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[[File:John Flamsteed (Gemälde).jpg|thumb|220px|[[John Flamsteed]], the first astronomer royal, by [[Thomas Gibson (artist)|Thomas Gibson]]. [[Royal Society]], London.]]
[[File:John Flamsteed (Gemälde).jpg|thumb|220px|[[John Flamsteed]], the first astronomer royal, by [[Thomas Gibson (artist)|Thomas Gibson]]. [[Royal Society]], London.]]
'''Astronomer Royal''' is a senior post in the [[Royal Households of the United Kingdom]]. There are two officers, the senior being the astronomer royal dating from 22 June 1675; the junior is the [[Astronomer Royal for Scotland|astronomer royal for Scotland]] dating from 1834. The Astronomer Royal works to make observations to improve navigation, cartography, instrument design, and applications of geomagnetism.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Higgitt |first=Rebekah |date=2013-09-12 |title=Astronomers Royal, scientific advice and engineering |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/the-h-word/2013/sep/12/history-science-astronomer-royal-engineering |access-date=2024-04-12 |work=The Guardian |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The position was created with the overall goal of discovering a way to determine longitude at sea when out of sight of land'''<ref name=":52">{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=Eric Gray |title=Greenwich observatory |date=1975 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |isbn=978-0-85066-093-7 |location=London |pages=174}}</ref>'''.
'''Astronomer Royal''' is a senior post in the [[Royal Households of the United Kingdom]]. There are two officers, the senior being the Astronomer Royal dating from 22 June 1675; the junior is the [[Astronomer Royal for Scotland]] dating from 1834.  
 
The Astronomer Royal works to make observations to improve navigation, cartography, instrument design, and applications of geomagnetism. The position was created with the overall goal of discovering a way to determine longitude at sea when out of sight of land. The incumbent Astronomer Royal is Professor [[Michele Dougherty]].


== History ==
== History ==
The post was created by [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in 1675, at the same time as he founded the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]]. He appointed [[John Flamsteed]], instructing him "{{sic|hide=y|forthwith to apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so-much desired longitude of places, for the perfecting the art of navigation}}."<ref>F Baily, "An Account of the Rev. John Flamsteed", reprinted in [https://books.google.com/books?id=48L1w21XYI4C&pg=PA293 vol. 28, at p. 293]. "The Museum of foreign literature, science and art", R Walsh et al., publ. E Litell, 1836.</ref><ref name="forbes1975">{{cite book |last=Forbes |first=Eric G. |title=Greenwich Observatory, volume 1: Origins and Early History (1675–1835) |date=1975 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London |bibcode=1975gosb.book.....F}}</ref><ref name="mccrea_rgo_1975">{{cite book |last=McCrea |first=William Hunter |title=Royal Greenwich Observatory : an Historical Review Issued on the Occasion of its Tercentenary |date=1975 |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |location=London |bibcode=1975rgo..book.....M}}</ref> The first six Astronomer Royals dedicated themselves primarily to this task and focused on astronomical observations that would benefit navigation.<ref name=":52"/>
The post was created by [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in 1675, at the same time as he founded the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]]. He appointed [[John Flamsteed]], instructing him "{{sic|hide=y|forthwith to apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so-much desired longitude of places, for the perfecting the art of navigation}}."<ref>F Baily, "An Account of the Rev. John Flamsteed", reprinted in [https://books.google.com/books?id=48L1w21XYI4C&pg=PA293 vol. 28, at p. 293]. "The Museum of foreign literature, science and art", R Walsh et al., publ. E Litell, 1836.</ref><ref name="forbes1975">{{cite book |last=Forbes |first=Eric G. |title=Greenwich Observatory, volume 1: Origins and Early History (1675–1835) |date=1975 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London |bibcode=1975gosb.book.....F}}</ref><ref name="mccrea_rgo_1975">{{cite book |last=McCrea |first=William Hunter |title=Royal Greenwich Observatory : an Historical Review Issued on the Occasion of its Tercentenary |date=1975 |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |location=London |bibcode=1975rgo..book.....M}}</ref> The first six Astronomers Royal dedicated themselves primarily to this task and focused on astronomical observations that would benefit navigation.<ref name=":52">{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=Eric Gray |title=Greenwich observatory |date=1975 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |isbn=978-0-85066-093-7 |location=London |pages=174}}</ref>


