Columbian exchange: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 21:20, 28 December 2025

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The Columbian exchange, also known as the Columbian interchange, was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between the New World (the Americas) in the Western Hemisphere, and the Old World (Afro-Eurasia) in the Eastern Hemisphere, from the late 15th century on. It is named after the explorer Christopher Columbus and is related to the European colonization and global trade following his 1492 voyage. Some of the exchanges were deliberate while others were unintended. Communicable diseases of Old World origin resulted in an 80 to 95 percent reduction in the Indigenous population of the Americas from the 15th century onwards, and their near extinction in the Caribbean.

The cultures of both hemispheres were significantly impacted by the migration of people, both free and enslaved, from the Old World to the New. European colonists and African slaves replaced Indigenous populations across the Americas, to varying degrees. The number of Africans taken to the New World was far greater than the number of Europeans moving there in the first three centuries after Columbus.

The new contacts among the global population resulted in the interchange of many species of crops and livestock, which supported increases in food production and population in the Old World. American crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, cassava, sweet potatoes, and chili peppers became important crops around the world. Old World rice, wheat, sugar cane, and livestock, among other crops, became important in the New World.

The term was first used in 1972 by the American historian and professor Alfred W. Crosby in his environmental history book The Columbian Exchange. It was rapidly adopted by other historians and by journalists.

Etymology

File:BRI Columbian Exchange.jpg

The Columbian exchange of crop plants, livestock, and diseases went in both directions between the Old World and the New World.

In 1972, Alfred W. Crosby, an American historian at the University of Texas at Austin, published the book The Columbian Exchange,Template:Sfn thus coining the term.^[1] His primary focus was mapping the biological and cultural transfers that occurred between the Old and New Worlds. He studied the effects of Columbus's voyages between the two – specifically, the global diffusion of crops, seeds, and plants from the New World to the Old, which radically transformed agriculture in both regions.^[1]^[2]

His research made a lasting contribution to the way scholars understand the variety of contemporary ecosystems that arose due to these transfers.^[2]^[3] His 1986 book Ecological Imperialism presented further research in the field.Template:Sfn

Background

The scientific consensus is that humans first came to the New World from Siberia thousands of years ago. There is little additional evidence of contacts between the peoples of the Old World and those of the New World, although the literature speculating on pre-Columbian trans-oceanic journeys is extensive. The first inhabitants of the New World brought with them small domestic dogs and, possibly, a container, the calabash, both of which persisted in their new home.^[4] The medieval explorations, visits, and brief residence of the Norsemen in Greenland, Newfoundland, and Vinland in the late 10th century and 11th century had no known impact on the Americas,^[5] though the small perennial Rumex acetosella (sheep's sorrel) appeared in Greenland at that time.^[6]

Many scientists accept that possible contact between Polynesians and coastal peoples in South America around the year 1200 resulted in genetic similarities and the adoption by Polynesians of an American crop, the sweet potato.^[7] However, it was only with the first voyage of the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus and his crew to the Americas in 1492 that the Columbian exchange began, resulting in major transformations in the cultures and livelihoods of the peoples in both hemispheres.^[8]

Biological exchanges

Of plants

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File:The Florentine Codex- Maize.tif

The 16th century Florentine Codex by the Spanish friar Bernardino de Sahagún provided an early depiction of maize, one of the plants the Spanish brought to the Old World.

Because of the new trading resulting from the Columbian exchange, several plants native to the Americas spread around the world, including potatoes, maize, tomatoes, and tobacco.^[9] Before 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of South America. By the 18th century, they were cultivated and consumed widely in Europe and had become important crops in both India and North America. Potatoes eventually became an important staple food in the diets of many Europeans, contributing to an estimated 12 to 25% of the population growth in Afro-Eurasia between 1700 and 1900.^[10] The introduction of the potato to the Old World accounts for 47 percent of the increase in urbanization between 1700 and 1900.^[11] Cassava was introduced from South America by the Portuguese in the 16th century,^[12] and gradually replaced sorghum and millet as Africa's most important food crop.^[13] Spanish colonizers of the 16th century introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and sweet potatoes, contributing to population growth there.^[14] On a larger scale, the introduction of potatoes and maize to the Old World improved people's nutrition throughout the Eurasian landmass,^[11] enabling more varied and abundant food production.Template:Sfn Cassava and maize can have negative consequences when overused (for example, the nutritional diseases pellagra and konzo).^[11]

The discovery of the Americas provided the Old World with new arable landscapes suitable for growing sugarcane and coffee.^[11] Coffee, introduced in the Americas circa 1720 from Africa and the Middle East, and sugarcane, introduced from the Indian subcontinent to the Spanish West Indies, subsequently became the primary commodity crops and exported goods of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, chili peppers and potatoes from South America in turn became integral parts of Indian cuisine, and starting the process of making curry an international dish.^[15]

Because crops traveled widely but at least initially their endemic fungi did not, for a limited time yields were somewhat higher in the new regions to which they were introduced, a form of ecological release or "<templatestyles src="Template:Visible anchor/styles.css" />yield honeymoon". However, the exchange of pathogens has continued alongside globalization, and crops have declined back toward their endemic yields.^[16]

File:Intikawan Amantani.jpg

Andenes terraces on Taquile are used to grow traditional Andean staples such as quinoa and potatoes, alongside wheat—a European introduction.

The Spanish were the first Europeans to grow cacao, in 1590. Though cacao was usually consumed by European populations in the form of sweets and was at first treated as an expensive luxury item, chocolate helped with fatigue and provided energy. As for vanilla, the pods of the plant after chemical treatment acquired an aroma, which was then used both in cooking and in perfumery.^[11]

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Post-Columbian transfers of cultivated plants
Old World to New World	New World to Old World
almond^[17] apple^[17] cabbage (many varieties)^[18] citrus (orange, lemon, etc.)^[17] coffee^[17] lettuce^[18] melon^[17] oat^[18] olive^[17] onion^[18] peach^[18] pear^[18] radish^[17] rice^[18] rye^[18] sorghum^[17] soybean^[17] sugarcane and sugar beet^[18] turnip^[18] wheat^[18]	avocado^[18] cassava (manioc, tapioca)^[18] chili pepper^[15] cocoa bean (cacao)^[17] cotton^[17] (long-staple species) cranberry (bearberry species)^[19] guava^[17] (common) maize (corn)^[20] papaya^[18] peanut^[17] pineapple^[18] potato^[18] squashes, including pumpkin^[18] sunflower^[18] sweet potato^[18] tobacco^[18] tomato^[18]

Rice, originally domesticated in China, became widely planted in the New World; European planters there relied upon the skills of African slaves to cultivate it.^[21] Georgia, South Carolina, Cuba, and Puerto Rico were major centers of rice production during the colonial era. Enslaved Africans brought their knowledge of water control, milling, winnowing, and other agrarian practices to the fields. This widespread knowledge among African slaves eventually made rice a staple food in the New World.^[2]^[22]

Citrus fruits and grapes were brought to the Americas from the Mediterranean. At first, planters struggled to adapt these crops to New World climates, but by the late 19th century they were cultivated more consistently.^[23] Bananas were introduced into the Americas in the 16th century by Portuguese sailors, who brought them from West Africa. Despite this early introduction, they were little consumed in the Americas as late as the 1880s, when large plantations were established in the Caribbean.^[24] The Manila galleon trading network introduced American plants such as chayote and papaya into Southeast Asia; these were incorporated into the cuisines there.^[25]

Long before the arrival of the Spaniards, cultivators brought wild tomatoes from Central America to South America.^[11] Soon after Columbus's visit, tomatoes were brought to Spain, and from there to other European countries, including Italy. In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, wrote that the tomato was eaten fried in oil there.^[26] The first Italian cookbook to include tomato sauce, Lo Scalco alla Moderna ("The Modern Steward"), was written by Italian chef Antonio Latini and was published in two volumes in 1692 and 1694. In 1790, the use of tomato sauce with pasta appeared for the first time, in the Italian cookbook L'Apicio Moderno ("The Modern Apicius"), by chef Francesco Leonardi.^[27]

Alongside the intentional introductions of cultivated plants that were Crosby's focus,^[28] many wild plants including weeds of cultivation, such as dandelions and grasses,^[29] were transferred in both directions, permanently affecting the ecology of many parts of the world.^[30]

Of animals

Initially, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went in one direction, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. Horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, dogs, cats, and bees were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses. The Plains Indians, for example, made extensive use of horses for hunting.^[31]

Spanish conquest of Mexico, 1519–1521, with horses, pigs, cattle, and sheep being landed from ships. Florentine Codex.

Spanish conquest of Mexico, 1519–1521, with horses, pigs, cattle, and sheep being landed from ships. Florentine Codex.
Native Americans learned to use horses, dramatically expanding their hunting range.[31] George Catlin, 1844.

Native Americans learned to use horses, dramatically expanding their hunting range.^[31] George Catlin, 1844.

