Cedrus libani: Difference between revisions

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| status = VU
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Gardner, M. |date=2013 |title=''Cedrus libani'' |volume=2013 |page=e.T46191675A46192926 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T46191675A46192926.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Gardner, M. |date=2013 |title=''Cedrus libani'' |volume=2013 |article-number=e.T46191675A46192926 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T46191675A46192926.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Cedrus
| genus = Cedrus
| species = libani
| species = libani
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| subdivision_ref = <ref name = powo>{{cite web |title=''Cedrus libani'' A.Rich. |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:676705-1 |website=[[Plants of the World Online]] |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |access-date=27 August 2024}}</ref>
| subdivision_ref = <ref name = powo>{{cite web |title=''Cedrus libani'' A.Rich. |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:676705-1 |website=[[Plants of the World Online]] |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |access-date=27 August 2024}}</ref>
| range_map = Cedrus libani range.svg
| range_map = Cedrus libani range.svg
| range_map_caption = Distribution map<br>
| range_map_caption = Distribution map<br />
:{{Colorbox|#70A800}} ''Cedrus libani'' var. ''libani''
:{{Colorbox|#70A800}} ''Cedrus libani'' var. ''libani''
:{{Colorbox|#FF0000}} ''Cedrus libani'' var. ''brevifolia'' (syn. ''Cedrus brevifolia'')
:{{Colorbox|#FF0000}} ''Cedrus libani'' var. ''brevifolia'' (syn. ''Cedrus brevifolia'')
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|''Pinus cedrus'' {{small|L. (1753)}}
|''Pinus cedrus'' {{small|L. (1753)}}
|''Pinus cedrus var. effusa'' {{small|Voss (1913), not validly publ.}}
|''Pinus cedrus var. effusa'' {{small|Voss (1913), not validly publ.}}
|''Pinus effusa'' {{small|Salisb. (1796), nom. superfl.}}<br>
|''Pinus effusa'' {{small|Salisb. (1796), nom. superfl.}}<br />
'''Synonyms of ''C. libani'' var. ''libani'':'''
'''Synonyms of ''C. libani'' var. ''libani'':'''
|''Cedrus elegans'' {{small|Knight (1850)}}<ref>Knight Syn. Conif. 42 1850</ref>
|''Cedrus elegans'' {{small|Knight (1850)}}<ref>Knight Syn. Conif. 42 1850</ref>
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}}
}}


'''''Cedrus libani''''', commonly known as '''cedar of Lebanon''', '''Lebanon cedar''', or '''Lebanese cedar''' ({{Langx|ar|أرز لبناني|ʾarz lubnāniyy}}), is a [[species]] of tree in the genus ''[[Cedrus]]'', a part of the [[Pinaceae|pine family]], [[native species|native]] to the mountains of the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] basin. It is a large [[evergreen]] [[conifer]] that has great religious and historical significance in the cultures of the Middle East, and is referenced many times in the literature of ancient civilisations. It is the national emblem of [[Lebanon]] and is widely used as an ornamental tree in parks and gardens.
'''''Cedrus libani''''', commonly known as '''cedar of Lebanon''', '''Lebanon cedar''', or '''Lebanese cedar''' ({{Langx|ar|أرز لبناني|ʾarz lubnāniyy}}), is a [[species]] of large [[evergreen]] [[conifer]] in the genus ''[[Cedrus]]'', which belongs to the [[Pinaceae|pine family]] and is [[native species|native]] to the mountains of the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] basin. Known for its longevity, height, and durable wood, it has held profound significance for millennia. The tree features in ancient [[Akkadian literature|Mesopotamian]] and [[Israelites|Israelite]] literature, notably in the [[Hebrew Bible]], according to which the tree was used in the construction of the [[Solomon's Temple|Jerusalem Temple]] by [[Solomon]], who received the trees from [[Hiram I|Hiram of Tyre]]. Today, it is the national emblem of [[Lebanon]] and is widely used as an ornamental tree in parks and gardens.


==Description==
==Description==
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==Taxonomy==
==Taxonomy==