The astronomer royal was director of the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]] from the establishment of the post in 1675 until 1972. The astronomer royal became an honorary title in 1972 without executive responsibilities, and a separate post of [[director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory]] was created to manage the institution.<ref name="mccrea_rgo_1975" /><ref name="meadows1975">{{cite book |last=Meadows |first=A. J. |title=Greenwich Observatory, volume 2: Recent History (1836–1975) |date=1975 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London |bibcode=1975gosb.book.....F}}</ref>
The astronomer royal was director of the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]] from the establishment of the post in 1675 until 1972. The astronomer royal became an honorary title in 1972 without executive responsibilities, and a separate post of [[director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory]] was created to manage the institution.<ref name="mccrea_rgo_1975" /><ref name="meadows1975">{{cite book |last=Meadows |first=A. J. |title=Greenwich Observatory, volume 2: Recent History (1836–1975) |date=1975 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London |bibcode=1975gosb.book.....F}}</ref>
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The origin of the title Astronomer Royal is unknown.<ref name=":05">{{Cite journal |last=Lovell |first=Bernard |date=1994 |title=The Royal Society, the Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Astronomer Royal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/532168 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=283–297 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1994.0029 |jstor=532168 |issn=0035-9149|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Although Flamsteed is widely considered the first Astronomer Royal, he was never appointed with the title and only referred to in the Warrant to Ordinance as "Our Astronomical Observer".<ref name=":05" />  Similar language was used to appoint all the Astronomers Royal until 1881 with [[William Christie (astronomer)|William Christie]]'s appointment. The term Astronomer Royal did not become commonly used until the late 18th Century while the Royal Warrants still used "Our Astronomical Observer".<ref name=":05" /> Other titles such as Royal Professor at Greenwich were also used in less formal documents during this time.<ref name=":05" />
The origin of the title Astronomer Royal is unknown.<ref name=":05">{{Cite journal |last=Lovell |first=Bernard |date=1994 |title=The Royal Society, the Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Astronomer Royal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/532168 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=283–297 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1994.0029 |jstor=532168 |issn=0035-9149|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Although Flamsteed is widely considered the first Astronomer Royal, he was never appointed with the title and only referred to in the Warrant to Ordinance as "Our Astronomical Observer".<ref name=":05" />  Similar language was used to appoint all the Astronomers Royal until 1881 with [[William Christie (astronomer)|William Christie]]'s appointment. The term Astronomer Royal did not become commonly used until the late 18th Century while the Royal Warrants still used "Our Astronomical Observer".<ref name=":05" /> Other titles such as Royal Professor at Greenwich were also used in less formal documents during this time.<ref name=":05" />


In 1703, [[Isaac Newton]] was elected [[President of the Royal Society]], and was upset with the lack of publications coming from the Greenwich Observatory under Flamsteed.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Ronan |first=Colin |title=Astronomers Royal |date=1969 |publisher=Doubleday and Company |isbn= |location=New York |pages=43–44}}</ref> This eventually led to Queen Anne's Warrant of 1710 where members of the [[Royal Society]] were appointed as the Board of Visitors to the Royal Observatory to oversee Flamsteed.<ref name=":05"/> The original Board of Visitors consisted entirely of associates and allies of Newton which enraged Flamsteed.<ref name=":15"/>
In 1703, [[Isaac Newton]] was elected [[President of the Royal Society]], and was upset with the lack of publications coming from the Greenwich Observatory under Flamsteed.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Ronan |first=Colin |title=Astronomers Royal |date=1969 |publisher=Doubleday and Company |isbn= |location=New York |pages=43–44}}</ref> This eventually led to Queen Anne's Warrant of 1710 where members of the [[Royal Society]] were appointed as the Board of Visitors to the Royal Observatory to oversee Flamsteed.<ref name=":05"/> The original Board of Visitors consisted entirely of associates and allies of Newton, which enraged Flamsteed.<ref name=":15"/>