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Post-Columbian transfers of domestic animals
Old World to New World	New World to Old World
cattle^[18] chicken^[18] large dog^[18] donkey^[18] duck (domesticated mallard)^[32] goat^[18] horse^[18] pig^[18] sheep^[18]	Muscovy duck^[33] turkey^[34]

While mesoamerican peoples, Mayas in particular, already practiced apiculture,Template:Sfn producing wax and honey from a variety of bees, such as Melipona or Trigona,Template:Sfn European bees (Apis mellifera)—were more productive, delivering a honey with less water content and allowing for easier extraction from beehives—were introduced in New Spain, becoming an important part of farming production.^[35]

The Mapuche of Araucanía were fast to adopt the horse from the Spanish, and improve their military capabilities as they fought the Arauco War against Spanish colonizers.^[36]^[37] Until the arrival of the Spanish, the Mapuches had largely maintained chilihueques (llamas) as livestock. The Spanish introduction of sheep caused some competition between the two domesticated species. Anecdotal evidence of the mid-17th century shows that by then sheep far outnumbered llamas. The decline of llamas reached a point in the late 18th century when only the Mapuche from Mariquina and the Huequén next to Angol raised the species.^[38] In the Chiloé Archipelago the introduction of pigs by the Spanish proved a success. They could feed on the abundant shellfish and algae exposed by the large tides.^[38]

In the other direction, the turkey, from North America, and the Muscovy duck, from Mexico and South America, were New World domestic animals transferred to Europe.Template:Sfn

Of diseases

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File:400Behandlung der Syphilis.jpg

An early Old World medical illustration of people with syphilis, Vienna, 1498

The first manifestation of the Columbian exchange may have been the spread of syphilis from the native people of the Caribbean Sea to Europe. The history of syphilis has been well-studied, but the origin of the disease remains a subject of debate.^[39] There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the Americas by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized.^[40] The first written descriptions of syphilis in the Old World came in 1493.^[41] The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494–1495 among the army of Charles VIII during its invasion of Naples.^[40]^[42]^[43]^[44] Many of the crew members who had served with Columbus had joined this army. After the victory, Charles's largely mercenary army returned to their respective homes, spreading "the Great Pox" across Europe, which killed up to five million people.^[45]^[46]

The Columbian exchange of diseases toward the New World was far deadlier.Template:Sfn The peoples of the Americas had previously had no exposure to Old World diseases and little or no immunity to them.Template:Sfn An epidemic of swine influenza beginning in 1493 killed many of the Taino people inhabiting Caribbean islands. The pre-contact population of the island of Hispaniola was probably at least 500,000, but by 1526, fewer than 500 were still alive. Spanish exploitation was part of the cause of the near-extinction of the native people.Template:Sfn

File:Aztec smallpox victims.jpg

Sixteenth-century Aztec drawings of victims of smallpox in the Florentine Codex

In 1518, smallpox was first recorded in the Americas and became the deadliest imported Old World disease. Forty percent of the 200,000 people living in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, later Mexico City, are estimated to have died of smallpox in 1520 during the war of the Aztecs with conquistador Hernán Cortés.^[47] Epidemics, possibly of smallpox, spread from Central America, devastating the population of the Inca Empire a few years before the arrival of the Spanish.^[48] The ravages of Old World diseases and Spanish exploitation reduced the Mexican population from an estimated 20 million to barely more than a million in the 16th century.^[49]

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Post-Columbian transfers of diseases
Old World to New World	New World to Old World
bubonic plague^[18] chickenpox^[50] cholera^[18] diphtheria^[50] influenza^[50] leprosy^[50] malaria^[18] measles^[18] mumps^[50] smallpox^[18] typhoid fever^[18] typhus^[50] yellow fever^[18]	syphilis (probably)^[51]

The Indigenous population of Peru decreased from about 9 million in the pre-Columbian era, to 600,000 in 1620.^[52] An estimated 80–95 percent of the Native American population died in epidemics within the first 100–150 years following 1492. Nunn and Qian also refer to the calculations of the scientist David Cook: in some cases no one survived due to diseases. The deadliest Old World diseases in the Americas were smallpox, measles, whooping cough, chicken pox, bubonic plague, typhus, and malaria.Template:Sfn Yellow fever was brought to the Americas from Africa, probably by the slave trade. Many people in Africa had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did people of African descent when exposed to yellow fever in the Americas, as numerous epidemics swept the colonies and sugar plantations.^[53]

On the other hand, European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine, the first effective treatment for malaria. Cinchona trees from the Andes were processed and quinine was obtained from their bark.^[11] Europeans suffered from this disease, but some Indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause sickle-cell disease.Template:Sfn The resistance of sub-Saharan Africans to malaria in the southern United States and the Caribbean contributed greatly to the specific character of the Africa-sourced slavery in those regions.^[54]

Cultural exchanges

Clash of cultures

File:Evangelización por la Orden Franciscana.jpg

The evangelization of Mexico

The movement of people between New and Old Worlds caused cultural exchanges, extending to what Pieter Emmer has called "a clash of cultures".^[55] This involved the transfer of European values to Indigenous cultures, such as the concept of private property in regions where property was often viewed as communal, universal monogamy (though many Indigenous peoples were already monogamous), the role of women and children in the social system, and different concepts of labor, including slavery.^[55] Christianity was brought to the Indigenous peoples by priests and monks from Europe.^[56] Tobacco was used in the Old World as medicine and currency,^[11] while in the New World it was the subject of religious customs.^[11] Some New World peoples such as the Mapuche of Araucania resisted the adoption of Spanish technology, holding to their ancestral customs.^[57] Indigenous people have often been seen as static recipients of transatlantic encounters, but thousands of Native Americans crossed the ocean during the sixteenth century, some by choice.^[58]

Atlantic slave trade

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File:1670 virginia tobacco slaves.jpg

A depiction of slaves working at a plantation in Virginia, 1670

The Atlantic slave trade consisted of the involuntary immigration of 11.7 million Africans, primarily from West Africa, to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries, far outnumbering the about 3.4 million Europeans who migrated, most voluntarily, to the New World between 1492 and 1840.Template:Sfn The prevalence of African slaves in the New World was related to the demographic decline of New World peoples and the need of European colonists for labor. Another reason for the demand for slaves was the cultivation of crops such as sugar cane suitable for the climatic conditions of the new lands.Template:Sfn The Africans were less likely to die, too, from those diseases that had been brought to the New World.^[59] Enslaved Africans helped shape an emerging African-American culture in the New World. They participated in both skilled and unskilled labor. For example, slaves were involved in handicraft production. They could also work as ordinary workers, and as managers of small enterprises in the commercial or industrial sphere.^[60] Their descendants gradually developed an ethnicity that drew from the numerous African tribes as well as European nationalities.^[61]Template:Sfn The descendants of African slaves make up a majority of the population in some Caribbean countries, notably Haiti and Jamaica, and a sizeable minority in most American countries.Template:Sfn

References

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↑ L'Arte della cucina in Italia, Emilio Faccioli, Einaudi, Milano, 1987
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Sources

