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Within religious studies and [[theology]], inclusivism is the belief that, although only one belief system is true, aspects of its truth can be found in other religions. This is contrasted from [[religious pluralism]], which asserts that all beliefs are equally valid within a believer's particular context.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marbaniang |first=Domenic |date=January 2007 |title=Theology of Religion: Pluralism, Inclusivism, Exclusivism |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330958955 |access-date=5 August 2022 |website=ResearchGate |publisher=ACTS Academy of Higher Education |location=Bangalore, India}}</ref>
Within religious studies and [[theology]], inclusivism is the belief that, although only one belief system is true, aspects of its truth can be found in other religions. This is contrasted from [[religious pluralism]], which asserts that all beliefs are equally valid within a believer's particular context.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marbaniang |first=Domenic |date=January 2007 |title=Theology of Religion: Pluralism, Inclusivism, Exclusivism |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330958955 |access-date=5 August 2022 |website=ResearchGate |publisher=ACTS Academy of Higher Education |location=Bangalore, India}}</ref>


== Typology ==
Broadly speaking, there are two schools of Inclusivist thought:
Broadly speaking, there are two schools of Inclusivist thought:
* Relativistic inclusivism, which asserts that the believer's own views are true only in their particular context, and believers of other traditions have their own validity.
* Relativistic inclusivism, which asserts that the believer's own views are true only in their particular context, and believers of other traditions have their own validity.
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=== Ancient Greece ===
=== Ancient Greece ===
[[Interpretatio graeca]] was the tendency of ancient Greek writers to equate foreign divinities to members of their own pantheon. [[Herodotus]], for example, refers to the ancient Egyptian gods [[Amun|Amon]], [[Osiris]], and [[Ptah]] as "[[Zeus]]," "[[Dionysus]]," and "[[Hephaestus]]," respectively. This could be seen as an example of inclusivism as well as [[syncretism]].
[[Interpretatio graeca]] was the tendency of ancient Greek writers to equate foreign divinities to members of their own pantheon. [[Herodotus]], for example, refers to the ancient Egyptian gods [[Amun|Amon]], [[Osiris]], and [[Ptah]] as "[[Zeus]]," "[[Dionysus]]," and "[[Hephaestus]]," respectively. <ref>Kunsthistorisches Museum, Maria-Theresien-Platz, 1010 Vienna: on: https://www.khm.at/en/artworks/maske-zeus-ammon-50244-1#:~:text=Der%20ägyptische%20Fruchtbarkeitsgott%20Amun%20wurde%20von%20den,Kaiserzeit%20aber%20nur%20mehr%20zu%20dekorativer%20Verwendung., last retrieved 09-19-2025</ref><ref>Liebieghaus Skulpturensammlung, Schaumainkai, 7160596 Frankfurt am Main, on: https://liebieghaus.de/en/antike/head-zeus-ammon#:~:text=While%20Zeus%20was%20the%20most,Ammon%20(Amun%2DRe). , last retrieved 09-19-2025</ref> This could be seen as an example of inclusivism as well as [[syncretism]].


[[Syncretism]] functioned as an essential feature of Ancient Greek religion. Later on, [[Hellenism (religion)|Hellenism]], a consequence of [[Alexander the Great]]'s belief that he was the son of a god, reinforced by the [[Oracle of Zeus-Ammon]] at [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]] in Egypt, itself showed syncretic features, essentially blending Persian, Anatolian, Egyptian (and eventually Etruscan-Roman) elements within Hellenic formulations. After the [[Hellenization]] of the Egyptian culture initiated by [[Ptolemy I Soter]], [[Isis#In the Greco-Roman world|Isis]] became known as "[[Queen of Heaven (antiquity)|Queen of Heaven]]" and was worshipped in many aspects and by many names besides that of [[Hera]].
[[Syncretism]] functioned as an essential feature of Ancient Greek religion. Later on, [[Hellenism (religion)|Hellenism]], a consequence of [[Alexander the Great]]'s belief that he was the son of a god, reinforced by the [[Oracle of Zeus-Ammon]] at [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]] in Egypt, itself showed syncretic features, essentially blending Persian, Anatolian, Egyptian (and eventually Etruscan-Roman) elements within Hellenic formulations. After the [[Hellenization]] of the Egyptian culture initiated by [[Ptolemy I Soter]], [[Isis#In the Greco-Roman world|Isis]] became known as "[[Queen of Heaven (antiquity)|Queen of Heaven]]" and was worshipped in many aspects and by many names besides that of [[Hera]].