In 1765, the [[Board of Longitude]] decided that the Astronomer Royal's observations were the property of the Crown and must be printed and published each year.<ref name=":44">Ronan, Colin (1969). ''Astronomers Royal''. New York: Doubleday and Company. pp. 44-45.</ref> [[John Pond]] and subsequent Astronomers Royal elected to publish their findings quarterly instead.<ref name="forbes19752">{{cite book |last=Forbes |first=Eric G. |title=Greenwich Observatory, volume 1: Origins and Early History (1675–1835) |date=1975 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London |pages=176 |bibcode=1975gosb.book.....F}}</ref>
In 1765, the [[Board of Longitude]] decided that the Astronomer Royal's observations were the property of the Crown and must be printed and published each year.<ref name=":44">Ronan, Colin (1969). ''Astronomers Royal''. New York: Doubleday and Company. pp. 44–45.</ref> [[John Pond]] and subsequent Astronomers Royal elected to publish their findings quarterly instead.<ref name="forbes19752">{{cite book |last=Forbes |first=Eric G. |title=Greenwich Observatory, volume 1: Origins and Early History (1675–1835) |date=1975 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London |pages=176 |bibcode=1975gosb.book.....F}}</ref>


Sir [[George Biddell Airy|George Airy]] transformed the position from its original purpose of improving navigation to conducting more general astronomical and scientific research.<ref name=":62">{{Cite book |last=Maunder |first=E. Walter |title=The Royal Observatory Greenwich |publisher=The Religious Tract Society |year=1900 |location=London, England |pages=113–114}}</ref>  With approval from the Board of Visitors in 1836, Airy created a Magnetic and Meteorological Department in the Royal Observatory Greenwich. Following this, in 1873 he created the Solar Photography Department.<ref name=":62" />
Sir [[George Biddell Airy|George Airy]] transformed the position from its original purpose of improving navigation to conducting more general astronomical and scientific research.<ref name=":62">{{Cite book |last=Maunder |first=E. Walter |title=The Royal Observatory Greenwich |url=https://archive.org/details/royalobservatory00maun |publisher=The Religious Tract Society |year=1900 |location=London, England |pages=[https://archive.org/details/royalobservatory00maun/page/112 113]–114}}</ref>  With approval from the Board of Visitors in 1836, Airy created a Magnetic and Meteorological Department in the Royal Observatory Greenwich. Following this, in 1873 he created the Solar Photography Department.<ref name=":62" />


Astronomers Royal are responsible for many different discoveries and theories. They had several assistants who aided in their research at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. The most important position was that of the computers or people that would perform all the mathematical computations behind the astronomers' observations. Many of these computers were women, but they were often left out of articles and books, thus leaving them out of most common historical sources.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mullen |first=Kane |date=2020 |title=Temporary Measures: Women Computers at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 1890–1895 |url=https://data.isiscb.org/isis/citation/CBB011712539/ |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=88–121 |doi=10.1177/0021828620901358|bibcode=2020JHA....51...88M |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Astronomers Royal are responsible for many different discoveries and theories. They had several assistants who aided work at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. There were also computers, or people that would perform all the mathematical computations required to make observations comparable. In the 19th century, many of these computers were boys and a few were women.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mullen |first=Kane |date=2020 |title=Temporary Measures: Women Computers at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 1890–1895 |url=https://data.isiscb.org/isis/citation/CBB011712539/ |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=88–121 |doi=10.1177/0021828620901358|bibcode=2020JHA....51...88M |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Dolan |first=Graham |date=2014–2025 |title=People – a guide to grading and staffing structures |url=http://www.royalobservatorygreenwich.org/articles.php?article=951 |access-date=7 August 2025 |website=The Royal Observatory Greenwich…where east meets west}}</ref>


Originally, the Astronomer Royal had one assistant but increased to six during [[John Pond]]'s tenure as Astronomer Royal'''.'''<ref name="forbes19752" /> The astronomer royal today receives a [[stipend]] of 100 [[GBP]] per year and is a member of the [[royal household]], under the general authority of the [[Lord Chamberlain]]. After the separation of the two offices of Astronomer Royal and Director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory, the position of astronomer royal has been largely honorary, although the holder remains available to advise the Sovereign on astronomical and related scientific matters,<ref name="monarchywebsite">{{cite web
Originally, the Astronomer Royal had one assistant but increased to six during [[John Pond]]'s tenure as Astronomer Royal'''.'''<ref name="forbes19752" /> The astronomer royal today receives a [[stipend]] of 100 [[GBP]] per year and is a member of the [[royal household]], under the general authority of the [[Lord Chamberlain]]. After the separation of the two offices of Astronomer Royal and Director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory, the position of astronomer royal has been largely honorary, although the holder remains available to advise the Sovereign on astronomical and related scientific matters,<ref name="monarchywebsite">{{cite web
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}}</ref> and the office is of great prestige.
}}</ref> and the office is of great prestige.