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External links

"Foods that Changed the World"—Steven R. King

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 {{Short description|Transfers between the Old and New Worlds}}
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-The '''Columbian exchange''', also known as the '''Columbian interchange''', was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between the [[New World]] (the [[Americas]]) in the [[Western Hemisphere]], and the [[Old World]] ([[Afro-Eurasia]]) in the [[Eastern Hemisphere]], from the late 15th century on. It is named after the explorer [[Christopher Columbus]] and is related to the [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonization]] and [[global trade]] following his [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus#First voyage|1492 voyage]]. Some of the exchanges were deliberate while others were unintended. [[Communicable diseases]] of Old World origin resulted in an 80 to 95 percent reduction in the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous population of the Americas]] from the 15th century onwards, and their extinction in the [[Influx of disease in the Caribbean|Caribbean]].<!--<ref name="McNeill 2019"/>-->
+The '''Columbian exchange''', also known as the '''Columbian interchange''', was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between the [[New World]] (the [[Americas]]) in the [[Western Hemisphere]], and the [[Old World]] ([[Afro-Eurasia]]) in the [[Eastern Hemisphere]], from the late 15th century on. It is named after the explorer [[Christopher Columbus]] and is related to the [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonization]] and [[global trade]] following his [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus#First voyage|1492 voyage]]. Some of the exchanges were deliberate while others were unintended. [[Communicable diseases]] of Old World origin resulted in an 80 to 95 percent reduction in the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous population of the Americas]] from the 15th century onwards, and their near extinction in the [[Influx of disease in the Caribbean|Caribbean]].<!--<ref name="McNeill 2019"/>--><!--lead summarizes cited materials in body of article, see there for citations-->
 The cultures of both hemispheres were significantly impacted by the migration of people, both free and enslaved, from the Old World to the New. European colonists and [[Atlantic slave trade|African slaves]] replaced Indigenous populations across the Americas, to varying degrees. The number of Africans taken to the New World was far greater than the number of Europeans moving there in the first three centuries after Columbus.<!--<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/>-->
@@ Line 40: / Line 40: @@
 == Etymology ==
-[[File:BRI Columbian Exchange.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The Columbian exchange of crop plants, livestock, and diseases in both directions between the Old World and the New World]]
+[[File:BRI Columbian Exchange.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The Columbian exchange of crop plants, livestock, and diseases went in both directions between the Old World and the New World.]]
-In 1972, [[Alfred W. Crosby]], an American historian at the [[University of Texas at Austin]], published the book ''[[The Columbian Exchange]]'',{{sfn|Crosby|1972}} thus coining the term.<ref name="Smithsonian"/> His primary focus was mapping the biological and cultural transfers that occurred between [[Old World|the Old]] and [[New World]]s. He studied the effects of [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]'s voyages between the two – specifically, the global diffusion of crops, seeds, and plants from the New World to the Old, which radically transformed [[agriculture]] in both regions.<ref name="Smithsonian">{{cite web |last=Gambino |first=Megan |title=Alfred W. Crosby on the Columbian Exchange |work=[[Smithsonian Magazine]] |date=October 4, 2011  |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/alfred-w-crosby-on-the-columbian-exchange-98116477/?no-ist |access-date=October 19, 2018}}</ref><ref name="Harvard University Press"/>
+In 1972, [[Alfred W. Crosby]], an American historian at the [[University of Texas at Austin]], published the book ''[[The Columbian Exchange]]'',{{sfn|Crosby|1972}} thus coining the term.<ref name="Smithsonian"/> His primary focus was mapping the biological and cultural transfers that occurred between [[Old World|the Old]] and [[New World]]s. He studied the effects of [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]'s voyages between the two – specifically, the global diffusion of crops, seeds, and plants from the New World to the Old, which radically transformed [[agriculture]] in both regions.<ref name="Smithsonian">{{cite web |last=Gambino |first=Megan |title=Alfred W. Crosby on the Columbian Exchange |work=[[Smithsonian Magazine]] |date=October 4, 2011 |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/alfred-w-crosby-on-the-columbian-exchange-98116477/?no-ist |access-date=October 19, 2018}}</ref><ref name="Harvard University Press"/>
 His research made a lasting contribution to the way scholars understand the variety of contemporary ecosystems that arose due to these transfers.<ref name="Harvard University Press">{{cite book |last1=Carney |first1=Judith |title=Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas |url=https://archive.org/details/blackriceafrican00carn |url-access=registration |date=2001 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/blackriceafrican00carn/page/4 4–5]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=de Vorsey |first=Louis |editor1-last=McIlwraith |editor1-first=Thomas F. |editor2-last=Muller |editor2-first=Edward K. |title=North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent |year=2001 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Maryland |page=27 |quote=Thanks to…Crosby's work, the term 'Columbian exchange' is now widely used… |chapter=The Tragedy of the Columbian Exchange}}</ref> His 1986 book ''[[Ecological Imperialism (book)|Ecological Imperialism]]'' presented further research in the field.{{sfn|Crosby|2004}}
@@ Line 48: / Line 48: @@
 == Background ==
-The scientific consensus is that humans first came to the New World from [[Siberia]] thousands of years ago. There is little additional evidence of contacts between the peoples of the Old World and those of the New World, although the literature speculating on pre-Columbian trans-oceanic journeys is extensive. The first inhabitants of the New World brought with them small domestic dogs and, possibly, a container, the [[calabash]], both of which persisted in their new home.<ref name="Erickson et al">{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.0509279102 |pmid=16352716 |pmc=1311910 |title=An Asian origin for a 10,000-year-old domesticated plant in the Americas |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=102 |issue=51 |pages=18315–20 |year=2005 |last1=Erickson |first1=D. L. |last2=Smith |first2=B. D. |last3=Clarke |first3=A. C. |last4=Sandweiss |first4=D. H. |last5=Tuross |first5=N. |bibcode=2005PNAS..10218315E |doi-access=free }}</ref>  The [[Norse colonization of North America|medieval explorations, visits, and brief residence]] of the [[Norsemen]] in [[Greenland]], [[Newfoundland]], and [[Vinland]] in the late 10th century and 11th century had no known impact on the Americas,<ref name="Heritage">{{cite web |title=The Norse in the North Atlantic |url=https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/exploration/norse-north-atlantic.php |website=Heritage: Newfoundland & Labrador |access-date=15 July 2021}}</ref> though the small perennial ''[[Rumex acetosella]]'' (sheep's sorrel) appeared in Greenland at that time.<ref name="k463">{{cite book |last=Edwards |first=Kevin J. |last2=Erlendsson |first2=Egill |last3=Schofield |first3=J. Edward |title=Biogeography in the Sub‐Arctic |chapter=Landnám and the North Atlantic Flora |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |date=20 April 2021 |isbn=978-1-118-56147-8 |doi=10.1002/9781118561461.ch9 |pages=185–214}}</ref>
+The scientific consensus is that humans first came to the New World from [[Siberia]] thousands of years ago. There is little additional evidence of contacts between the peoples of the Old World and those of the New World, although the literature speculating on pre-Columbian trans-oceanic journeys is extensive. The first inhabitants of the New World brought with them small domestic dogs and, possibly, a container, the [[calabash]], both of which persisted in their new home.<ref name="Erickson et al">{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.0509279102 |pmid=16352716 |pmc=1311910 |title=An Asian origin for a 10,000-year-old domesticated plant in the Americas |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=102 |issue=51 |pages=18315–20 |year=2005 |last1=Erickson |first1=D. L. |last2=Smith |first2=B. D. |last3=Clarke |first3=A. C. |last4=Sandweiss |first4=D. H. |last5=Tuross |first5=N. |bibcode=2005PNAS..10218315E |doi-access=free }}</ref>  The [[Norse colonization of North America|medieval explorations, visits, and brief residence]] of the [[Norsemen]] in [[Greenland]], [[Newfoundland]], and [[Vinland]] in the late 10th century and 11th century had no known impact on the Americas,<ref name="Heritage">{{cite web |title=The Norse in the North Atlantic |url=https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/exploration/norse-north-atlantic.php |website=Heritage: Newfoundland & Labrador |access-date=July 15, 2021}}</ref> though the small perennial ''[[Rumex acetosella]]'' (sheep's sorrel) appeared in Greenland at that time.<ref name="k463">{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=Kevin J. |last2=Erlendsson |first2=Egill |last3=Schofield |first3=J. Edward |title=Biogeography in the Sub-Arctic |chapter=Landnám and the North Atlantic Flora |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |date=April 20, 2021 |isbn=978-1-118-56147-8 |doi=10.1002/9781118561461.ch9 |pages=185–214}}</ref>
-Many scientists accept that possible contact between [[Polynesians]] and coastal peoples in South America around the year 1200 resulted in genetic similarities and the adoption by Polynesians of an American crop, the [[sweet potato]].<ref name="Reuters">{{cite news |last=Dunham |first=Will |title=Study shows ancient contact between Polynesian and South American peoples |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-science-polynesia/study-shows-ancient-contact-between-polynesian-and-south-american-peoples-idUSKBN2492EU |website=Reuters |date=July 8, 2020 |access-date=15 July 2021}}</ref> However, it was only with the first voyage of the Italian explorer [[Christopher Columbus]] and his crew to the Americas in [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus#First voyage|1492]] that the Columbian exchange began, resulting in major transformations in the cultures and livelihoods of the peoples in both hemispheres.<ref name="McNeill 2019">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=McNeill |first1=J. R. |author1-link=J. R. McNeill |last2=Sampaolo |first2=Marco |last3=Wallenfeldt |first3=Jeff |date=30 September 2019 |origyear=28 September 2019 |title=Columbian Exchange |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Columbian-exchange |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |location=[[Edinburgh]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421055242/https://www.britannica.com/event/Columbian-exchange |archive-date=21 April 2020 |url-status=live |access-date=5 September 2021}}</ref>
