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{{short description|Hypothetical DNA replication mechanism used by some circular chromosomes}} | |||
'''D-loop replication''' is a proposed process by which [[Circular DNA (disambiguation)|circular DNA]] molecules like those found in many (though not all) [[chloroplast]]s and [[mitochondria]] replicate their genetic material. These circular [[chromosome]]s often contain [[D-loop]]s, short regions of [[triple-stranded DNA]] where the double-stranded duplex molecule is opened and one of the strands is displaced by a third, independent strand of variable length. Not all circular genomes use D-loop replication, however, nor do all chloroplasts and mitochondria use circular chromosomes; in those with linear chromosomes, D-loop replication does not occur.<ref>Russell, P. J. 2002. ''iGenetics.''Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco</ref> | |||
==Background== | |||
In most double-stranded DNA molecules, one of the two strands tends to be composed of heavier [[nucleotide]]s with higher [[molecular weight]]s (i.e. relatively more [[purine]]s: [[adenine]] and [[guanine]]). This strand is called the [[Heavy strand|H (heavy) strand]]. The complementary [[Light strand|L (light) strand]] comprises lighter nucleotides (i.e. the [[pyrimidine]]s: [[thymine]] and [[cytosine]]). Replication begins with replication of the heavy strand starting at the D-loop (also known as the [[mtDNA control region|control region]]). This structure consists of an intervening third strand which is complementary to the light strand and displaces the heavy strand to form a displacement loop (D-loop).<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | last1 = Kasamatsu | first1 = Harumi | last2 = Robberson | first2 = Donald L. | last3 = Vinograd | first3 = Jerome | year = 1971 | title = A novel closed-circular mitochondrial DNA with properties of a replicating intermediate | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 68 | issue = 9| pages = 2252–2257 | doi=10.1073/pnas.68.9.2252| pmid = 5289384 | pmc = 389395 | bibcode = 1971PNAS...68.2252K | doi-access = free }}</ref> Circular DNA is stable with this small D-loop and can remain in this formation more or less indefinitely, but the middle strand, or the displacing strand, must be replaced frequently due to its short half-life, which is very energetically expensive to the cell.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | last1 = Nicholls | first1 = Thomas J. | last2 = Minczuk | first2 = Michal | year = 2014 | title = In D-loop: 40 years of mitochondrial 7S DNA | journal = Experimental Gerontology | volume = 56 | pages = 175–181 | doi=10.1016/j.exger.2014.03.027| pmid = 24709344 | s2cid = 140205074 }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite journal | last1 = Doda | first1 = Jackie N. | last2 = Wright | first2 = Catharine T. | last3 = Clayton | first3 = David A. | year = 1981 | title = Elongation of displacement-loop strands in human and mouse mitochondrial DNA is arrested near specific template sequences | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 78 | issue = 10| pages = 6116–6120 | doi=10.1073/pnas.78.10.6116| pmid = 6273850 | pmc = 348988 | bibcode = 1981PNAS...78.6116D | doi-access = free }}</ref> When diagrammed, the resulting structure looks like the letter D. The D-loop was first discovered in 1971 when researchers noticed that many DNA in the mitochondria they were examining under the microscope contained a short segment that was triple-stranded.<ref name=":0" /> | |||
==Replication process== | ==Replication process== | ||
Each D-loop contains an [[origin of replication]] for the heavy strand. Full circular DNA replication is initiated at that origin and replicates in only one direction. The middle strand in the D-loop can be removed and a new one will be synthesized that is not terminated until the heavy strand is fully replicated, or the middle strand can serve as a primer for the heavy strand replication. As the heavy strand replication reaches the origin of replication for the light strand, a new light strand will be synthesized in the opposite | Each D-loop contains an [[origin of replication]] for the heavy strand. Full circular DNA replication is initiated at that origin and replicates in only one direction. The middle strand in the D-loop can be removed and a new one will be synthesized that is not terminated until the heavy strand is fully replicated, or until the middle strand can serve as a primer for the heavy strand's replication. As the heavy strand's replication reaches the origin of replication for the light strand, a new light strand will be synthesized in the direction opposite to that of the heavy strand.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">{{cite journal | last1 = Clayton | first1 = David A | year = 1982 | title = Replication of animal mitochondrial DNA | journal = Cell | volume = 28 | issue = 4| pages = 693–705 | doi=10.1016/0092-8674(82)90049-6| pmid = 6178513 | s2cid = 12682150 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=D. D.|last2=Clayton|first2=D. A.|date=1985-01-01|title=Priming of human mitochondrial DNA replication occurs at the light-strand promoter|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=82|issue=2|pages=351–355|doi=10.1073/pnas.82.2.351|issn=0027-8424|pmid=2982153|pmc=397036|bibcode=1985PNAS...82..351C |doi-access=free}}</ref> | ||