There was formerly a [[Royal Astronomer of Ireland]] who was also the Andrew's Professor of Astronomy at the University of Dublin.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal |last=Wayman |first=P.A. |date=March 1986 |title=The Andrews Professors of Astronomy and Dunsink Observatory, 1785-1985 |url=https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1986IrAJ...17..167W |access-date=2024-03-08 |journal=Irish Astronomical Journal|volume=17 |page=167 |bibcode=1986IrAJ...17..167W }}</ref> Both became vacant in 1921 with Irish Independence but a new Andrew's Professor of Astronomy was appointed in 1985.<ref name=":23" />
There was formerly a [[Royal Astronomer of Ireland]] who was also the Andrews Professor of Astronomy at the University of Dublin.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal |last=Wayman |first=P.A. |date=March 1986 |title=The Andrews Professors of Astronomy and Dunsink Observatory, 1785-1985 |url=https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1986IrAJ...17..167W |access-date=2024-03-08 |journal=Irish Astronomical Journal|volume=17 |page=167 |bibcode=1986IrAJ...17..167W }}</ref> Both became vacant in 1921 with Irish Independence but a new Andrews Professor of Astronomy was appointed in 1985.<ref name=":23" />


==Astronomers Royal==
==Astronomers Royal==
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| 11. ||  || Sir [[Richard van der Riet Woolley]] || 1956 || 1971 || <ref name="meadows1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
| 11. ||  || Sir [[Richard van der Riet Woolley]] || 1956 || 1971 || <ref name="meadows1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
|-
| 12. |||| Sir [[Martin Ryle]] || 1972 || 1982 || <ref name="meadows1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
| 12. || [[File:Martin Ryle (cropped).jpg|100px]] || Sir [[Martin Ryle]] || 1972 || 1982 || <ref name="meadows1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
|-
| 13. || [[File:Francis Graham Smith.jpg|100px]] || Sir [[Francis Graham-Smith]] || 1982 || 1990 || <ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
| 13. || [[File:Francis Graham Smith.jpg|100px]] || Sir [[Francis Graham-Smith]] || 1982 || 1990 || <ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
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| 14. || [[File:SirArnoldWolfendale.jpg|100px]] || Sir [[Arnold Wolfendale]] || 1991 || 1995 || <ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
| 14. || [[File:SirArnoldWolfendale.jpg|100px]] || Sir [[Arnold Wolfendale]] || 1991 || 1995 || <ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
|-
| 15. || [[File:Official portrait of Lord Rees of Ludlow crop 2.jpg|100px]] || [[Martin Rees|Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow]] || 1995 || ''Incumbent'' || <ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
| 15. || [[File:Official portrait of Lord Rees of Ludlow crop 2.jpg|100px]] || [[Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow]] || 1995 || 2025 || <ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
|16. || [[File:Micheledougherty ras 10apr2015.jpg|100px]]
|Prof. [[Michele Dougherty]]
|2025
|''Incumbent''
|<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2025-07-29 |title=UK gets first female Astronomer Royal in 350 years |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c741lll88q5o |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>
|}
|}


== Notable discoveries and works of Astronomers Royal ==
== Discoveries and works of Astronomers Royal ==
[[John Flamsteed]] is responsible for a few important discoveries including proving his theory of annual [[stellar parallax]] and the discovery of the planet [[Uranus]], even though he thought it was a star.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last=Armitage |first=Angus |date=1946 |title=Our First Astronomer Royal—the Tercentenary of John Flamsteed |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43412820 |journal=Science Progress (1933- ) |volume=34 |issue=135 |pages=506–515 |jstor=43412820 |issn=0036-8504}}</ref>  In 1694, he gathered evidence of the stellar parallax and became the first person to prove that the Earth revolves around the sun.<ref name=":03"/> However, his most significant contribution to the Royal Observatory and later to the Astronomers Royal was his high standard of work.
[[John Flamsteed]] is responsible for a few important discoveries including proving his theory of annual [[stellar parallax]] and the discovery of the planet [[Uranus]], even though he thought it was a star.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last=Armitage |first=Angus |date=1946 |title=Our First Astronomer Royal—the Tercentenary of John Flamsteed |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43412820 |journal=Science Progress (1933- ) |volume=34 |issue=135 |pages=506–515 |jstor=43412820 |issn=0036-8504}}</ref>  In 1694, he gathered evidence of the stellar parallax and became the first person to prove that the Earth revolves around the sun.<ref name=":03"/> However, his most significant contribution to the Royal Observatory and later to the Astronomers Royal was his high standard of work.