+Many scientists accept that possible contact between [[Polynesians]] and coastal peoples in South America around the year 1200 resulted in genetic similarities and [[Sweet potato cultivation in Polynesia|the adoption by Polynesians]] of an American crop, the [[sweet potato]].<ref name="Reuters">{{cite news |last=Dunham |first=Will |title=Study shows ancient contact between Polynesian and South American peoples |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-science-polynesia/study-shows-ancient-contact-between-polynesian-and-south-american-peoples-idUSKBN2492EU |website=Reuters |date=July 8, 2020 |access-date=July 15, 2021}}</ref> However, it was only with the first voyage of the Italian explorer [[Christopher Columbus]] and his crew to the Americas in [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus#First voyage|1492]] that the Columbian exchange began, resulting in major transformations in the cultures and livelihoods of the peoples in both hemispheres.<ref name="McNeill 2019">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=McNeill |first1=J. R. |author1-link=J. R. McNeill |last2=Sampaolo |first2=Marco |last3=Wallenfeldt |first3=Jeff |date=September 30, 2019 |orig-date=September 28, 2019 |title=Columbian Exchange |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Columbian-exchange |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |location=[[Edinburgh]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421055242/https://www.britannica.com/event/Columbian-exchange |archive-date=April 21, 2020 |url-status=live |access-date=September 5, 2021}}</ref>
 == Biological exchanges ==
@@ Line 60: / Line 60: @@
 [[File:The Florentine Codex- Maize.tif|thumb|left|upright|The 16th century [[Florentine Codex]] by the Spanish friar [[Bernardino de Sahagún]] provided an early depiction of [[maize]], one of the plants the Spanish brought to the Old World.]]
-Because of the new trading resulting from the Columbian exchange, several plants native to the Americas spread around the world, including [[potato]]es, [[maize]], [[tomato]]es, and [[tobacco]].<ref name="ley196512">{{Cite magazine |last=Ley |first=Willy |date=December 1965 |title=The Healthfull Aromatick Herbe |department=For Your Information |magazine=Galaxy Science Fiction |pages=88–98}}</ref> Before 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of [[South America]]. By the 18th century, they were cultivated and consumed widely in Europe and had become important crops in both [[India]] and North America. Potatoes eventually became an important staple food in the diets of many Europeans, contributing to an estimated 12 to 25% of the population growth in Afro-Eurasia between 1700 and 1900.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Nunn |first1=Nathan |last2=Qian |first2=Nancy |date=2011 |title=The Potato's Contribution to Population and Urbanization: Evidence from a Historical Experiment |journal=[[Quarterly Journal of Economics]] |volume=126 |issue=2 |pages=593–650 |doi=10.1093/qje/qjr009 |pmid=22073408 |hdl=10.1093/qje/qjr009 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The introduction of the potato to the Old World accounts for 47 percent of the increase in urbanization between 1700 and 1900.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010">{{harvnb|Nunn|Qian|2010}}</ref> [[Cassava]] was introduced from South America by the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] in the 16th century,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/suprtubr.htm |title=Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208143623/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/suprtubr.htm |archive-date=December 8, 2013 |publisher=[[Ohio State University]]}}</ref> and gradually replaced [[sorghum]] and [[millet]] as Africa's most important food crop.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://scitizen.com/biotechnology/maize-streak-virus-resistant-transgenic-maize-an-african-solution-to-an-african-problem_a-28-925.html |title=Maize Streak Virus-Resistant Transgenic Maize: an African solution to an African Problem |website=Scitizen |date=August 7, 2007}}</ref> [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonizers]] of the 16th century introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including [[maize]] and [[sweet potato]]es, contributing to population growth there.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm |title=China's Population: Readings and Maps |publisher=[[Columbia University]], East Asian Curriculum Project |date=24 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090924212813/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm |archive-date=September 24, 2009 }}</ref> On a larger scale, the introduction of potatoes and maize to the Old World improved people's nutrition throughout the Eurasian landmass,<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> enabling more varied and abundant food production.{{sfn|Crosby|2003|p=177}} Cassava and maize can have negative consequences when overused (for example, the nutritional diseases [[pellagra]] and [[konzo]]).<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/>
+Because of the new trading resulting from the Columbian exchange, several plants native to the Americas spread around the world, including [[potato]]es, [[maize]], [[tomato]]es, and [[tobacco]].<ref name="ley196512">{{Cite magazine |last=Ley |first=Willy |date=December 1965 |title=The Healthfull Aromatick Herbe |department=For Your Information |magazine=Galaxy Science Fiction |pages=88–98}}</ref> Before 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of [[South America]]. By the 18th century, they were cultivated and consumed widely in Europe and had become important crops in both [[India]] and North America. Potatoes eventually became an important staple food in the diets of many Europeans, contributing to an estimated 12 to 25% of the population growth in Afro-Eurasia between 1700 and 1900.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Nunn |first1=Nathan |last2=Qian |first2=Nancy |date=2011 |title=The Potato's Contribution to Population and Urbanization: Evidence from a Historical Experiment |journal=[[Quarterly Journal of Economics]] |volume=126 |issue=2 |pages=593–650 |doi=10.1093/qje/qjr009 |pmid=22073408 |hdl=10.1093/qje/qjr009 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The introduction of the potato to the Old World accounts for 47 percent of the increase in urbanization between 1700 and 1900.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010">{{harvnb|Nunn|Qian|2010}}</ref> [[Cassava]] was introduced from South America by the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] in the 16th century,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/suprtubr.htm |title=Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208143623/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/suprtubr.htm |archive-date=December 8, 2013 |publisher=[[Ohio State University]]}}</ref> and gradually replaced [[sorghum]] and [[millet]] as Africa's most important food crop.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://scitizen.com/biotechnology/maize-streak-virus-resistant-transgenic-maize-an-african-solution-to-an-african-problem_a-28-925.html |title=Maize Streak Virus-Resistant Transgenic Maize: an African solution to an African Problem |website=Scitizen |date=August 7, 2007}}</ref> [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonizers]] of the 16th century introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including [[maize]] and [[sweet potato]]es, contributing to population growth there.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm |title=China's Population: Readings and Maps |publisher=[[Columbia University]], East Asian Curriculum Project |date=September 24, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090924212813/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm |archive-date=September 24, 2009 }}</ref> On a larger scale, the introduction of potatoes and maize to the Old World improved people's nutrition throughout the Eurasian landmass,<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> enabling more varied and abundant food production.{{sfn|Crosby|2003|p=177}} Cassava and maize can have negative consequences when overused (for example, the nutritional diseases [[pellagra]] and [[konzo]]).<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/>
 The discovery of the Americas provided the Old World with new arable landscapes suitable for growing [[sugarcane]] and [[coffee]].<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> Coffee, introduced in the Americas circa 1720 from Africa and the Middle East, and sugarcane, introduced from the [[Indian subcontinent]] to the [[Spanish West Indies]], subsequently became the primary commodity crops and exported goods of extensive [[Latin America]]n plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, [[chili pepper]]s and potatoes from South America in turn became integral parts of [[Indian cuisine]], and starting the process of making [[curry]] an international dish.<ref name="Collingham 2006">{{cite book |last=Collingham |first=Lizzie |author-link=Lizzie Collingham |title=Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors |url=https://archive.org/details/curry00lizz |url-access=registration |year=2006 |chapter=Vindaloo: the Portuguese and the chili pepper |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-988381-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/curry00lizz/page/47 47–73]}}</ref>
-Because crops traveled widely but at least initially their endemic fungi did not, for a limited time yields were somewhat higher in the new regions to which they were introduced, a form of [[ecological release]] or "{{visible anchor|yield honeymoon}}". However, the exchange of pathogens has continued alongside globalization, and crops have declined back toward their endemic yields.<ref name="Drenth Guest 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Drenth |first1=André |last2=Guest |first2=David I. |title=Fungal and Oomycete Diseases of Tropical Tree Fruit Crops |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=54 |issue=1 |date=2016-08-04 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-080615-095944 |pages=373–395|pmid=27491435 }}</ref>
+Because crops traveled widely but at least initially their endemic fungi did not, for a limited time yields were somewhat higher in the new regions to which they were introduced, a form of [[ecological release]] or "{{visible anchor|yield honeymoon}}". However, the exchange of pathogens has continued alongside globalization, and crops have declined back toward their endemic yields.<ref name="Drenth Guest 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Drenth |first1=André |last2=Guest |first2=David I. |title=Fungal and Oomycete Diseases of Tropical Tree Fruit Crops |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=54 |issue=1 |date=August 4, 2016 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-080615-095944 |pages=373–395|pmid=27491435 }}</ref>
 [[File:Intikawan Amantani.jpg|thumb|[[Andén|Andenes]] terraces on [[Taquile]] are used to grow traditional [[Andes|Andean]] [[Staple food|staples]] such as [[quinoa]] and [[potato]]es, alongside [[wheat]]—a European introduction.]]
@@ Line 79: / Line 79: @@
 |
 * [[almond]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/>
-* [[apple]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants">{{cite web |last1=Mintz |first1=S. |last2=McNeil |first2=S. |title=Origins of Plants |url=https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/columbus/columbian_answers_plants.cfm |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=15 July 2024 |date=2018}}</ref>
+* [[apple]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants">{{cite web |last1=Mintz |first1=S. |last2=McNeil |first2=S. |title=Origins of Plants |url=https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/columbus/columbian_answers_plants.cfm |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=July 15, 2024 |date=2018}}</ref>
 * [[cabbage]] (many varieties)<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
 * [[citrus]] ([[Orange (fruit)|orange]], [[lemon]], etc.)<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/>
@@ Line 104: / Line 104: @@
 * [[cocoa bean]] (cacao)<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/>
 * [[cotton]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> (long-staple species)
-* [[cranberry]] ([[cranberry#Species and description|bearberry]] species)
+* [[cranberry]] ([[cranberry#Species and description|bearberry]] species)<ref>{{cite book |last1=van der Linden |first1=Marcel |editor1-last=van Schendel |editor1-first=Willem |title=Embedding Agricultural Commodities: Using historical evidence, 1840s-1940s |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |page=148 |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Embedding_Agricultural_Commodities/Ug9qDAAAQBAJ |chapter=Globalization's agricultural roots}}</ref>