=== Hinduism ===
=== Hinduism ===
A well-known hymn in the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Rigveda]] claims that "Truth is One, though the sages know it variously", proclaiming a [[Religious pluralism|pluralistic]] view of religion. [[Krishna]], an [[Avatar]] of [[Vishnu]], the supreme deity in [[Vaishnavism]], said in the [[Gita]], "In whatever way men identify with Me, in the same way do I carry out their desires; men pursue My path... in all ways" (Gita 4:11). He also said that "Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me" (Gita 7:21–22). Another quote in the Gita states: "O [[Arjuna]], even those devotees who worship other lesser deities (e.g., [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]], for example) with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, [[Yajna]]) and Lord of the universe" (Gita 9:23).
A well-known hymn in the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Rigveda]] claims that "Truth is One, though the sages know it variously", proclaiming a [[Religious pluralism|pluralistic]] view of religion. [[Krishna]], an [[Avatar]] of [[Vishnu]], the supreme deity in [[Vaishnavism]], said in the [[Gita]], "In whatever way men identify with Me, in the same way do I carry out their desires; men pursue My path... in all ways" (Gita 4:11).<ref>Jeffery D. Long: In: ''BHAGAVĀN ŚRĪ KṚṢṆA: DEEP RELIGIOUS PLURALIST? - Religious Pluralism in the Bhagavad Gītā'' chapter 2 ''Religious Pluralism in the Bhagavad Gītā'', page 6, 2010, Journal of Vaiṣṇava Studies, Gainesville, FL, 32609, www.academia.edu and www.ivsjournal.com, last retrieved 07-02-2025</ref> He also said that "Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me" (Gita 7:21–22). Another quote in the Gita states: "O [[Arjuna]], even those devotees who worship other lesser deities (e.g., [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]], for example) with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, [[Yajna]]) and Lord of the universe" (Gita 9:23).<ref>Jeffery D. Long: In: ''BHAGAVĀN ŚRĪ KṚṢṆA: DEEP RELIGIOUS PLURALIST? - Religious Pluralism in the Bhagavad Gītā'' chapter 2 ''Religious Pluralism in the Bhagavad Gītā'', page 7, 2010, Journal of Vaiṣṇava Studies, Gainesville, FL, 32609, www.academia.edu and www.ivsjournal.com, last retrieved 08-15-2025</ref>


=== Christianity<!--'Inclusive Christianity', 'Inclusive Theology', and 'Inclusive theology' redirect here--> ===
=== Christianity<!--'Inclusive Christianity', 'Inclusive Theology', and 'Inclusive theology' redirect here--> ===
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Christian supporters of inclusivism include [[Augustus Hopkins Strong]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Strong |first=Anthony H. |title=Systematic Theology |date=1907 |publisher=Revell |location=Old Tappan, NJ |pages=842–43 |oclc=878559610 |orig-year=1886}}</ref> [[C. S. Lewis]],<ref>Lewis, 1967, ''[[Mere Christianity]]'', New York: Macmillan, 65.</ref><ref>John Sanders, 1992, ''No Other Name: An Investigation into the Destiny of the Unevangelized'', Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 251–57.</ref><ref>John Sanders, 1992,''No Other Name: An Investigation into the Destiny of the Unevangelized'', Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 249–51.</ref>  [[Clark Pinnock]],<ref>Clark Pinnock, 1992, ''A Wideness in God's Mercy: The Finality of Jesus Christ in a World of Religions'', Grand Rapids: Zondervan.</ref> [[Karl Rahner]], [[John E. Sanders]], Terrance L. Tiessen, and Robert Brush (contributor to ''The [[Arminian]] Magazine''). While [[Billy Graham]] mostly preached "salvation by faith in Christ alone" throughout his 60-year ministry as an [[Evangelism|evangelist]], he later made controversial comments that bordered on inclusivism. He stated that he did not like to refer to it by that term because he was concerned that many people mean [[Christian universalism|universalism]] when they refer to inclusivism. Graham said, "I used to play God but I can’t do that any more. I used to believe that pagans in far-off countries were lost and were going to [[Hell]]—if they did not have the Gospel of Jesus Christ preached to them. I no longer believe that," he said carefully. "I believe that there are other ways of recognizing the existence of God—through nature, for instance—and plenty of other opportunities, therefore, of saying ’yes’ to God."<ref>"I Can't Play God Anymore" interview with James M. Beam, ''McCall's Magazine'', January 1978, pp. 154–58</ref>
Christian supporters of inclusivism include [[Augustus Hopkins Strong]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Strong |first=Anthony H. |title=Systematic Theology |date=1907 |publisher=Revell |location=Old Tappan, NJ |pages=842–43 |oclc=878559610 |orig-year=1886}}</ref> [[C. S. Lewis]],<ref>Lewis, 1967, ''[[Mere Christianity]]'', New York: Macmillan, 65.</ref><ref>John Sanders, 1992, ''No Other Name: An Investigation into the Destiny of the Unevangelized'', Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 251–57.</ref><ref>John Sanders, 1992,''No Other Name: An Investigation into the Destiny of the Unevangelized'', Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 249–51.</ref>  [[Clark Pinnock]],<ref>Clark Pinnock, 1992, ''A Wideness in God's Mercy: The Finality of Jesus Christ in a World of Religions'', Grand Rapids: Zondervan.</ref> [[Karl Rahner]], [[John E. Sanders]], Terrance L. Tiessen, and Robert Brush (contributor to ''The [[Arminian]] Magazine''). While [[Billy Graham]] mostly preached "salvation by faith in Christ alone" throughout his 60-year ministry as an [[Evangelism|evangelist]], he later made controversial comments that bordered on inclusivism. He stated that he did not like to refer to it by that term because he was concerned that many people mean [[Christian universalism|universalism]] when they refer to inclusivism. Graham said, "I used to play God but I can’t do that any more. I used to believe that pagans in far-off countries were lost and were going to [[Hell]]—if they did not have the Gospel of Jesus Christ preached to them. I no longer believe that," he said carefully. "I believe that there are other ways of recognizing the existence of God—through nature, for instance—and plenty of other opportunities, therefore, of saying ’yes’ to God."<ref>"I Can't Play God Anymore" interview with James M. Beam, ''McCall's Magazine'', January 1978, pp. 154–58</ref>


