wife of Abdullah, and the mother of Muhammad
Medina
Pre–6th century CE
- Salmah, daughter of Amr, wife of Hashim, and a great-grandmother of Muhammad[91]
Since
- Caliph Al-Hasan,[30][31] and other sons of Ali and grandsons of Muhammad born in Medina[92]
- Caliph Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz ibn Marwan ibn Al-Hakam ibn Abi al-'As ibn Umayyah ibn Abd Shams ibn Abd Manaf ibn Qusai, great-grandson of Umar ibn Al-Khattab
- Al-Hasan of Basra
- Muhammad al-Baqir ibn Ali Zaynul-Abidin, grandson of Hasan and Husayn the grandsons of Muhammad[92]
- Zayd ibn Ali Zaynul-Abidin ibn Husayn ibn Fatimah bint Muhammad, half-brother of Muhammad al-Baqir
- Ansari women[30][31]
- Ja'far al-Sadiq ibn Muhammad al-Baqir[92]
- Malik the son of Anas ibn Malik ibn Abi Amir al-Asbahi (not Anas the companion of Muhammad)
- Ali al-Rida ibn Musa al-Kadhim ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq[92]
- Fatima bint Musa ibn Ja'far al-Maʿsumah of Qum,[93] sister of Ali al-Ridha
- Abu Ali Muhammad al-Jawad ibn Ali al-Ridha[92]
Ta'if
6th–7th centuries CE
- Uthman ibn Affan[30][31] ibn Abu al-'As ibn Umayyah ibn Abd Shams ibn Abd Manaf, son-in-law of Muhammad, and Caliph
- Urwah ibn Mas'ud,[26] chief of Banu Thaqif
- Nafi ibn al-Harith, physician[94]
Since
- Sharif Ali ibn Ajlan ibn Rumaithah ibn Muhammad, son-in-law and successor of Sultan Ahmad of Brunei, father of Sultan Sulaiman, and a descendant of Muhammad[95]
See also
Template:Portal bar Template:Div col
- Al Baydha Project
- Desert of Paran
- Hejaz Vilayet
- Hejazi turban
- Hijazi script
- Relationship between the Hijaz, Shaam and Yemen
- Sharifate of Mecca
- History of the Jews in Saudi Arabia
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". PBK, first edition: 1987.
External links
Template:Regions of the Arabian Peninsula Template:Saudi Arabia topics Template:Middle Eastern megaliths Script error: No such module "Navbox". Template:Authority control
- ↑ Mackey, p. 101. "The Western Province, or the Hejaz[...]"
- ↑ a b c d e Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ 48|22-29|b=y_4-0|a 48|22-29|b=y_4-1|b Template:Qref
- ↑ 9|25-129|b=y_5-0|a 9|25-129|b=y_5-1|b 9|25-129|b=y_5-2|c 9|25-129|b=y_5-3|d Template:Qref
- ↑ 33|09-73|b=y_6-0|a 33|09-73|b=y_6-1|b Template:Qref
- ↑ 63|1-11|b=y_7-0|a 63|1-11|b=y_7-1|b Template:Qref
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". (Pbk. ed.)
- ↑ Al-Rasheed, M. A History of Saudi Arabia. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
- ↑ A Brief overview of Hejaz - Hejaz history Template:Webarchive Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Ibn Khaldun, "Kitāb al-ʿIbar wa-Dīwān al-Mubtadaʾ wa-l-Khabar", Dar Al-Fikr publication. Beirut. 1988. volume 2 page 342
- ↑ al-Bustani, Butrus. "Daerat Al-Maaref". Dar Al-Marifa Publication. Beirut. volume 11 page 672
- ↑ Wolfensohn, Israel. "Tarikh Al-Yahood Fi Belad Al-Arab". Al-Nafezah Publication. Cairo. 2006. page 68
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- 2|127|t=y|b=y_22-0|↑ Template:Qref
- 3|96|t=y|b=y_23-0|↑ Template:Qref
- ↑ 22|25-37|b=y_24-0|a 22|25-37|b=y_24-1|b Template:Qref
- 106|1-4|b=y_25-0|↑ Template:Qref
- ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- 7|85-91|b=y_34-0|↑ Template:Qref
- 11|61-94|b=y_35-0|↑ Template:Qref
- 15|78-79|b=y_36-0|↑ Template:Qref
- 23|20|b=y_37-0|↑ Template:Qref
- 26|176-189|b=y_38-0|↑ Template:Qref
- 38|13-15|b=y_39-0|↑ Template:Qref
- 50|12-14|b=y_40-0|↑ Template:Qref
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- 15|80-84|b=y_45-0|↑ Template:Qref
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- 7|73-79|b=y_48-0|↑ Template:Qref
- 11|61-69|b=y_49-0|↑ Template:Qref
- 26|141-158|b=y_50-0|↑ Template:Qref
- 54|23-31|b=y_51-0|↑ Template:Qref
- 89|6-13|b=y_52-0|↑ Template:Qref
- 91|11-15|b=y_53-0|↑ Template:Qref
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- 3|110-128|b=y_56-0|↑ Template:Qref
- ↑ a b Template:Hadith-usc
- ↑ Witness Pioneer "Pre-Badr Missions and Invasions"
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Holt (1977), p. 57
- ↑ Lapidus (2002), pp. 31–32
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ بـتـصـرف عـن مـجـلـة الأمـانـة الـعـدد عـشـرون شـوال 1419 تـصـدر عـن أمـانـة الـمـديـنـة الـمـنـورة إمـارة مـنـطـقـة الـمـديـنـة الـمـنـورة
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Book of Genesis, Chapters 10, 11, 16, 17, 21 and 25
- ↑ 1 Chronicles, Chapter 1
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b c d e f g Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".