Six years after the death of Flamsteed, ''Historia Coelestis Britannica'' was published containing much of the data and theories he had spent his life working on both before and after his appointment as Astronomer Royal.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Schaffer |first=S. |date=July 1984 |title=The Preface to John Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica (Book): Annals of Science |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=sso&db=aph&AN=6129346&site=eds-live&scope=site&custid=081-800 |journal=Annals of Science |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=409}}</ref> It contains accurate tables of lunar motion, planetary motion, and detailed stellar catalog of 2935 stars.<ref name=":33" /> This publication made the Astronomer Royal and the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]] internationally renown for precise observation.<ref name=":15"/>
Six years after the death of Flamsteed, ''Historia Coelestis Britannica'' was published containing much of the data and theories he had spent his life working on both before and after his appointment as Astronomer Royal.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Schaffer |first=S. |date=July 1984 |title=The Preface to John Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica (Book): Annals of Science |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=sso&db=aph&AN=6129346&site=eds-live&scope=site&custid=081-800 |journal=Annals of Science |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=409}}</ref> It contains accurate tables of lunar motion, planetary motion, and detailed stellar catalog of 2935 stars.<ref name=":33" /> This publication made the Astronomer Royal and the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]] internationally renown for precise observation.<ref name=":15"/>


[[Edmond Halley]] was determined to find a way to find longitude at sea without sight of land.<ref name=":44"/> Starting in 1725, Halley while serving as Astronomer Royal and a Commissioner on the [[Board of Longitude]] made very detailed and precise observations of the moon.<ref name=":44" /> From these observations he was able to show that longitude could be calculated using the moon in 1731.<ref name=":44" /> Although the error is his calculations was about 69 miles at the equator, it was more accurate than any other methods until the use of the [[marine chronometer]] for finding longitude.<ref name=":44" />
[[Edmond Halley]] was determined to find a way to find longitude at sea without sight of land.<ref name=":44"/> Starting in 1725, Halley while serving as Astronomer Royal and a Commissioner on the [[Board of Longitude]] made very detailed and precise observations of the moon.<ref name=":44" /> From these observations he was able to show that longitude could be calculated using the moon in 1731.<ref name=":44" /> Although the error in his calculations was about 69 miles at the equator, it was more accurate than any other methods until the use of the [[marine chronometer]] for finding longitude.<ref name=":44" />


In 1833, [[John Pond]] published his catalog of 1113 different stars.<ref name="forbes19754">{{cite book |last=Forbes |first=Eric G. |title=Greenwich Observatory, volume 1: Origins and Early History (1675–1835) |date=1975 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London |pages=175 |bibcode=1975gosb.book.....F}}</ref> The catalog contained more stars recorded to a much higher degree of accuracy than any other publication at the time, and impressed many other astronomers across Europe.<ref>Ronan, Colin (1969). ''Astronomers Royal''. New York: Doubleday and Company. pp. 129.</ref>
In 1833, [[John Pond]] published his catalog of 1113 stars.<ref name="forbes19754">{{cite book |last=Forbes |first=Eric G. |title=Greenwich Observatory, volume 1: Origins and Early History (1675–1835) |date=1975 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London |pages=175 |bibcode=1975gosb.book.....F}}</ref> The catalog contained more stars recorded to a higher accuracy than any other existing publication, and impressed astronomers across Europe.<ref>Ronan, Colin (1969). ''Astronomers Royal''. New York: Doubleday and Company. pp. 129.</ref>