Some [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]]{{who|date=September 2022}} and [[Reformed Christianity|Reformed Protestant]] scholars believe that God judges all people based on their response to the [[Holy Spirit]], citing [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] [[Romans 2|2]]:14–15 as evidence that those following a natural moral law are still following God.{{efn|Davies and Allison wrote: {{blockquote|Rather did he hold the position stated in the [[Apocalypse of Sedrach]]: 'there are nations which have no law, yet fulfill the law; they are not baptized, but my divine Spirit enters them and they are converted to my baptism, and I receive them with my righteous ones in the [[bosom of Abraham]]. [There were rabbis who taught that righteous heathen would be saved: ''t. Sanh''. 13.2; ''b. Sanh''. 105a. Recall also Paul's thoughts in [Rom 2.14-16: Gentiles who do the law written on their hearts may have good consciences on the last day.]<br/>The context, however, does not explicitly teach two judgements; and we are not persuaded that 'the least' are to be identified with Christians (see below). Further, we have little doubt before Matthew, the scene concerned all humanity. At the same time, 25.31-46 may very well imply that Matthew thought salvation possible for those outside the church. We are reminded of Karl Rahner's so-called 'anonymous Christian'.}}}}<ref name="Davies a. Allison">Davies, W. D.; Allison, Dale C.: ''A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew''. In: ''Vol. 3. T&T Clark'' published in: ''1997 and 2004'' {{ISBN|978-0-567-08518-4}}</ref> Some interpret this text more inclusively, suggesting that non-Christians also inherently possess a part of God's wisdom in their hearts as an integral aspect of who they are. They interpret Genesis 20:9–11 and [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 5:1 to illustrate that there are non-Christians or non-Jews who, guided by their inherent understanding of God's law, may lead lives that are more pleasing to God than those of some Jews and Christians.<ref name="Fesko">Dr. J. V. Fesko: ''Die Schöpfung bezeugt den Schöpfer: Die klassisch-reformierte Theologie und die Verteidigung des Glaubens''. In: ''evangelium21.net'' 81375 Munich GER., first published in: ''Tabletalk Magazin Edition July 2019'' [[Ligonier Ministries]].</ref> By [[Romans 1]]:19–20, inclusive Christians often argue that this description would imply that God—in parts—can be recognized by any human being, no matter their religion or cultural background, as well as independent from its geographic and/or its chronologic whereabouts. This would also include the domain of modern science as it studies the universe, as implied in [[Psalm 19]]:2–5.<ref name="Hägele">Peter C. Hägele: In: ''Naturwissenschaftler reden von Gott'' chapter ''Menschen, Makromoleküle und Modelle'', page 4 (eBook-Format), 2016, author Hrsg. Barbara Drossel, Brunnen Verlag Giessen GER., {{ISBN|978-3-7655-7370-5}}</ref> Other verses cited as supporting inclusivism include [[Acts]] [[Acts 17|17]]:23–28, wherein Paul says that the (pagan) Greeks had been worshiping God without knowing it and that their poets have partially recognized the true nature of God.<ref name="Fesko" /><ref name="Bouteneff">Peter C. Bouteneff: In: ''The future of Interreligious Dialogue: A Multireligious Conversation on Nostra Aetate'' chapter 8 ''Nostra Aetate: Views from a sibling on inclusivism and pluralism'', page 145, 2017, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, New York 10545, {{ISBN|978-1-62698-245-1}}</ref> Inclusive Christians from various denominations argue that Colossians 1:16 suggests the universe, in its creatureliness, is part of God's being and integral to the eternal reality of [[Christ (title)|the Christ]].<ref name="Rohr2">Richard Rohr OFM: ''The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe''. In: ''A Universal and Personal God, pages 20-22 (eBook-Format)'' Durnell Wiley first published in 2019, {{ISBN|978-0-281-07862-2}}</ref> Another Christian Biblical proof text inclusive believers use is [[Acts]] [[Acts 10|10]]:1–48, which would state that whoever fears God and does good works is accepted by him, regardless of nation. In addition, the [[Parable of the Sheep and the Goats]] ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] [[Matthew 25|25]]:31–46) portrays the judgment of the nations as being based on each individual's compassion toward others, not on their religious background.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} It is often argued that the connection between the biblical verses in Genesis 2:7 and Genesis 7:21-22 serves as strong evidence that every living organism contains essential elements of the living God within itself, specifically through the breath of God.<ref name="Pike">Dana M. Pike: ''The Latter-day Saint Reimaging of “the Breath of Life” (Genesis 2:7) - The Breath of Life” in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament''. In: https://byustudies.byu.edu/article/the-latter-day-saint-reimaging-of-the-breath-of-life-genesis-27/, last checked 07.27.2023</ref>
Some [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]]{{who|date=September 2022}} and [[Reformed Christianity|Reformed Protestant]] scholars believe that God judges all people based on their response to the [[Holy Spirit]], citing [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] [[Romans 2|2]]:14–15 as evidence that those following a natural moral law are still following God.{{efn|Davies and Allison wrote: {{blockquote|Rather did he hold the position stated in the [[Apocalypse of Sedrach]]: 'there are nations which have no law, yet fulfill the law; they are not baptized, but my divine Spirit enters them and they are converted to my baptism, and I receive them with my righteous ones in the [[bosom of Abraham]]. [There were rabbis who taught that righteous heathen would be saved: ''t. Sanh''. 13.2; ''b. Sanh''. 105a. Recall also Paul's thoughts in [Rom 2.14-16: Gentiles who do the law written on their hearts may have good consciences on the last day.]<br/>The context, however, does not explicitly teach two judgements; and we are not persuaded that 'the least' are to be identified with Christians (see below). Further, we have little doubt before Matthew, the scene concerned all humanity. At the same time, 25.31-46 may very well imply that Matthew thought salvation possible for those outside the church. We are reminded of Karl Rahner's so-called 'anonymous Christian'.}}}}<ref name="Davies a. Allison">Davies, W. D.; Allison, Dale C.: ''A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew''. In: ''Vol. 3. T&T Clark'' published in: ''1997 and 2004'' {{ISBN|978-0-567-08518-4}}</ref> Some interpret this text more inclusively, suggesting that non-Christians also inherently possess a part of God's wisdom in their hearts as an integral aspect of who they are. They interpret Genesis 20:9–11 and [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 5:1 to illustrate that there are non-Christians or non-Jews who, guided by their inherent understanding of God's law, may lead lives that are more pleasing to God than those of some Jews and Christians.<ref name="Fesko">Dr. J. V. Fesko: ''Die Schöpfung bezeugt den Schöpfer: Die klassisch-reformierte Theologie und die Verteidigung des Glaubens''. In: ''evangelium21.net'' 81375 Munich GER., first published in: ''Tabletalk Magazin Edition July 2019'' [[Ligonier Ministries]].</ref> Other inclusivistic scholars argue, that the Holy Spirit can be active in a variety of religions and cultures as well as that there can be deep wisdom about God hidden in other religious traditions.<ref>Nikolaos Tsirevelos & Blerta Baba: ''1. Theological conditions'' chapter 2 ''Living together in a pluralistic world - Highlighting the importance of interreligious and intercultural dialogue through preaching and education in the Orthodox church'' In: ''Theology & Culture The Academic Journal of the Department of Theology and Culture University College Logos, Volume 8, June 2024'' , Pages 36 - 37, 2024, Durrës, {{ISSN|2708-6755}}</ref> By [[Romans 1]]:19–20, inclusive Christians often argue that this description would imply that God—in parts—can be recognized by any human being, no matter their religion or cultural background, as well as independent from its geographic and/or its chronologic whereabouts. This would also include the domain of modern science as it studies the universe, as implied in [[Psalm 19]]:2–5.<ref name="Hägele">Peter C. Hägele: In: ''Naturwissenschaftler reden von Gott'' chapter ''Menschen, Makromoleküle und Modelle'', page 4 (eBook-Format), 2016, author Hrsg. Barbara Drossel, Brunnen Verlag Giessen GER., {{ISBN|978-3-7655-7370-5}}</ref> Other verses cited as supporting inclusivism include [[Acts]] [[Acts 17|17]]:23–28, wherein Paul says that the (pagan) Greeks had been worshiping God without knowing it and that their poets have partially recognized the true nature of God.<ref name="Fesko" /><ref name="Bouteneff">Peter C. Bouteneff: In: ''The future of Interreligious Dialogue: A Multireligious Conversation on Nostra Aetate'' chapter 8 ''Nostra Aetate: Views from a sibling on inclusivism and pluralism'', page 145, 2017, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, New York 10545, {{ISBN|978-1-62698-245-1}}</ref><ref name="Feldmeier">Peter Feldmeier: In: ''Perils and Possibilities of Multiple Religions Belonging: Test Case in Roman Catholicism'' chapter 2 ''Preliminary foundations: theology of religions'', page 76, 2017, De Gruyter Open - magazin "Open Theology", De Gruyter Brill, Berlin, www.degruyterbrill.com, last retrieved 06-28-2025</ref> Inclusive Christians from various denominations argue that Colossians 1:16 suggests the universe, in its creatureliness, is part of God's being and integral to the eternal reality of [[Christ (title)|the Christ]].<ref name="Rohr2">Richard Rohr OFM: ''The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe''. In: ''A Universal and Personal God, pages 20-22 (eBook-Format)'' Durnell Wiley first published in 2019, {{ISBN|978-0-281-07862-2}}</ref> Another Christian Biblical proof text inclusive believers use is [[Acts]] [[Acts 10|10]]:1–48, which would state that whoever fears God and does good works is accepted by him, regardless of nation. In addition, the [[Parable of the Sheep and the Goats]] ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] [[Matthew 25|25]]:31–46) portrays the judgment of the nations as being based on each individual's compassion toward others, not on their religious background.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} It is often argued that the connection between the biblical verses in Genesis 2:7 and Genesis 7:21-22 serves as strong evidence that every living organism contains essential elements of the living God within itself, specifically through the breath of God.<ref name="Pike">Dana M. Pike: ''The Latter-day Saint Reimaging of “the Breath of Life” (Genesis 2:7) - The Breath of Life” in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament''. In: https://byustudies.byu.edu/article/the-latter-day-saint-reimaging-of-the-breath-of-life-genesis-27/, last checked 07.27.2023</ref>