There is more than one proposed process through which D-loop replication occurs, but in all of the models, these steps are agreed upon. The portions not agreed upon regard the importance of maintaining a D-loop when replication is not in progress, because it is energetically expensive to the cell, and what mechanisms, during replication, preserve the detached strand of DNA that is waiting to be replicated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leslie|first=Mitch|date=2007-01-15|title=Thrown for a D-loop|journal=The Journal of Cell Biology|language=en|volume=176|issue=2|pages=129a|doi=10.1083/jcb.1762iti3|issn=0021-9525|pmc=2063944}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=He|first1=Jiuya|last2=Mao|first2=Chih-Chieh|last3=Reyes|first3=Aurelio|last4=Sembongi|first4=Hiroshi|last5=Re|first5=Miriam Di|last6=Granycome|first6=Caroline|last7=Clippingdale|first7=Andrew B.|last8=Fearnley|first8=Ian M.|last9=Harbour|first9=Michael|date=2007-01-15|title=The AAA+ protein ATAD3 has displacement loop binding properties and is involved in mitochondrial nucleoid organization|journal=The Journal of Cell Biology|language=en|volume=176|issue=2|pages=141–146|doi=10.1083/jcb.200609158|issn=0021-9525|pmc=2063933|pmid=17210950}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fish|first1=Jennifer|last2=Raule|first2=Nicola|last3=Attardi|first3=Giuseppe|date=2004-12-17|title=Discovery of a Major D-Loop Replication Origin Reveals Two Modes of Human mtDNA Synthesis|journal=Science|language=en|volume=306|issue=5704|pages=2098–2101|doi=10.1126/science.1102077|issn=0036-8075|pmid=15604407|bibcode=2004Sci...306.2098F |s2cid=36033690|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/51909/7/Fish.SOM.pdf}}</ref> | |||
==Importance== | ==Importance== | ||
The D-loop region is important for [[phylogeography|phylogeographic]] studies. | The D-loop region is important for [[phylogeography|phylogeographic]] studies. Because the region does not code for any genes, it is not imperative for this region to remain conserved over time; therefore, it is free to mutate with only a few [[natural selection|selective]] limitations on size and heavy/light strand factors. The [[mutation rate]] for the D-loop region is among the fastest in either the nuclear or mitochondrial genomes in animals. Using these [[mutation]]s in the D-loop, recent and rapid [[evolution]]ary changes can effectively be tracked such as within [[species]] and among very closely related species. Due to the high mutation rate, it is not effective in tracking evolutionary changes that are not recent. This is a very common use of the D-loop in [[genomics]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Burger |display-authors=et al | year = 2003 | title = Unique mitochondrial genome architecture in unicellular relatives of animals | journal = PNAS | volume = 100 | issue = 3| pages = 892–897 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0336115100| pmid = 12552117| pmc = 298697|bibcode=2003PNAS..100..892B |doi-access=free }}</ref> | ||
One example of the use of D-loop mutations in phylogeographic studies was the phylogeny assembled using the | One example of the use of D-loop mutations in phylogeographic studies was the phylogeny assembled using the largely unstudied [[Iberian red deer]]. Scientists tracked D-loop [[polymorphism (biology)|polymorphisms]] within these red deer and determined the genetic relationship that these deer had among each other. They were also able to determine the relationships, based on D-loop similarities and differences, between these red deer and other species of deer throughout Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fernández-García|first1=J. L.|last2=Carranza|first2=J.|last3=Martínez|first3=J. G.|last4=Randi|first4=E.|date=2014-03-01|title=Mitochondrial D-loop phylogeny signals two native Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus) Lineages genetically different to Western and Eastern European red deer and infers human-mediated translocations|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|language=en|volume=23|issue=3|pages=537–554|doi=10.1007/s10531-013-0585-2|bibcode=2014BiCon..23..537F |s2cid=14719183|issn=0960-3115}}</ref> In another example, scientists used variations in the D-loop, along with [[microsatellite]] markers, to study and map genetic diversity among goats in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Silva|display-authors=et al|date=2016|title=Genetic diversity analysis of major Sri Lankan goat populations using microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA D-loop variations|journal=Small Ruminant Research|volume=148|pages=51–61|doi=10.1016/j.smallrumres.2016.12.030|hdl=11449/178557|hdl-access=free}}</ref> | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
*[[D-loop]] | *[[D-loop]] | ||
*[[Mitochondrial DNA]]—useful in organisation of nucleoid of mitochondria | *[[Mitochondrial DNA]]—useful in organisation of the nucleoid of mitochondria | ||
*[[Organelle]] | *[[Organelle]] | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist}} | {{Reflist}} | ||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