 * [[guava]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> (common)
 * [[maize]] (corn)<ref>{{cite book |last=Earle |first=Rebecca |author-link=Rebecca Earle |title=The Body of the Conquistador: Food, Race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2012 |pages=17, 144, 151}}</ref>
@@ Line 120: / Line 120: @@
 [[Rice]], originally domesticated in China, became widely planted in the New World; European planters there relied upon the skills of African slaves to cultivate it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carney |first=Judith A. |date=2001 |title=African Rice in the Columbian Exchange |jstor=3647168 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=377–396 |doi=10.1017/s0021853701007940 |pmid=18551802 |s2cid=37074402}}</ref> [[Province of Georgia|Georgia]], [[Province of South Carolina|South Carolina]], [[Captaincy General of Cuba|Cuba]], and [[Puerto Rico]] were major centers of rice production during the [[Colonial history of the United States|colonial era]]. Enslaved Africans brought their knowledge of water control, milling, [[winnowing]], and other agrarian practices to the fields. This widespread knowledge among African slaves eventually made rice a staple food in the New World.<ref name="Harvard University Press"/><ref>{{cite book |first=Seaman Ashahel |last=Knapp |title=Rice culture in the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/CAT87201521 |edition=Public domain |year=1900 |publisher=[[U.S. Department of Agriculture]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/CAT87201521/page/n6 6]–}}</ref>
-[[Citrus fruit]]s and [[grape]]s were brought to the Americas from the Mediterranean. At first, planters struggled to adapt these crops to New World climates, but by the late 19th century they were cultivated more consistently.<ref>{{cite web |last=McNeill |first=J.R. |title=The Columbian Exchange |url=https://www.ncpedia.org/anchor/columbian-exchange |website=[[NCpedia]] |publisher=[[State Library of North Carolina]] |access-date=23 October 2018}}</ref> [[Banana]]s were introduced into the Americas in the 16th century by Portuguese sailors, who brought them from West Africa. Despite this early introduction, they were little consumed in the Americas as late as the 1880s, when large plantations were established in the Caribbean.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gibson |first1=Arthur |title=Bananas & Plantains |url=http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Musa/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614121141/http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Musa/index.html |archive-date=June 14, 2012 |url-status=dead |publisher=[[University of California, Los Angeles]]}}</ref> The [[Manila galleon]] trading network introduced American plants such as [[chayote]] and [[papaya]] into Southeast Asia; these were incorporated into the cuisines there.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amano |first1=Noel |last2=Bankoff |first2=Greg |last3=Findley |first3=David Max |last4=Barretto-Tesoro |first4=Grace |last5=Roberts |first5=Patrick |title=Archaeological and historical insights into the ecological impacts of pre-colonial and colonial introductions into the Philippine Archipelago |journal=The Holocene |date=February 2021 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=313–330 |doi=10.1177/0959683620941152|bibcode=2021Holoc..31..313A |hdl=21.11116/0000-0006-CB04-1 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
+[[Citrus fruit]]s and [[grape]]s were brought to the Americas from the Mediterranean. At first, planters struggled to adapt these crops to New World climates, but by the late 19th century they were cultivated more consistently.<ref>{{cite web |last=McNeill |first=J.R. |title=The Columbian Exchange |url=https://www.ncpedia.org/anchor/columbian-exchange |website=[[NCpedia]] |publisher=[[State Library of North Carolina]] |access-date=October 23, 2018}}</ref> [[Banana]]s were introduced into the Americas in the 16th century by Portuguese sailors, who brought them from West Africa. Despite this early introduction, they were little consumed in the Americas as late as the 1880s, when large plantations were established in the Caribbean.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gibson |first1=Arthur |title=Bananas & Plantains |url=http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Musa/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614121141/http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Musa/index.html |archive-date=June 14, 2012 |url-status=dead |publisher=[[University of California, Los Angeles]]}}</ref> The [[Manila galleon]] trading network introduced American plants such as [[chayote]] and [[papaya]] into Southeast Asia; these were incorporated into the cuisines there.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amano |first1=Noel |last2=Bankoff |first2=Greg |last3=Findley |first3=David Max |last4=Barretto-Tesoro |first4=Grace |last5=Roberts |first5=Patrick |title=Archaeological and historical insights into the ecological impacts of pre-colonial and colonial introductions into the Philippine Archipelago |journal=The Holocene |date=February 2021 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=313–330 |doi=10.1177/0959683620941152|bibcode=2021Holoc..31..313A |hdl=21.11116/0000-0006-CB04-1 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
 Long before the arrival of the Spaniards, cultivators brought wild [[tomato]]es from Central America to South America.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> Soon after Columbus's visit, tomatoes were brought to Spain, and from there to other European countries, including Italy. In 1544, [[Pietro Andrea Mattioli]], a [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Tuscan]] physician and botanist, wrote that the tomato was eaten fried in oil there.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McCue |first=George Allen |title=The History of the Use of the Tomato: An Annotated Bibliography |journal= Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden |year=1952 |volume= 39 |issue=4 |pages=291–292 |doi=10.2307/2399094 |jstor=2399094 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/20101657}}</ref> The first Italian cookbook to include tomato sauce, ''Lo Scalco alla Moderna'' ("The Modern Steward"), was written by Italian chef [[Antonio Latini]] and was published in two volumes in 1692 and 1694. In 1790, the use of tomato sauce with pasta appeared for the first time, in the Italian cookbook ''L'Apicio Moderno'' ("The Modern [[Apicius]]"), by chef [[Francesco Leonardi (chef)|Francesco Leonardi]].<ref name=leo>''L'Arte della cucina in Italia'', Emilio Faccioli, Einaudi, Milano, 1987</ref>
-Alongside the intentional introductions of cultivated plants that were Crosby's focus,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sauer |first=Jonathan D. |title=[Review:] The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 |journal=Economic Botany |year=1973 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=348–349 |jstor=4253437}}</ref> many wild plants including [[Weed of cultivation|weeds of cultivation]], such as [[dandelion]]s and [[grass]]es,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Columbian Exchange |url=https://americainclass.org/the-columbian-exchange/ |publisher=National Humanities center |access-date=3 December 2024 |date=2015}}</ref> were transferred in both directions, permanently affecting the ecology of many parts of the world.<ref name="Hancock 2023">{{cite journal |last=Hancock |first=James F. |title=Fifty Years Later—The Legacy of Alfred Crosby’s “The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492” |journal=Economic Botany |volume=77 |issue=1 |date=2023 |doi=10.1007/s12231-022-09563-6 |doi-access=free |pages=82–102}}</ref>{{Clear}}
+Alongside the intentional introductions of cultivated plants that were Crosby's focus,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sauer |first=Jonathan D. |title=[Review:] The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 |journal=Economic Botany |year=1973 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=348–349 |jstor=4253437}}</ref> many wild plants including [[Weed of cultivation|weeds of cultivation]], such as [[dandelion]]s and [[grass]]es,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Columbian Exchange |url=https://americainclass.org/the-columbian-exchange/ |publisher=National Humanities center |access-date=December 3, 2024 |date=2015}}</ref> were transferred in both directions, permanently affecting the ecology of many parts of the world.<ref name="Hancock 2023">{{cite journal |last=Hancock |first=James F. |title=Fifty Years Later—The Legacy of Alfred Crosby's "The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492" |journal=Economic Botany |volume=77 |issue=1 |date=2023 |doi=10.1007/s12231-022-09563-6 |doi-access=free |pages=82–102}}</ref>{{Clear}}
 === Of animals ===
@@ Line 130: / Line 130: @@
 Initially, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went in one direction, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. [[Horse]]s, [[donkeys]], [[mule]]s, [[pigs]], [[cattle]], [[sheep]], [[goats]], [[chickens]], [[dogs]], [[cats]], and [[bees]] were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses. The [[Plains Indians#Horses|Plains Indians]], for example, made extensive use of horses for hunting.<ref name="Francis 2006">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Francis |editor-first=John Michael |editor1-link=J. Michael Francis |encyclopedia=Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: a Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia |title=Columbian Exchange—Livestock |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMNoS-g1h8cC&pg=PA303 |year=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-421-9 |pages=303–308}}</ref>
-<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225 heights=225>
+<gallery class="center" mode="nolines" widths="225" heights="225">
 File:The Florentine Codex- The Conquest of Mexico.png|[[Spanish conquest of Mexico]], 1519–1521, with [[horse]]s, [[pig]]s, [[cattle]], and [[sheep]] being landed from ships. [[Florentine Codex]].
-File:George Catlin - Buffalo hunt.jpg|Native Americans learned to use horses, dramatically expanding their hunting range.<ref name="Francis 2006"/> [[George Catlin]], 1844
+File:George Catlin - Buffalo hunt.jpg|Native Americans learned to use horses, dramatically expanding their hunting range.<ref name="Francis 2006"/> [[George Catlin]], 1844.
 </gallery>
@@ Line 147: / Line 147: @@
 * large [[dog]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
 * [[donkey]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
-* [[Domestic duck|duck]] (domesticated mallard)<ref name="Hou et al 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Hou |first1=Z.-C. |last2=Yang |first2=F.-X. |last3=Qu |first3=L.-J. |last4=Zheng |first4=J.-X. |last5=Brun |first5=J.-M. |last6=Basso |first6=B. |last7=Pitel |first7=F. |last8=Yang |first8=N. |last9=Xu |first9=G.-Y. |title=Genetic structure of Eurasian and North American mallard ducks based on mtDNA data |journal=Animal Genetics |publisher=Wiley |volume=43 |issue=3 |date=23 September 2011 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2052.2011.02248.x |pages=352–355|pmid=22486512 }}</ref>
+* [[Domestic duck|duck]] (domesticated mallard)<ref name="Hou et al 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Hou |first1=Z.-C. |last2=Yang |first2=F.-X. |last3=Qu |first3=L.-J. |last4=Zheng |first4=J.-X. |last5=Brun |first5=J.-M. |last6=Basso |first6=B. |last7=Pitel |first7=F. |last8=Yang |first8=N. |last9=Xu |first9=G.-Y. |title=Genetic structure of Eurasian and North American mallard ducks based on mtDNA data |journal=Animal Genetics |publisher=Wiley |volume=43 |issue=3 |date=September 23, 2011 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2052.2011.02248.x |pages=352–355|pmid=22486512 }}</ref>
 * [[goat]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
 * [[horse]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