Inclusive interpretations of the Christian Bible, as understood by many inclusive Christians, suggest that God can be experienced in other religions and disciplines, such as science. However, these interpretations typically emphasize that to experience a deep and intimate relationship with God, connecting with the person of Jesus and acknowledging the reality of the ''[[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]'' is essential. Furthermore, they assert that a complete relationship with God involves recognizing Jesus's and God's inclusive and universal nature. This encompasses a personal relationship with Jesus and an understanding of the broader, inclusive concept of divinity.<ref name="Rohr3">Richard Rohr OFM: ''The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe''. In: ''A Universal and Personal God, pages 22-23 (eBook-Format)'' Durnell Wiley first published in 2019, {{ISBN|978-0-281-07862-2}}</ref>
Inclusive interpretations of the Christian Bible, as understood by many inclusive Christians, suggest that God can be experienced in other religions and disciplines, such as science. However, these interpretations typically emphasize that to experience a deep and intimate relationship with God, connecting with the person of Jesus and acknowledging the reality of the ''[[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]'' is essential. Furthermore, they assert that a complete relationship with God involves recognizing Jesus's and God's inclusive and universal nature. This encompasses a personal relationship with Jesus and an understanding of the broader, inclusive concept of divinity.<ref name="Rohr3">Richard Rohr OFM: ''The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe''. In: ''A Universal and Personal God, pages 22-23 (eBook-Format)'' Durnell Wiley first published in 2019, {{ISBN|978-0-281-07862-2}}</ref>