* [http://www.mitomap.org/MITOMAP Human Mitochondrial DNA Database] | * [http://www.mitomap.org/MITOMAP Human Mitochondrial DNA Database] | ||
* [http://chloroplast.cbio.psu.edu/ Chloroplast DNA Database] | * [http://chloroplast.cbio.psu.edu/ Chloroplast DNA Database] | ||
* [http://www.mtdnacommunity.org/ MtDNA Community Database] | * [http://www.mtdnacommunity.org/ MtDNA Community Database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329234506/http://www.mtdnacommunity.org/ |date=2017-03-29 }} | ||
<references group="References" /> | <references group="References" /> | ||
[[Category:DNA]] | [[Category:DNA replication]] | ||
Latest revision as of 18:21, 3 December 2025
D-loop replication is a proposed process by which circular DNA molecules like those found in many (though not all) chloroplasts and mitochondria replicate their genetic material. These circular chromosomes often contain D-loops, short regions of triple-stranded DNA where the double-stranded duplex molecule is opened and one of the strands is displaced by a third, independent strand of variable length. Not all circular genomes use D-loop replication, however, nor do all chloroplasts and mitochondria use circular chromosomes; in those with linear chromosomes, D-loop replication does not occur.[1]
Background
In most double-stranded DNA molecules, one of the two strands tends to be composed of heavier nucleotides with higher molecular weights (i.e. relatively more purines: adenine and guanine). This strand is called the H (heavy) strand. The complementary L (light) strand comprises lighter nucleotides (i.e. the pyrimidines: thymine and cytosine). Replication begins with replication of the heavy strand starting at the D-loop (also known as the control region). This structure consists of an intervening third strand which is complementary to the light strand and displaces the heavy strand to form a displacement loop (D-loop).[2] Circular DNA is stable with this small D-loop and can remain in this formation more or less indefinitely, but the middle strand, or the displacing strand, must be replaced frequently due to its short half-life, which is very energetically expensive to the cell.[3][4] When diagrammed, the resulting structure looks like the letter D. The D-loop was first discovered in 1971 when researchers noticed that many DNA in the mitochondria they were examining under the microscope contained a short segment that was triple-stranded.[2]
Replication process
Each D-loop contains an origin of replication for the heavy strand. Full circular DNA replication is initiated at that origin and replicates in only one direction. The middle strand in the D-loop can be removed and a new one will be synthesized that is not terminated until the heavy strand is fully replicated, or until the middle strand can serve as a primer for the heavy strand's replication. As the heavy strand's replication reaches the origin of replication for the light strand, a new light strand will be synthesized in the direction opposite to that of the heavy strand.[3][5][6]
There is more than one proposed process through which D-loop replication occurs, but in all of the models, these steps are agreed upon. The portions not agreed upon regard the importance of maintaining a D-loop when replication is not in progress, because it is energetically expensive to the cell, and what mechanisms, during replication, preserve the detached strand of DNA that is waiting to be replicated.[7][8][9]
Importance
The D-loop region is important for phylogeographic studies. Because the region does not code for any genes, it is not imperative for this region to remain conserved over time; therefore, it is free to mutate with only a few selective limitations on size and heavy/light strand factors. The mutation rate for the D-loop region is among the fastest in either the nuclear or mitochondrial genomes in animals. Using these mutations in the D-loop, recent and rapid evolutionary changes can effectively be tracked such as within species and among very closely related species. Due to the high mutation rate, it is not effective in tracking evolutionary changes that are not recent. This is a very common use of the D-loop in genomics.[10]
One example of the use of D-loop mutations in phylogeographic studies was the phylogeny assembled using the largely unstudied Iberian red deer. Scientists tracked D-loop polymorphisms within these red deer and determined the genetic relationship that these deer had among each other. They were also able to determine the relationships, based on D-loop similarities and differences, between these red deer and other species of deer throughout Europe.[11] In another example, scientists used variations in the D-loop, along with microsatellite markers, to study and map genetic diversity among goats in Sri Lanka.[12]
See also
- D-loop
- Mitochondrial DNA—useful in organisation of the nucleoid of mitochondria
- Organelle
References
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- ↑ Russell, P. J. 2002. iGenetics.Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco
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External links
- Human Mitochondrial DNA Database
- Chloroplast DNA Database
- MtDNA Community Database Template:Webarchive