@@ Line 153: / Line 153: @@
 * [[sheep]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
 |
-* [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencealert.com/humans-weren-t-always-after-turkey-meat |title=Study Shows That Humans Domesticated Turkeys For Worshipping, Not Eating |first=David |last=Nield |website=sciencealert.com |date=18 January 2018 |access-date=21 January 2018 |archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422172943/https://www.sciencealert.com/humans-weren-t-always-after-turkey-meat|url-status=live}}</ref>
+* [[Muscovy duck]]<ref name="b761">{{cite book |last=Stahl |first=Peter W. |chapter=Animal Domestication in South America |editor1-last=Silverman |editor1-first=Helaine |editor2-last=Isbell |editor2-first=William |title=Handbook of South American Archaeology |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |publication-place=New York |date=April 6, 2008 |isbn=978-0-387-74907-5 |pages=121–130 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226307839}}</ref>
-* [[Muscovy duck]]<ref name="b761">{{cite book |last=Stahl |first=Peter W. |chapter=Animal Domestication in South America |editor1-last=Silverman |editor1-first=Helaine |editor2-last=Isbell |editor2-first=William |title=Handbook of South American Archaeology |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |publication-place=New York |date=2008-04-06 |isbn=978-0-387-74907-5 |pages=121–130 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226307839}}</ref>
+* [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencealert.com/humans-weren-t-always-after-turkey-meat |title=Study Shows That Humans Domesticated Turkeys For Worshipping, Not Eating |first=David |last=Nield |website=sciencealert.com |date=January 18, 2018 |access-date=January 21, 2018 |archive-date=April 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422172943/https://www.sciencealert.com/humans-weren-t-always-after-turkey-meat|url-status=live}}</ref>
 |}
 While mesoamerican peoples, Mayas in particular, already practiced [[apiculture]],{{Sfn|Valadez Azúa|2004|p=5}} producing [[wax]] and [[honey]] from a variety of bees, such as ''[[Melipona]]'' or ''[[Trigona]]'',{{Sfn|Valadez Azúa|2004|pp=6–7}} European bees (''[[Apis mellifera]]'')—were more productive, delivering a honey with less water content and allowing for easier extraction from beehives—were introduced in New Spain, becoming an important part of farming production.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Valadez Azúa |first=Raúl |title=Retomando la apicultura del México antiguo |year=2004 |journal=Veterinaria |volume=4 |issue=2 |page=11 |publisher=[[Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México]] |url=https://fmvz.unam.mx/fmvz/imavet/v4n2a04/v4n2a04.pdf}}</ref>
-The [[Mapuche]] of [[Araucanía (historic region)|Araucanía]] were fast to adopt the horse from the Spanish, and improve their military capabilities as they fought the [[Arauco War]] against Spanish colonizers.<ref name=DilleMaterial2014>{{cite book |last=Dillehay |first=Tom D. |date=2014|editor-last=Dillehay |editor-first=Tom |title=The Teleoscopic Polity |chapter=Archaeological Material Manifestations |publisher=Springer |pages=101–121 |isbn=978-3-319-03128-6 |author-link=Tom Dillehay }}</ref><ref name=BengoaAntiguo250-251>{{cite book |last=Bengoa |first=José |author-link=José Bengoa|title=Historia de los antiguos mapuches del sur |year=2003 |publisher=Catalonia |location=Santiago |isbn=978-956-8303-02-0 |language=es|pages=250–251}}</ref> Until the arrival of the Spanish, the Mapuches had largely maintained [[chilihueques]] ([[llamas]]) as livestock. The Spanish introduction of sheep caused some competition between the two domesticated species. Anecdotal evidence of the mid-17th century shows that by then sheep far outnumbered llamas. The decline of llamas reached a point in the late 18th century when only the Mapuche from [[San José de la Mariquina|Mariquina]] and the Huequén next to [[Angol]] raised the species.<ref name=Torrejonetal2004>{{cite journal |last1=Torrejón |first1=Fernando |last2=Cisternas |first2=Marco |last3=Araneda |first3=Alberto |date=2004 |title=Efectos ambientales de la colonización española desde el río Maullín al archipiélago de Chiloé, sur de Chile |language=es |trans-title=Environmental effects of the Spanish colonization from de Maullín river to the Chiloé archipelago, southern Chile |url=http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0716-078X2004000400009&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en |journal=[[Revista Chilena de Historia Natural]] |volume=77 |issue= 4 |pages=661–677 |doi=10.4067/s0716-078x2004000400009|doi-access=free |hdl=10533/175736 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In the [[Chiloé Archipelago]] the introduction of [[pig]]s by the Spanish proved a success. They could feed on the abundant [[shellfish]] and [[algae]] exposed by the large [[tide]]s.<ref name=Torrejonetal2004/>
+The [[Mapuche]] of [[Araucanía (historic region)|Araucanía]] were fast to adopt the horse from the Spanish, and improve their military capabilities as they fought the [[Arauco War]] against Spanish colonizers.<ref name=DilleMaterial2014>{{cite book |last=Dillehay |first=Tom D. |date=2014|editor-last=Dillehay |editor-first=Tom |title=The Teleoscopic Polity |chapter=Archaeological Material Manifestations |publisher=Springer |pages=101–121 |isbn=978-3-319-03128-6 |author-link=Tom Dillehay }}</ref><ref name=BengoaAntiguo250-251>{{cite book |last=Bengoa |first=José |author-link=José Bengoa|title=Historia de los antiguos mapuches del sur |year=2003 |publisher=Catalonia |location=Santiago |isbn=978-956-8303-02-0 |language=es|pages=250–251}}</ref> Until the arrival of the Spanish, the Mapuches had largely maintained [[chilihueques]] ([[llamas]]) as livestock. The Spanish introduction of sheep caused some competition between the two domesticated species. Anecdotal evidence of the mid-17th century shows that by then sheep far outnumbered llamas. The decline of llamas reached a point in the late 18th century when only the Mapuche from [[San José de la Mariquina|Mariquina]] and the Huequén next to [[Angol]] raised the species.<ref name=Torrejonetal2004>{{cite journal |last1=Torrejón |first1=Fernando |last2=Cisternas |first2=Marco |last3=Araneda |first3=Alberto |date=2004 |title=Efectos ambientales de la colonización española desde el río Maullín al archipiélago de Chiloé, sur de Chile |language=es |trans-title=Environmental effects of the Spanish colonization from de Maullín river to the Chiloé archipelago, southern Chile |journal=[[Revista Chilena de Historia Natural]] |volume=77 |issue= 4 |pages=661–677 |doi=10.4067/s0716-078x2004000400009|doi-access=free |hdl=10533/175736 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In the [[Chiloé Archipelago]] the introduction of [[pig]]s by the Spanish proved a success. They could feed on the abundant [[shellfish]] and [[algae]] exposed by the large [[tide]]s.<ref name=Torrejonetal2004/>
 In the other direction, the [[turkey (bird)|turkey]], from North America, and the [[Muscovy duck]], from Mexico and South America, were New World domestic animals transferred to Europe.{{sfn|Crosby|1972|p=212}}{{Clear}}
@@ Line 169: / Line 169: @@
 [[File:400Behandlung der Syphilis.jpg|thumb|left|upright|An early Old World medical illustration of people with [[syphilis]], [[Vienna]], 1498]]
-The first manifestation of the Columbian exchange may have been the spread of [[syphilis]] from the native people of the [[Caribbean Sea]] to Europe. The [[history of syphilis]] has been well-studied, but the origin of the disease remains a subject of debate.<ref name=Kent08>{{cite journal |last1=Kent |first1=M.E. |last2=Romanelli |first2=F. |title=Reexamining syphilis: an update on epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and management |journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=226–236 |date=February 2008 |pmid=18212261 |doi=10.1345/aph.1K086 |s2cid=23899851 }}</ref> There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the [[Americas]] by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized.<ref name=Orgin10>{{cite journal |last1=Farhi |first1=D. |last2=Dupin |first2=N. |title=Origins of syphilis and management in the immunocompetent patient: facts and controversies |journal=Clinics in Dermatology |date=Sep–Oct 2010 |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=533–558 |pmid=20797514 |doi=10.1016/j.clindermatol.2010.03.011}}</ref> The first written descriptions of syphilis in the Old World came in 1493.<ref name="quartz">{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Tara C. |title=Thanks Columbus! The true story of how syphilis spread to Europe |quote=The first cases of the disease in the Old World were described in 1493. |url=http://qz.com/580139/thanks-columbus-the-true-story-of-how-syphilis-spread-to-europe/ |access-date=1 September 2016 |work=Quartz |date=December 23, 2015}}</ref> The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494–1495 among the army of [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] during its [[Italian War of 1494–1495|invasion of Naples]].<ref name="Orgin10"/><ref name=Music08>{{cite journal |last=Franzen |first=C. |title=Syphilis in composers and musicians—Mozart, Beethoven, Paganini, Schubert, Schumann, Smetana |journal=[[European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases]] |date=December 2008 |volume=27 |issue=12 |pages=1151–1157 |pmid=18592279 |doi=10.1007/s10096-008-0571-x |s2cid=947291 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Romm |first=Cari |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2016/02/the-neverending-story-of-the-origins-of-syphilis/463401/ |title=A New Skeleton and an Old Debate About Syphilis |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |date=February 18, 2016}}</ref><ref name="sciame">{{cite magazine |last=Choi |first=Charles Q.| title=Case Closed? Columbus Introduced Syphilis to Europe |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/case-closed-columbus/ |access-date=1 September 2016 |magazine=[[Scientific American]] |date=December 27, 2011}}</ref> Many of the crew members who had served with Columbus had joined this army. After the victory, Charles's largely mercenary army returned to their respective homes, spreading "the Great Pox" across Europe, which killed up to five million people.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/study-traces-origins-of-syphilis-in-europe-to-new-world-1.717866 |title=Study traces origins of syphilis in Europe to New World |access-date=15 January 2008 |last=CBC News Staff |date=January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607124901/http://www.cbc.ca/health/story/2008/01/14/syphilis-columbus.html |archive-date=7 June 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Harper |first=Kristin |title=On the Origin of the Treponematoses: A Phylogenetic Approach |journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |date=January 2008 |volume=2 |issue=1 |page=e148 |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0000148 |pmid=18235852 |pmc=2217670 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }}</ref>