The doctrine of inclusivism is held by [[Unitarian Universalism]], a [[Religious liberalism|liberal religion]] with Christian origins,<ref name="Keller Ruether Cantlon 2006 p. 1273">{{cite book | last1=Keller | first1=R.S. | last2=Ruether | first2=R.R. | last3=Cantlon | first3=M. | title=Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America: Women in North American Catholicism | publisher=Indiana University Press | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-253-34688-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ffc15PaJ74AC&pg=PA1273 | access-date=2023-02-17 | page=1273}}</ref><ref name="Gallagher Willsky-Ciollo 2021 p. 634">{{cite book | last1=Gallagher | first1=E.V. | last2=Willsky-Ciollo | first2=L. | title=New Religions: Emerging Faiths and Religious Cultures in the Modern World [2 volumes] | publisher=ABC-CLIO | year=2021 | isbn=978-1-4408-6236-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Id4aEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA634 | access-date=2023-02-17 | page=634}}</ref> some [[Roman Catholic]]s <ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en.html |title= Nostra aetate | publisher = Vatican |access-date= 2014-06-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081220214550/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en.html |archive-date= 2008-12-20 |url-status= live}}</ref> and [[Seventh-day Adventist]]s, asserting that while Christianity is the "one true faith", other faiths are at least partially true.
The doctrine of inclusivism is held by [[Unitarian Universalism]], a [[Religious liberalism|liberal religion]] with Christian origins,<ref name="Keller Ruether Cantlon 2006 p. 1273">{{cite book | last1=Keller | first1=R.S. | last2=Ruether | first2=R.R. | last3=Cantlon | first3=M. | title=Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America: Women in North American Catholicism | publisher=Indiana University Press | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-253-34688-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ffc15PaJ74AC&pg=PA1273 | access-date=2023-02-17 | page=1273}}</ref><ref name="Gallagher Willsky-Ciollo 2021 p. 634">{{cite book | last1=Gallagher | first1=E.V. | last2=Willsky-Ciollo | first2=L. | title=New Religions: Emerging Faiths and Religious Cultures in the Modern World [2 volumes] | publisher=ABC-CLIO | year=2021 | isbn=978-1-4408-6236-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Id4aEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA634 | access-date=2023-02-17 | page=634}}</ref> some [[Roman Catholic]]s <ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en.html |title= Nostra aetate | publisher = Vatican |access-date= 2014-06-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081220214550/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en.html |archive-date= 2008-12-20 |url-status= live}}</ref><ref>Peter Feldmeier: In: ''Perils and Possibilities of Multiple Religions Belonging: Test Case in Roman Catholicism'' chapter 3.1 ''History through Vatican II'', page 78, 2017, De Gruyter Open - magazin "Open Theology", De Gruyter Brill, Berlin, www.degruyterbrill.com, last retrieved 07-02-2025</ref> and [[Seventh-day Adventist]]s, asserting that while Christianity is the "one true faith", other faiths are at least partially true.


An alternative use for the term "inclusive theology"<ref name="Feminism Theology ">{{cite web | url=https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/7966/Toward_Inclusive_Theology.pdf%3Bsequence=1 | title=Toward an Inclusive Theology: The Systematic Implications of the Feminist Critique | accessdate=28 February 2019 | author=Randy L. Maddox| date=September 1986 }}</ref> has to do with a movement called [[feminist theology]], which aims to include more women in religious [[clergy]] roles that have been historically unavailable to women.
An alternative use for the term "inclusive theology"<ref name="Feminism Theology ">{{cite web | url=https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/7966/Toward_Inclusive_Theology.pdf%3Bsequence=1 | title=Toward an Inclusive Theology: The Systematic Implications of the Feminist Critique | accessdate=28 February 2019 | author=Randy L. Maddox| date=September 1986 }}</ref> has to do with a movement called [[feminist theology]], which aims to include more women in religious [[clergy]] roles that have been historically unavailable to women.