Another notable Astronomer Royal was Sir [[George Biddell Airy]]. While still in college at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], he noticed he was having trouble reading with his left eye.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Levene |first=John R. |date=1966 |title=Sir George Biddell Airy, F.R.S. (1801-1892) and the Discovery and Correction of Astigmatism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/531067 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=180–199 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1966.0017 |jstor=531067 |issn=0035-9149|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Eventually, his condition would be classified as an [[astigmatism]], but at the time, there was no cure that worked for everyone. After consulting with others who had the same condition, he specially crafted a lens to refract the light rays and correct the astigmatism.<ref name=":13" /> With experience working with lenses, he spent a significant amount of his time as the Astronomer Royal improving the measuring instruments in the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Hill |first=Geo. A. |date=1892 |title=Sir George Biddell Airy |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1766331 |journal=Science |volume=19 |issue=469 |pages=64–65 |doi=10.1126/science.ns-19.469.64 |jstor=1766331 |pmid=17744420 |bibcode=1892Sci....19...64H |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Using these improved instruments, he meticulously double-checked measurements and discoveries made by past astronomers.<ref name=":2" />
Another important Astronomer Royal was Sir [[George Biddell Airy]]. While still in college at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], he noticed he was having trouble reading with his left eye.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Levene |first=John R. |date=1966 |title=Sir George Biddell Airy, F.R.S. (1801-1892) and the Discovery and Correction of Astigmatism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/531067 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=180–199 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1966.0017 |jstor=531067 |issn=0035-9149|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Eventually, his condition would be classified as an [[astigmatism]], but at the time, there was no cure that worked for everyone. After consulting with others who had the same condition, he crafted a lens to refract the light rays and correct the astigmatism.<ref name=":13" /> With his experience working with lenses, he spent considerable time as the Astronomer Royal improving the measuring instruments in the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Hill |first=Geo. A. |date=1892 |title=Sir George Biddell Airy |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1766331 |journal=Science |volume=19 |issue=469 |pages=64–65 |doi=10.1126/science.ns-19.469.64 |jstor=1766331 |pmid=17744420 |bibcode=1892Sci....19...64H |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Using these improved instruments, he meticulously double-checked measurements and discoveries made by past astronomers.<ref name=":2" />


[[Frank Watson Dyson|Frank Dyson]], the ninth Astronomer Royal, determined latitude variation caused by irregular movement of Earth's magnetic poles.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Margaret |title=Ninth Astronomer Royal |publisher=W.Heffer and Sons Limited |year=1951 |location=Cambridge, England |pages=162–163}}</ref> He used a telescope floating in mercury and was able to detect when the poles of the earth wobbled any distance greater than one foot.<ref name=":7" /> During the 1919 eclipse, Dyson was crucial in designing the [[Eddington experiment]] with [[Arthur Eddington]] to test [[Albert Einstein]]'s [[Theory of relativity]].<ref name=":8">Wilson, Margaret (1951). ''Ninth Astronomer Royal''. Cambridge, England: W.Heffer and Sons Limited. pp.&nbsp;191–193.</ref> Starting months before the eclipse, stars were photographed and carefully charted, and during the total eclipse the same stars would be photographed and charted again.<ref name=":8" /> If Einstein's theory was correct then the light from the selected stars would be bent passing around the sun and show more deflection than Newtonian theory could account for.<ref name=":8" /> When the photographs from the eclipse were developed it became clear that Einstein's theory had accurately predicted the position of stars. This was one of the first experiments done to test [[general relativity]].<ref name=":8" />
[[Frank Watson Dyson|Frank Dyson]], the ninth Astronomer Royal, determined latitude variation caused by irregular movement of Earth's magnetic poles.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Margaret |title=Ninth Astronomer Royal |publisher=W.Heffer and Sons Limited |year=1951 |location=Cambridge, England |pages=162–163}}</ref> He used a telescope floating in mercury and was able to detect when the poles of the earth wobbled greater than one foot.<ref name=":7" /> During the 1919 eclipse, Dyson was crucial in designing the [[Eddington experiment]] with [[Arthur Eddington]] to test [[Albert Einstein]]'s [[Theory of relativity]].<ref name=":8">Wilson, Margaret (1951). ''Ninth Astronomer Royal''. Cambridge, England: W.Heffer and Sons Limited. pp.&nbsp;191–193.</ref> Starting months before the eclipse, stars were photographed and carefully charted, and during the total eclipse the same stars would be photographed and charted again.<ref name=":8" /> If Einstein's theory was correct then the light from the selected stars would be bent passing around the sun and show more deflection than Newtonian theory alone predicted.<ref name=":8" /> When the photographs from the eclipse were developed it became clear that Einstein's theory had accurately predicted the position of stars. This was one of the first experiments to confirm [[general relativity]].<ref name=":8" />


== In popular culture ==
== In popular culture ==

Latest revision as of 08:32, 6 November 2025

Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:More citations needed

File:John Flamsteed (Gemälde).jpg
John Flamsteed, the first astronomer royal, by Thomas Gibson. Royal Society, London.

Astronomer Royal is a senior post in the Royal Households of the United Kingdom. There are two officers, the senior being the Astronomer Royal dating from 22 June 1675; the junior is the Astronomer Royal for Scotland dating from 1834.