+The first manifestation of the Columbian exchange may have been the spread of [[syphilis]] from the native people of the [[Caribbean Sea]] to Europe. The [[history of syphilis]] has been well-studied, but the origin of the disease remains a subject of debate.<ref name=Kent08>{{cite journal |last1=Kent |first1=M.E. |last2=Romanelli |first2=F. |title=Reexamining syphilis: an update on epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and management |journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=226–236 |date=February 2008 |pmid=18212261 |doi=10.1345/aph.1K086 |s2cid=23899851 }}</ref> There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the [[Americas]] by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized.<ref name=Orgin10>{{cite journal |last1=Farhi |first1=D. |last2=Dupin |first2=N. |title=Origins of syphilis and management in the immunocompetent patient: facts and controversies |journal=Clinics in Dermatology |date=Sep–Oct 2010 |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=533–558 |pmid=20797514 |doi=10.1016/j.clindermatol.2010.03.011}}</ref> The first written descriptions of syphilis in the Old World came in 1493.<ref name="quartz">{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Tara C. |title=Thanks Columbus! The true story of how syphilis spread to Europe |quote=The first cases of the disease in the Old World were described in 1493. |url=http://qz.com/580139/thanks-columbus-the-true-story-of-how-syphilis-spread-to-europe/ |access-date=September 1, 2016 |work=Quartz |date=December 23, 2015}}</ref> The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494–1495 among the army of [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] during its [[Italian War of 1494–1495|invasion of Naples]].<ref name="Orgin10"/><ref name=Music08>{{cite journal |last=Franzen |first=C. |title=Syphilis in composers and musicians—Mozart, Beethoven, Paganini, Schubert, Schumann, Smetana |journal=[[European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases]] |date=December 2008 |volume=27 |issue=12 |pages=1151–1157 |pmid=18592279 |doi=10.1007/s10096-008-0571-x |s2cid=947291 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Romm |first=Cari |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2016/02/the-neverending-story-of-the-origins-of-syphilis/463401/ |title=A New Skeleton and an Old Debate About Syphilis |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |date=February 18, 2016}}</ref><ref name="sciame">{{cite magazine |last=Choi |first=Charles Q.| title=Case Closed? Columbus Introduced Syphilis to Europe |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/case-closed-columbus/ |access-date=September 1, 2016 |magazine=[[Scientific American]] |date=December 27, 2011}}</ref> Many of the crew members who had served with Columbus had joined this army. After the victory, Charles's largely mercenary army returned to their respective homes, spreading "the Great Pox" across Europe, which killed up to five million people.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/study-traces-origins-of-syphilis-in-europe-to-new-world-1.717866 |title=Study traces origins of syphilis in Europe to New World |access-date=January 15, 2008 |last=CBC News Staff |date=January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607124901/http://www.cbc.ca/health/story/2008/01/14/syphilis-columbus.html |archive-date=June 7, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Harper |first=Kristin |title=On the Origin of the Treponematoses: A Phylogenetic Approach |journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |date=January 2008 |volume=2 |issue=1 |page=e148 |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0000148 |pmid=18235852 |pmc=2217670 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }}</ref>
-The Columbian exchange of diseases towards the New World was far deadlier.{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=165}} The peoples of the Americas had previously had no exposure to Old World diseases and little or no immunity to them.{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=165}} An epidemic of [[swine influenza]] beginning in 1493 killed many of the [[Taino]] people inhabiting [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] islands. The pre-contact population of the island of [[Hispaniola]] was probably at least 500,000, but by 1526, fewer than 500 were still alive. Spanish exploitation was part of the cause of the near-extinction of the native people.{{sfn|Mann|2011|pages=11–12, 414}}[[File:Aztec smallpox victims.jpg|thumb|Sixteenth-century [[Aztec]] drawings of victims of [[smallpox]]. [[Florentine Codex]] ]]
+The Columbian exchange of diseases toward the New World was far deadlier.{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=165}} The peoples of the Americas had previously had no exposure to Old World diseases and little or no immunity to them.{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=165}} An epidemic of [[swine influenza]] beginning in 1493 killed many of the [[Taino]] people inhabiting [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] islands. The pre-contact population of the island of [[Hispaniola]] was probably at least 500,000, but by 1526, fewer than 500 were still alive. Spanish exploitation was part of the cause of the near-extinction of the native people.{{sfn|Mann|2011|pages=11–12, 414}}
-In 1518, [[smallpox]] was first recorded in the Americas and became the deadliest imported Old World disease. Forty percent of the 200,000 people living in the [[Aztec]] capital of [[Tenochtitlan]], later [[Mexico City]], are estimated to have died of smallpox in 1520 during the war of the Aztecs with conquistador [[Hernán Cortés]].<ref name="Gunderman">{{cite web |last=Gunderman |first=Richard |title=How smallpox devastated the Aztecs – and helped Spain conquer an American civilization 500 years ago |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/how-smallpox-devastated-the-aztecs-and-helped-spain-conquer-an-american-civilization-500-years-ago |website=PBS |date=February 23, 2019 |access-date=15 July 2021}}</ref> Epidemics, possibly of smallpox, spread from [[Central America]], devastated the population of the [[Inca Empire]] a few years before the arrival of the Spanish.<ref name="D'Altroy">{{cite book |last=D'Altroy |first=Terence N. |title=The Incas |date=2003 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0631176770 |page=76}}</ref> [[Native American disease and epidemics|The ravages of Old World diseases]] and Spanish exploitation reduced the [[Mexican people|Mexican]] population from an estimated 20 million to barely more than a million in the 16th century.<ref name="Library of Congress">{{cite book |last1=Merrill |first1=Tim L. |last2=Miro |first2=Ramon |title=Mexico: A Country Study |date=1996 |publisher=Library of Congress |location=Washington, D.C. |url=http://countrystudies.us/mexico/53.htm}}</ref>
+[[File:Aztec smallpox victims.jpg|thumb|Sixteenth-century [[Aztec]] drawings of victims of [[smallpox]] in the [[Florentine Codex]] ]]
+In 1518, [[smallpox]] was first recorded in the Americas and became the deadliest imported Old World disease. Forty percent of the 200,000 people living in the [[Aztec]] capital of [[Tenochtitlan]], later [[Mexico City]], are estimated to have died of smallpox in 1520 during the war of the Aztecs with conquistador [[Hernán Cortés]].<ref name="Gunderman">{{cite web |last=Gunderman |first=Richard |title=How smallpox devastated the Aztecs – and helped Spain conquer an American civilization 500 years ago |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/how-smallpox-devastated-the-aztecs-and-helped-spain-conquer-an-american-civilization-500-years-ago |website=PBS |date=February 23, 2019 |access-date=July 15, 2021}}</ref> Epidemics, possibly of smallpox, spread from [[Central America]], devastating the population of the [[Inca Empire]] a few years before the arrival of the Spanish.<ref name="D'Altroy">{{cite book |last=D'Altroy |first=Terence N. |title=The Incas |date=2003 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0631176770 |page=76}}</ref> [[Native American disease and epidemics|The ravages of Old World diseases]] and Spanish exploitation reduced the [[Mexican people|Mexican]] population from an estimated 20 million to barely more than a million in the 16th century.<ref name="Library of Congress">{{cite book |last1=Merrill |first1=Tim L. |last2=Miro |first2=Ramon |title=Mexico: A Country Study |date=1996 |publisher=Library of Congress |location=Washington, D.C. |url=http://countrystudies.us/mexico/53.htm}}</ref>
 {{vertical align rows}}
@@ Line 197: / Line 199: @@
 * [[yellow fever]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
 |
-* [[syphilis]] (probably)<ref>{{cite web |last=Hemarjata |first=Peera |title=Revisiting the Great Imitator: The Origin and History of Syphilis |date=17 June 2019 |url=https://asm.org/Articles/2019/June/Revisiting-the-Great-Imitator,-Part-I-The-Origin-a |access-date=27 November 2023 |website=[[American Society for Microbiology]]}}</ref><!--many more sources at [[Syphilis]]-->
+* [[syphilis]] (probably)<ref>{{cite web |last=Hemarjata |first=Peera |title=Revisiting the Great Imitator: The Origin and History of Syphilis |date=June 17, 2019 |url=https://asm.org/Articles/2019/June/Revisiting-the-Great-Imitator,-Part-I-The-Origin-a |access-date=November 27, 2023 |website=[[American Society for Microbiology]]}}</ref><!--many more sources at [[Syphilis]]-->
 |}
-The Indigenous population of [[Peru]] decreased from about 9 million in the pre-Columbian era, to 600,000 in 1620.<ref name="Denevan">{{cite journal |last=Denevan |first=William M. |title=Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1630 by Noble David Cook |journal=The Americas |date=October 1983 |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=281–284 |doi=10.2307/980770 |jstor=980770 |s2cid=148174483 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/980770 |access-date=28 May 2021|url-access=subscription }}</ref> An estimated 80–95 percent of the Native American population died in epidemics within the first 100–150 years following 1492. Nunn and Qian also refer to the calculations of the scientist David Cook: in some cases no one survived due to diseases. The deadliest Old World diseases in the Americas were smallpox, [[measles]], [[whooping cough]], [[chicken pox]], [[bubonic plague]], [[typhus]], and [[malaria]].{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|pages=164–165}} [[Yellow fever]] was brought to the Americas from Africa, probably by the slave trade. Many people in Africa had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did people of African descent when exposed to yellow fever in the Americas, as [[History of yellow fever|numerous epidemics]] swept the colonies and sugar plantations.<ref name="Chippaux 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Chippaux |first1=Jean-Philippe |last2=Chippaux |first2=Alain |title=Yellow fever in Africa and the Americas: a historical and epidemiological perspective |journal=The Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases |volume=24 |issue=1 |date=25 August 2018 |page=20 |doi=10.1186/s40409-018-0162-y |doi-access=free|pmid=30158957 |pmc=6109282 }}</ref>
+The Indigenous population of [[Peru]] decreased from about 9 million in the pre-Columbian era, to 600,000 in 1620.<ref name="Denevan">{{cite journal |last=Denevan |first=William M. |title=Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1630 by Noble David Cook |journal=The Americas |date=October 1983 |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=281–284 |doi=10.2307/980770 |jstor=980770 |s2cid=148174483 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/980770 |access-date=May 28, 2021|url-access=subscription }}</ref> An estimated 80–95 percent of the Native American population died in epidemics within the first 100–150 years following 1492. Nunn and Qian also refer to the calculations of the scientist David Cook: in some cases no one survived due to diseases. The deadliest Old World diseases in the Americas were smallpox, [[measles]], [[whooping cough]], [[chicken pox]], [[bubonic plague]], [[typhus]], and [[malaria]].{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|pages=164–165}} [[Yellow fever]] was brought to the Americas from Africa, probably by the slave trade. Many people in Africa had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did people of African descent when exposed to yellow fever in the Americas, as [[History of yellow fever|numerous epidemics]] swept the colonies and sugar plantations.<ref name="Chippaux 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Chippaux |first1=Jean-Philippe |last2=Chippaux |first2=Alain |title=Yellow fever in Africa and the Americas: a historical and epidemiological perspective |journal=The Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases |volume=24 |issue=1 |date=August 25, 2018 |page=20 |doi=10.1186/s40409-018-0162-y |doi-access=free|pmid=30158957 |pmc=6109282 }}</ref>