From an inclusive theological perspective, it is believed that a faith community can nurture the development of corresponding religious, spiritual, ecclesiastical, and interdisciplinary institutions. Examples of this are the [[Pontifical Academy of Sciences]], the [[Pontifical Council for Culture]], or the [[Dicastery for Interreligious Dialogue]]. In all Catholic Church institutions, relationships with other disciplines and religions are nurtured due to the Bible's fundamental inclusivist theological understanding.<ref name="STATEMENT BY CARD. TARCISIO BERTONE SECRETARY OF STATE">The Holy See:[https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/secretariat_state/card-bertone/2006/documents/rc_seg-st_20060916_dichiarazione_en.html ''Statement by Card. Tarcisio Bertone Secretary Of State''], last retrieved December 2023, First published September 2006.</ref>
From an inclusive theological perspective, it is believed that a faith community can nurture the development of corresponding religious, spiritual, ecclesiastical, and interdisciplinary institutions. Examples of this are the [[Pontifical Academy of Sciences]], the [[Pontifical Council for Culture]], or the [[Dicastery for Interreligious Dialogue]].<ref>Peter Feldmeier: In: ''Perils and Possibilities of Multiple Religions Belonging: Test Case in Roman Catholicism'' chapter 3.2 ''Beyound Vatican II'', page 80-81, 2017, De Gruyter Open - magazin "Open Theology", De Gruyter Brill, Berlin, www.degruyterbrill.com, last retrieved 07-02-2025</ref> In all Catholic Church institutions, relationships with other disciplines and religions are nurtured due to the Bible's fundamental inclusivist theological understanding.<ref name="STATEMENT BY CARD. TARCISIO BERTONE SECRETARY OF STATE">The Holy See:[https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/secretariat_state/card-bertone/2006/documents/rc_seg-st_20060916_dichiarazione_en.html ''Statement by Card. Tarcisio Bertone Secretary Of State''], last retrieved December 2023, First published September 2006.</ref>


=== Baháʼí Faith ===
=== Baháʼí Faith ===
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*[[Ger toshav]]
*[[Ger toshav]]
* [[Pope John Paul II#Islam|Pope John Paul II's ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' on Islam]]
* [[Pope John Paul II#Islam|Pope John Paul II's ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' on Islam]]
*[[Karl Rahner]]
* [[Anonymous Christian]]
** [[Anonymous Christian]]
*[[Ecumenism]]
*[[Ecumenism]]


Latest revision as of 15:04, 5 December 2025

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Inclusivism is one of several approaches in religious studies, anthropology, or civics to understand the relationship between different religions, societies, cultures, political factions etc. It asserts that there is beauty in the variety of different schools of thoughts, and that they can coexist.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". It stands in contrast to exclusivism, which asserts that only one way is true and all others are erroneous.

Within religious studies and theology, inclusivism is the belief that, although only one belief system is true, aspects of its truth can be found in other religions. This is contrasted from religious pluralism, which asserts that all beliefs are equally valid within a believer's particular context.[1]

Typology

Broadly speaking, there are two schools of Inclusivist thought:

  • Relativistic inclusivism, which asserts that the believer's own views are true only in their particular context, and believers of other traditions have their own validity.
  • Absolutist inclusivism, which asserts that an unknown set of assertions are Absolutely True, that no human being currently living has yet ascertained absolute truth, but that all human beings have partially ascertained absolute truth.

By religion

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Ancient Greece

Interpretatio graeca was the tendency of ancient Greek writers to equate foreign divinities to members of their own pantheon. Herodotus, for example, refers to the ancient Egyptian gods Amon, Osiris, and Ptah as "Zeus," "Dionysus," and "Hephaestus," respectively. [2][3] This could be seen as an example of inclusivism as well as syncretism.

Syncretism functioned as an essential feature of Ancient Greek religion. Later on, Hellenism, a consequence of Alexander the Great's belief that he was the son of a god, reinforced by the Oracle of Zeus-Ammon at Siwa in Egypt, itself showed syncretic features, essentially blending Persian, Anatolian, Egyptian (and eventually Etruscan-Roman) elements within Hellenic formulations. After the Hellenization of the Egyptian culture initiated by Ptolemy I Soter, Isis became known as "Queen of Heaven" and was worshipped in many aspects and by many names besides that of Hera.

Hinduism

A well-known hymn in the Hindu Rigveda claims that "Truth is One, though the sages know it variously", proclaiming a pluralistic view of religion. Krishna, an Avatar of Vishnu, the supreme deity in Vaishnavism, said in the Gita, "In whatever way men identify with Me, in the same way do I carry out their desires; men pursue My path... in all ways" (Gita 4:11).[4] He also said that "Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me" (Gita 7:21–22). Another quote in the Gita states: "O Arjuna, even those devotees who worship other lesser deities (e.g., Devas, for example) with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, Yajna) and Lord of the universe" (Gita 9:23).[5]