The Astronomer Royal works to make observations to improve navigation, cartography, instrument design, and applications of geomagnetism. The position was created with the overall goal of discovering a way to determine longitude at sea when out of sight of land. The incumbent Astronomer Royal is Professor Michele Dougherty.

History

The post was created by Charles II in 1675, at the same time as he founded the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. He appointed John Flamsteed, instructing him "forthwith to apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so-much desired longitude of places, for the perfecting the art of navigation."[1][2][3] The first six Astronomers Royal dedicated themselves primarily to this task and focused on astronomical observations that would benefit navigation.[4]

The astronomer royal was director of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich from the establishment of the post in 1675 until 1972. The astronomer royal became an honorary title in 1972 without executive responsibilities, and a separate post of director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory was created to manage the institution.[3][5]

The origin of the title Astronomer Royal is unknown.[6] Although Flamsteed is widely considered the first Astronomer Royal, he was never appointed with the title and only referred to in the Warrant to Ordinance as "Our Astronomical Observer".[6] Similar language was used to appoint all the Astronomers Royal until 1881 with William Christie's appointment. The term Astronomer Royal did not become commonly used until the late 18th Century while the Royal Warrants still used "Our Astronomical Observer".[6] Other titles such as Royal Professor at Greenwich were also used in less formal documents during this time.[6]

In 1703, Isaac Newton was elected President of the Royal Society, and was upset with the lack of publications coming from the Greenwich Observatory under Flamsteed.[7] This eventually led to Queen Anne's Warrant of 1710 where members of the Royal Society were appointed as the Board of Visitors to the Royal Observatory to oversee Flamsteed.[6] The original Board of Visitors consisted entirely of associates and allies of Newton, which enraged Flamsteed.[7]

In 1765, the Board of Longitude decided that the Astronomer Royal's observations were the property of the Crown and must be printed and published each year.[8] John Pond and subsequent Astronomers Royal elected to publish their findings quarterly instead.[9]

Sir George Airy transformed the position from its original purpose of improving navigation to conducting more general astronomical and scientific research.[10] With approval from the Board of Visitors in 1836, Airy created a Magnetic and Meteorological Department in the Royal Observatory Greenwich. Following this, in 1873 he created the Solar Photography Department.[10]

Astronomers Royal are responsible for many different discoveries and theories. They had several assistants who aided work at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. There were also computers, or people that would perform all the mathematical computations required to make observations comparable. In the 19th century, many of these computers were boys and a few were women.[11][12]

Originally, the Astronomer Royal had one assistant but increased to six during John Pond's tenure as Astronomer Royal.[9] The astronomer royal today receives a stipend of 100 GBP per year and is a member of the royal household, under the general authority of the Lord Chamberlain. After the separation of the two offices of Astronomer Royal and Director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory, the position of astronomer royal has been largely honorary, although the holder remains available to advise the Sovereign on astronomical and related scientific matters,[13] and the office is of great prestige.

There was formerly a Royal Astronomer of Ireland who was also the Andrews Professor of Astronomy at the University of Dublin.[14] Both became vacant in 1921 with Irish Independence but a new Andrews Professor of Astronomy was appointed in 1985.[14]

Astronomers Royal

# Image Name Start year End year Reference
1. File:John Flamsteed 1702.jpg John Flamsteed 1675 1719 [2][13]
2. File:Edmond Halley 072.jpg Edmond Halley 1720 1742 [2][13]
3. File:James Bradley by Thomas Hudson.jpg James Bradley 1742 1762 [2][13]
4. File:The Reverend Nathaniel Bliss.jpg Nathaniel Bliss 1762 1764 [2][13]
5. File:Maskelyne Nevil.jpg Nevil Maskelyne 1765 1811 [2][13]
6. John Pond 1811 1835 [2][13]
7. File:George Biddell Airy 1891.jpg Sir George Biddell Airy 1835 1881 [5][13]
8. File:William H M Christie.jpg Sir William Christie 1881 1910 [5][13]
9. File:Frank Watson Dyson.jpg Sir Frank Dyson 1910 1933 [5][13]
10. Sir Harold Spencer Jones 1933 1955 [5][13]
11. Sir Richard van der Riet Woolley 1956 1971 [5][13]
12. File:Martin Ryle (cropped).jpg Sir Martin Ryle 1972 1982 [5][13]
13. File:Francis Graham Smith.jpg Sir Francis Graham-Smith 1982 1990 [13]
14. File:SirArnoldWolfendale.jpg Sir Arnold Wolfendale 1991 1995 [13]
15. File:Official portrait of Lord Rees of Ludlow crop 2.jpg Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow 1995 2025 [13]
16. File:Micheledougherty ras 10apr2015.jpg Prof. Michele Dougherty 2025 Incumbent [15]