 On the other hand, European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of [[quinine]], the first effective treatment for [[malaria]]. [[Cinchona]] trees from the Andes were processed and [[quinine]] was obtained from their bark.<ref name = "Nunn Qian 2010"/> Europeans suffered from this disease, but some Indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause [[sickle-cell disease]].{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=164}} The resistance of sub-Saharan Africans to malaria in the southern United States and the Caribbean contributed greatly to the specific character of the Africa-sourced slavery in those regions.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Esposito |first=Elena |date=Summer 2015 |title=Side Effects of Immunities: the African Slave Trade |url=http://eh.net/eha/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Esposito.pdf |journal=[[European University Institute]] |access-date=October 30, 2018 |archive-date=November 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112014228/https://eh.net/eha/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Esposito.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{Clear}}
@@ Line 210: / Line 212: @@
 [[File:Evangelización por la Orden Franciscana.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|The [[History of the Catholic Church in Mexico|evangelization of Mexico]]]]
-The movement of people between New and Old Worlds caused cultural exchanges, extending to what Pieter Emmer has called "a clash of cultures".<ref name="Emmer 2003"/> This involved the transfer of European values to Indigenous cultures, such as the concept of [[private property]] in regions where property was often viewed as communal, universal [[monogamy]] (though many Indigenous peoples were already monogamous), the role of women and children in the social system, and different concepts of labor, including slavery.<ref name="Emmer 2003">{{cite journal |last=Emmer |first=Pieter |title=The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800 |journal=European Review |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=February 2003 |pages=37–47 |doi=10.1017/S106279870300005X }}</ref> Christianity was brought to the Indigenous peoples by priests and monks from Europe.<ref name="Christensen 2024">{{cite web |last1=Christensen |first1=Mark |title=Columbian Exchange |url=https://billofrightsinstitute.org/essays/columbian-exchange |publisher=[[Bill of Rights Institute]] |access-date=3 October 2024}}</ref> [[Tobacco]] was used in the Old World as medicine and currency,<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> while in the New World, it was the subject of religious customs.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> Some New World peoples such as the [[Mapuche]] of [[Araucanía (historic region)|Araucania]] [[Resistance through culture|resisted the adoption]] of Spanish technology, holding to [[Mapuche religion|their ancestral customs]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dillehy |first=Tom |title=Reflections on Araucanian/Mapuche Resilience, Independence, and Ethnomorphosis in Colonial (and Present-day) Chile |journal=Chungará (Arica) |date=2016 |volume=48 |issue=4 |url=https://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0717-73562016000400013&script=sci_arttext |access-date=27 April 2024}}</ref> Indigenous people have often been seen as static recipients of transatlantic encounters, but thousands of Native Americans crossed the ocean during the sixteenth century, some by choice.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pennock |first=Caroline |date=2020-06-01 |title=Aztecs Abroad? Uncovering the Early Indigenous Atlantic |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ahr/rhaa237 |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=125 |issue=3 |pages=787–814 |doi=10.1093/ahr/rhaa237}}</ref>{{-}}
+The movement of people between New and Old Worlds caused cultural exchanges, extending to what Pieter Emmer has called "a clash of cultures".<ref name="Emmer 2003"/> This involved the transfer of European values to Indigenous cultures, such as the concept of [[private property]] in regions where property was often viewed as communal, universal [[monogamy]] (though many Indigenous peoples were already monogamous), the role of women and children in the social system, and different concepts of labor, including slavery.<ref name="Emmer 2003">{{cite journal |last=Emmer |first=Pieter |title=The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800 |journal=European Review |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=February 2003 |pages=37–47 |doi=10.1017/S106279870300005X }}</ref> Christianity was brought to the Indigenous peoples by priests and monks from Europe.<ref name="Christensen 2024">{{cite web |last=Christensen |first=Mark |title=Columbian Exchange |url=https://billofrightsinstitute.org/essays/columbian-exchange |publisher=[[Bill of Rights Institute]] |access-date=October 3, 2024}}</ref> [[Tobacco]] was used in the Old World as medicine and currency,<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> while in the New World it was the subject of religious customs.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> Some New World peoples such as the [[Mapuche]] of [[Araucanía (historic region)|Araucania]] [[Resistance through culture|resisted the adoption]] of Spanish technology, holding to [[Mapuche religion|their ancestral customs]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dillehy |first=Tom |title=Reflections on Araucanian/Mapuche Resilience, Independence, and Ethnomorphosis in Colonial (and Present-day) Chile |journal=Chungará (Arica) |date=2016 |volume=48 |issue=4 |url=https://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0717-73562016000400013&script=sci_arttext |access-date=April 27, 2024}}</ref> Indigenous people have often been seen as static recipients of transatlantic encounters, but thousands of Native Americans crossed the ocean during the sixteenth century, some by choice.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pennock |first=Caroline |date=June 1, 2020 |title=Aztecs Abroad? Uncovering the Early Indigenous Atlantic |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ahr/rhaa237 |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=125 |issue=3 |pages=787–814 |doi=10.1093/ahr/rhaa237|url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{-}}
 === Atlantic slave trade ===
@@ Line 218: / Line 220: @@
 [[File:1670 virginia tobacco slaves.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A depiction of slaves working at a [[slave plantation|plantation]] in [[Virginia]], 1670]]
-The Atlantic slave trade consisted of the involuntary immigration of 11.7&nbsp;million Africans, primarily from West Africa, to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries, far outnumbering the about 3.4&nbsp;million Europeans who migrated, most voluntarily, to the New World between 1492 and 1840.{{sfn|Mann|2011|page=286}} The prevalence of African slaves in the New World was related to the demographic decline of New World peoples and the need of European colonists for labor. Another reason for the demand for slaves was the cultivation of crops such as sugar cane suitable for the climatic conditions of the new lands.{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=181}} The Africans were less likely to die, too, from those diseases that had been brought to the New World.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gates |first1=Louis |title=100 Amazing Facts About the Negro |url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/ |website=PBS |date=January 2, 2013 |publisher=WNET |access-date=25 October 2018}}</ref> Enslaved Africans helped shape an emerging African-American culture in the New World. They participated in both skilled and unskilled labor. For example,<!-- according to the work of [[James L. Watson (anthropologist)|James L. Watson]],--> slaves were involved in handicraft production. They could also work as ordinary workers, and as managers of small enterprises in the commercial or industrial sphere.<ref>{{cite book |last=Watson |first=James L. |author1-link=James L. Watson (anthropologist) |title=Asian and African Systems of Slavery |year=1980 |publisher=Basil Blackwell |location=University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California |pages=34}}</ref> Their descendants gradually developed an ethnicity that drew from the numerous African tribes as well as European nationalities.<ref name="Carney">{{cite book |last=Carney |first=Judith |title=Black Rice |url=https://archive.org/details/blackriceafrican00carn |url-access=registration |date=2001 |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/blackriceafrican00carn/page/2 2–8]}}</ref>{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=181}} The descendants of African slaves make up a majority of the population in some Caribbean countries, notably [[Haiti]] and [[Jamaica]], and a sizeable minority in most American countries.{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=183}}
+The Atlantic slave trade consisted of the involuntary immigration of 11.7&nbsp;million Africans, primarily from West Africa, to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries, far outnumbering the about 3.4&nbsp;million Europeans who migrated, most voluntarily, to the New World between 1492 and 1840.{{sfn|Mann|2011|page=286}} The prevalence of African slaves in the New World was related to the demographic decline of New World peoples and the need of European colonists for labor. Another reason for the demand for slaves was the cultivation of crops such as sugar cane suitable for the climatic conditions of the new lands.{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=181}} The Africans were less likely to die, too, from those diseases that had been brought to the New World.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gates |first1=Louis |title=100 Amazing Facts About the Negro |url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/ |website=PBS |date=January 2, 2013 |publisher=WNET |access-date=October 25, 2018}}</ref> Enslaved Africans helped shape an emerging African-American culture in the New World. They participated in both skilled and unskilled labor. For example,<!-- according to the work of [[James L. Watson (anthropologist)|James L. Watson]],--> slaves were involved in handicraft production. They could also work as ordinary workers, and as managers of small enterprises in the commercial or industrial sphere.<ref>{{cite book |last=Watson |first=James L. |author1-link=James L. Watson (anthropologist) |title=Asian and African Systems of Slavery |year=1980 |publisher=Basil Blackwell |location=University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California |pages=34}}</ref> Their descendants gradually developed an ethnicity that drew from the numerous African tribes as well as European nationalities.<ref name="Carney">{{cite book |last=Carney |first=Judith |title=Black Rice |url=https://archive.org/details/blackriceafrican00carn |url-access=registration |date=2001 |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/blackriceafrican00carn/page/2 2–8]}}</ref>{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=181}} The descendants of African slaves make up a majority of the population in some Caribbean countries, notably [[Haiti]] and [[Jamaica]], and a sizeable minority in most American countries.{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=183}}
 == See also ==
@@ Line 270: / Line 272: @@
 [[Category:History of the Atlantic Ocean]]
 [[Category:Horticulture]]
+[[Category:1970s neologisms]]
 [[Category:Introduced species]]
+[[Category:Pre-Columbian agriculture]]
 [[Category:Spanish colonization of the Americas]]
 [[Category:Spanish exploration in the Age of Discovery]]
 [[Category:Transatlantic cultural exchange]]
 [[Category:Western culture]]

Columbian exchange: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 21:20, 28 December 2025

Contents

Etymology

Background

Biological exchanges

Of plants

Of animals

Of diseases

Cultural exchanges

Clash of cultures

Atlantic slave trade

See also

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Columbian exchange: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 21:20, 28 December 2025

Etymology

Background

Biological exchanges

Of plants

Of animals

Of diseases

Cultural exchanges

Clash of cultures

Atlantic slave trade

See also

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Search