Christianity

Script error: No such module "Distinguish". Inclusive Christianity, also called inclusive theology,[6] is an interpretation of the Bible that maintains that God desires and has the power to save individuals irrespective of the tradition in which they are born.[7][8] Some Christian supporters of the inclusive view make a distinction between Christians and believers in maintaining that all Christians are believers. However, not all believers are Christians. In this line of thought, Christians are believers in the universal truth and follow and confess it under the biblical name "Jesus Christ". At the same time, they argue, some non-Christian believers of other religions, traditions, and disciplines would partially trust in the same one and only truth but under a different linguistic name. Inclusive Christians support these claims by citing certain passages from the Bible.[9][10] Inclusive theology is rooted in a wider movement called "interfaith"[11] that aims to create unity among various religions. The inclusive interpretation is a minority view in some churches but is considered an official theological doctrine in others.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Christian supporters of inclusivism include Augustus Hopkins Strong,[12] C. S. Lewis,[13][14][15] Clark Pinnock,[16] Karl Rahner, John E. Sanders, Terrance L. Tiessen, and Robert Brush (contributor to The Arminian Magazine). While Billy Graham mostly preached "salvation by faith in Christ alone" throughout his 60-year ministry as an evangelist, he later made controversial comments that bordered on inclusivism. He stated that he did not like to refer to it by that term because he was concerned that many people mean universalism when they refer to inclusivism. Graham said, "I used to play God but I can’t do that any more. I used to believe that pagans in far-off countries were lost and were going to Hell—if they did not have the Gospel of Jesus Christ preached to them. I no longer believe that," he said carefully. "I believe that there are other ways of recognizing the existence of God—through nature, for instance—and plenty of other opportunities, therefore, of saying ’yes’ to God."[17]

Some EvangelicalScript error: No such module "Unsubst". and Reformed Protestant scholars believe that God judges all people based on their response to the Holy Spirit, citing Romans 2:14–15 as evidence that those following a natural moral law are still following God.Template:Efn[18] Some interpret this text more inclusively, suggesting that non-Christians also inherently possess a part of God's wisdom in their hearts as an integral aspect of who they are. They interpret Genesis 20:9–11 and 1 Corinthians 5:1 to illustrate that there are non-Christians or non-Jews who, guided by their inherent understanding of God's law, may lead lives that are more pleasing to God than those of some Jews and Christians.[19] Other inclusivistic scholars argue, that the Holy Spirit can be active in a variety of religions and cultures as well as that there can be deep wisdom about God hidden in other religious traditions.[20] By Romans 1:19–20, inclusive Christians often argue that this description would imply that God—in parts—can be recognized by any human being, no matter their religion or cultural background, as well as independent from its geographic and/or its chronologic whereabouts. This would also include the domain of modern science as it studies the universe, as implied in Psalm 19:2–5.[21] Other verses cited as supporting inclusivism include Acts 17:23–28, wherein Paul says that the (pagan) Greeks had been worshiping God without knowing it and that their poets have partially recognized the true nature of God.[19][22][23] Inclusive Christians from various denominations argue that Colossians 1:16 suggests the universe, in its creatureliness, is part of God's being and integral to the eternal reality of the Christ.[24] Another Christian Biblical proof text inclusive believers use is Acts 10:1–48, which would state that whoever fears God and does good works is accepted by him, regardless of nation. In addition, the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats (Matthew 25:31–46) portrays the judgment of the nations as being based on each individual's compassion toward others, not on their religious background.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". It is often argued that the connection between the biblical verses in Genesis 2:7 and Genesis 7:21-22 serves as strong evidence that every living organism contains essential elements of the living God within itself, specifically through the breath of God.[25]

Inclusive interpretations of the Christian Bible, as understood by many inclusive Christians, suggest that God can be experienced in other religions and disciplines, such as science. However, these interpretations typically emphasize that to experience a deep and intimate relationship with God, connecting with the person of Jesus and acknowledging the reality of the Logos is essential. Furthermore, they assert that a complete relationship with God involves recognizing Jesus's and God's inclusive and universal nature. This encompasses a personal relationship with Jesus and an understanding of the broader, inclusive concept of divinity.[26]

The doctrine of inclusivism is held by Unitarian Universalism, a liberal religion with Christian origins,[27][28] some Roman Catholics [29][30] and Seventh-day Adventists, asserting that while Christianity is the "one true faith", other faiths are at least partially true.

An alternative use for the term "inclusive theology"[31] has to do with a movement called feminist theology, which aims to include more women in religious clergy roles that have been historically unavailable to women.

From an inclusive theological perspective, it is believed that a faith community can nurture the development of corresponding religious, spiritual, ecclesiastical, and interdisciplinary institutions. Examples of this are the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, the Pontifical Council for Culture, or the Dicastery for Interreligious Dialogue.[32] In all Catholic Church institutions, relationships with other disciplines and religions are nurtured due to the Bible's fundamental inclusivist theological understanding.[33]

Baháʼí Faith

Shoghi Effendi, the head of the Baháʼí Faith in the first half of the 20th century, stated:

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The fundamental principle enunciated by Bahá'u'lláh, the followers of His Faith firmly believe, is that religious truth is not absolute but relative, that Divine Revelation is a continuous and progressive process, that all the great religions of the world are divine in origin, that their basic principles are in complete harmony, that their aims and purposes are one and the same, that their teachings are but facets of one truth, that their functions are complementary, that they differ only in the nonessential aspects of their doctrines, and that their missions represent successive stages in the spiritual evolution of human society.[34][35]