Discoveries and works of Astronomers Royal

John Flamsteed is responsible for a few important discoveries including proving his theory of annual stellar parallax and the discovery of the planet Uranus, even though he thought it was a star.[16] In 1694, he gathered evidence of the stellar parallax and became the first person to prove that the Earth revolves around the sun.[16] However, his most significant contribution to the Royal Observatory and later to the Astronomers Royal was his high standard of work.

Six years after the death of Flamsteed, Historia Coelestis Britannica was published containing much of the data and theories he had spent his life working on both before and after his appointment as Astronomer Royal.[17] It contains accurate tables of lunar motion, planetary motion, and detailed stellar catalog of 2935 stars.[17] This publication made the Astronomer Royal and the Royal Observatory, Greenwich internationally renown for precise observation.[7]

Edmond Halley was determined to find a way to find longitude at sea without sight of land.[8] Starting in 1725, Halley while serving as Astronomer Royal and a Commissioner on the Board of Longitude made very detailed and precise observations of the moon.[8] From these observations he was able to show that longitude could be calculated using the moon in 1731.[8] Although the error in his calculations was about 69 miles at the equator, it was more accurate than any other methods until the use of the marine chronometer for finding longitude.[8]

In 1833, John Pond published his catalog of 1113 stars.[18] The catalog contained more stars recorded to a higher accuracy than any other existing publication, and impressed astronomers across Europe.[19]

Another important Astronomer Royal was Sir George Biddell Airy. While still in college at Trinity College, Cambridge, he noticed he was having trouble reading with his left eye.[20] Eventually, his condition would be classified as an astigmatism, but at the time, there was no cure that worked for everyone. After consulting with others who had the same condition, he crafted a lens to refract the light rays and correct the astigmatism.[20] With his experience working with lenses, he spent considerable time as the Astronomer Royal improving the measuring instruments in the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.[21] Using these improved instruments, he meticulously double-checked measurements and discoveries made by past astronomers.[21]

Frank Dyson, the ninth Astronomer Royal, determined latitude variation caused by irregular movement of Earth's magnetic poles.[22] He used a telescope floating in mercury and was able to detect when the poles of the earth wobbled greater than one foot.[22] During the 1919 eclipse, Dyson was crucial in designing the Eddington experiment with Arthur Eddington to test Albert Einstein's Theory of relativity.[23] Starting months before the eclipse, stars were photographed and carefully charted, and during the total eclipse the same stars would be photographed and charted again.[23] If Einstein's theory was correct then the light from the selected stars would be bent passing around the sun and show more deflection than Newtonian theory alone predicted.[23] When the photographs from the eclipse were developed it became clear that Einstein's theory had accurately predicted the position of stars. This was one of the first experiments to confirm general relativity.[23]

In popular culture

The astronomer royal is mentioned in H. G. Wells' novel The War of the Worlds, in George Orwell's Down and Out in Paris and London,[24] and in Thomas Pynchon's novel Mason & Dixon.[25] He also makes an appearance in the lyrics of Gilbert and Sullivan's The Pirates of Penzance[26] and plays an important role in Fred Hoyle's novel The Black Cloud.[27]

References

  1. ↑ F Baily, "An Account of the Rev. John Flamsteed", reprinted in vol. 28, at p. 293. "The Museum of foreign literature, science and art", R Walsh et al., publ. E Litell, 1836.
  2. ↑ a b c d e f g Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ a b c d e f g Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ a b c d e Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ a b c d e Ronan, Colin (1969). Astronomers Royal. New York: Doubleday and Company. pp. 44–45.
  9. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Ronan, Colin (1969). Astronomers Royal. New York: Doubleday and Company. pp. 129.
  20. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ a b c d Wilson, Margaret (1951). Ninth Astronomer Royal. Cambridge, England: W.Heffer and Sons Limited. pp. 191–193.
  24. ↑ p. 175, Penguin edition
  25. ↑ ch. 11, Picador/Holt edition
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

External links

Template:Astronomers Royal Template:British Monarchy Household

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