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See also

Notes

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References

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  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Kunsthistorisches Museum, Maria-Theresien-Platz, 1010 Vienna: on: https://www.khm.at/en/artworks/maske-zeus-ammon-50244-1#:~:text=Der%20ägyptische%20Fruchtbarkeitsgott%20Amun%20wurde%20von%20den,Kaiserzeit%20aber%20nur%20mehr%20zu%20dekorativer%20Verwendung., last retrieved 09-19-2025
  3. ↑ Liebieghaus Skulpturensammlung, Schaumainkai, 7160596 Frankfurt am Main, on: https://liebieghaus.de/en/antike/head-zeus-ammon#:~:text=While%20Zeus%20was%20the%20most,Ammon%20(Amun%2DRe). , last retrieved 09-19-2025
  4. ↑ Jeffery D. Long: In: BHAGAVĀN ŚRĪ KṚṢṆA: DEEP RELIGIOUS PLURALIST? - Religious Pluralism in the Bhagavad Gītā chapter 2 Religious Pluralism in the Bhagavad Gītā, page 6, 2010, Journal of Vaiṣṇava Studies, Gainesville, FL, 32609, www.academia.edu and www.ivsjournal.com, last retrieved 07-02-2025
  5. ↑ Jeffery D. Long: In: BHAGAVĀN ŚRĪ KṚṢṆA: DEEP RELIGIOUS PLURALIST? - Religious Pluralism in the Bhagavad Gītā chapter 2 Religious Pluralism in the Bhagavad Gītā, page 7, 2010, Journal of Vaiṣṇava Studies, Gainesville, FL, 32609, www.academia.edu and www.ivsjournal.com, last retrieved 08-15-2025
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Richard Rohr OFM: The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe. In: A Universal and Personal God, page 24 (eBook-Format) Durnell Wiley first published in 2019, Template:ISBN
  10. ↑ Gavin D’Costa: Theology and Religious Pluralism: The Challenge of Other Religions. page 80 New York, Basil Blackwell, published in 1986, Template:ISBN
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Lewis, 1967, Mere Christianity, New York: Macmillan, 65.
  14. ↑ John Sanders, 1992, No Other Name: An Investigation into the Destiny of the Unevangelized, Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 251–57.
  15. ↑ John Sanders, 1992,No Other Name: An Investigation into the Destiny of the Unevangelized, Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 249–51.
  16. ↑ Clark Pinnock, 1992, A Wideness in God's Mercy: The Finality of Jesus Christ in a World of Religions, Grand Rapids: Zondervan.
  17. ↑ "I Can't Play God Anymore" interview with James M. Beam, McCall's Magazine, January 1978, pp. 154–58
  18. ↑ Davies, W. D.; Allison, Dale C.: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew. In: Vol. 3. T&T Clark published in: 1997 and 2004 Template:ISBN
  19. ↑ a b Dr. J. V. Fesko: Die Schöpfung bezeugt den Schöpfer: Die klassisch-reformierte Theologie und die Verteidigung des Glaubens. In: evangelium21.net 81375 Munich GER., first published in: Tabletalk Magazin Edition July 2019 Ligonier Ministries.
  20. ↑ Nikolaos Tsirevelos & Blerta Baba: 1. Theological conditions chapter 2 Living together in a pluralistic world - Highlighting the importance of interreligious and intercultural dialogue through preaching and education in the Orthodox church In: Theology & Culture The Academic Journal of the Department of Theology and Culture University College Logos, Volume 8, June 2024 , Pages 36 - 37, 2024, Durrës, Template:Catalog lookup linkScript error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn".
  21. ↑ Peter C. Hägele: In: Naturwissenschaftler reden von Gott chapter Menschen, Makromoleküle und Modelle, page 4 (eBook-Format), 2016, author Hrsg. Barbara Drossel, Brunnen Verlag Giessen GER., Template:ISBN
  22. ↑ Peter C. Bouteneff: In: The future of Interreligious Dialogue: A Multireligious Conversation on Nostra Aetate chapter 8 Nostra Aetate: Views from a sibling on inclusivism and pluralism, page 145, 2017, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, New York 10545, Template:ISBN
  23. ↑ Peter Feldmeier: In: Perils and Possibilities of Multiple Religions Belonging: Test Case in Roman Catholicism chapter 2 Preliminary foundations: theology of religions, page 76, 2017, De Gruyter Open - magazin "Open Theology", De Gruyter Brill, Berlin, www.degruyterbrill.com, last retrieved 06-28-2025
  24. ↑ Richard Rohr OFM: The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe. In: A Universal and Personal God, pages 20-22 (eBook-Format) Durnell Wiley first published in 2019, Template:ISBN
  25. ↑ Dana M. Pike: The Latter-day Saint Reimaging of “the Breath of Life” (Genesis 2:7) - The Breath of Life” in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. In: https://byustudies.byu.edu/article/the-latter-day-saint-reimaging-of-the-breath-of-life-genesis-27/, last checked 07.27.2023
  26. ↑ Richard Rohr OFM: The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe. In: A Universal and Personal God, pages 22-23 (eBook-Format) Durnell Wiley first published in 2019, Template:ISBN
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Peter Feldmeier: In: Perils and Possibilities of Multiple Religions Belonging: Test Case in Roman Catholicism chapter 3.1 History through Vatican II, page 78, 2017, De Gruyter Open - magazin "Open Theology", De Gruyter Brill, Berlin, www.degruyterbrill.com, last retrieved 07-02-2025
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  32. ↑ Peter Feldmeier: In: Perils and Possibilities of Multiple Religions Belonging: Test Case in Roman Catholicism chapter 3.2 Beyound Vatican II, page 80-81, 2017, De Gruyter Open - magazin "Open Theology", De Gruyter Brill, Berlin, www.degruyterbrill.com, last retrieved 07-02-2025
  33. ↑ The Holy See:Statement by Card. Tarcisio Bertone Secretary Of State, last retrieved December 2023, First published September 2006.
  34. ↑ The Faith of Bahá'u'lláh" in World Order, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1972–73)
  35. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

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