[[File:Cedar of Lebanon cone.JPG|thumb|left|Female cone showing flecks of resin|246x246px]]
[[File:Cedar of Lebanon cone.JPG|thumb|left|Female cone showing flecks of resin|upright=1.2]]
''Cedrus'' is the Latin name for true cedars.<ref>Farjon 2010, p. 254</ref> The [[Botanical name|specific epithet]] refers to the [[Mount Lebanon|Lebanon]] mountain range where the species was first described by [[French people|French]] botanist [[Achille Richard]]; the tree is commonly known as the Lebanon cedar or cedar of Lebanon.<ref name=":0"/><ref name="Bory">Bory 1823, p. 299</ref> Two to three distinct types are accepted as varieties: ''C. libani'' var. ''libani'', ''C. libani'' var. ''brevifolia'',<ref name=":0"/> and ''C. libani'' var. ''stenocoma'';<ref name="Flora">{{cite book | last=Davis | first=Peter Hadland | title=Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands | publisher=Edinburgh University Press | publication-place=Edinburgh | date=2000 | isbn=0-7486-1409-5 |volume=11 | page=5–6}}</ref> the last not being considered distinct by all authorities.
''Cedrus'' is the Latin name for true cedars.<ref>Farjon 2010, p. 254</ref> The [[Botanical name|specific epithet]] refers to the [[Mount Lebanon|Lebanon]] mountain range where the species was first described by [[French people|French]] botanist [[Achille Richard]]; the tree is commonly known as the Lebanon cedar or cedar of Lebanon.<ref name=":0"/><ref name="Bory">Bory 1823, p. 299</ref> Two to three distinct types are accepted as varieties: ''C. libani'' var. ''libani'', ''C. libani'' var. ''brevifolia'',<ref name=":0"/> and ''C. libani'' var. ''stenocoma'';<ref name="Flora">{{cite book | last=Davis | first=Peter Hadland | title=Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands | publisher=Edinburgh University Press | publication-place=Edinburgh | date=2000 | isbn=0-7486-1409-5 |volume=11 | page=5–6}}</ref> the last not being considered distinct by all authorities.


''C. libani'' var. ''libani'': Lebanon cedar, cedar of Lebanon – grows in Lebanon, western [[Syria]], and south-central [[Turkey]]. ''C. libani'' var. ''stenocoma'' (the Taurus cedar), considered a subspecies in earlier literature, is now considered as a [[variety (botany)|variety]] or [[ecotype]] of ''C. libani'' var. ''libani''. It usually has a spreading crown that does not flatten. This distinct morphology is a habit that is assumed to cope with the competitive environment, since the tree occurs in dense stands mixed with the tall-growing ''[[Abies cilicica]]'', or in pure stands of young cedar trees.<ref name=":01"/> Isozyme analysis however placed var. ''stenocoma'' closer to var. ''brevifolia'' than to var. ''libani'', even placing var. ''brevifolia'' embedded within var. ''stenocoma'' samples.<ref name="Scaltsoyiannes">{{cite journal |last1=Scaltsoyiannes |first1=A. |title=Allozyme Differentiation and Phylogeny of Cedar Species |journal=Silvae Genetica |date=1999 |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=61-68 |url=https://www.thuenen.de/media/institute/fg/PDF/Silvae_Genetica/1999/Vol._48_Heft_2/48_2_61.pdf |access-date=8 April 2025}}</ref>
''C. libani'' var. ''libani'': Lebanon cedar, cedar of Lebanon – grows in Lebanon, western [[Syria]], and south-central [[Turkey]]. ''C. libani'' var. ''stenocoma'' (the Taurus cedar), considered a subspecies in earlier literature, is now considered as a [[variety (botany)|variety]] or [[ecotype]] of ''C. libani'' var. ''libani''. It usually has a spreading crown that does not flatten. This distinct morphology is a habit that is assumed to cope with the competitive environment, since the tree occurs in dense stands mixed with the tall-growing ''[[Abies cilicica]]'', or in pure stands of young cedar trees.<ref name=":01"/> Isozyme analysis however placed var. ''stenocoma'' closer to var. ''brevifolia'' than to var. ''libani'', even placing var. ''brevifolia'' embedded within var. ''stenocoma'' samples.<ref name="Scaltsoyiannes">{{cite journal |last1=Scaltsoyiannes |first1=A. |title=Allozyme Differentiation and Phylogeny of Cedar Species |journal=Silvae Genetica |date=1999 |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=61–68 |url=https://www.thuenen.de/media/institute/fg/PDF/Silvae_Genetica/1999/Vol._48_Heft_2/48_2_61.pdf |access-date=8 April 2025}}</ref>


[[Cedrus libani var. brevifolia|''C. libani'' var. ''brevifolia'']]: The Cyprus cedar occurs on the island's [[Troodos Mountains]].<ref name=":01"/> This taxon was considered a separate species from ''C. libani'' because of morphological and ecophysiological trait differences.<ref name="Debazac">Debazac 1964</ref><ref name=":3">Ladjal 2001</ref> It is characterised by slow growth, shorter needles, and higher tolerance to drought and aphids.<ref name=":3"/><ref name="fabre">Fabre et al. 2001, pp. 88–89</ref> Genetic relationship studies, however, did not separate ''C. brevifolia'' as a separate species, the markers being indistinguishable from those of ''C. libani''.<ref name="Fady">Fady et al. 2000</ref><ref name="Kharrat">Kharrat 2006, p. 282</ref>
[[Cedrus libani var. brevifolia|''C. libani'' var. ''brevifolia'']]: The Cyprus cedar occurs on the island's [[Troodos Mountains]].<ref name=":01"/> This taxon was considered a separate species from ''C. libani'' because of morphological and ecophysiological trait differences.<ref name="Debazac">Debazac 1964</ref><ref name=":3">Ladjal 2001</ref> It is characterised by slow growth, shorter needles, and higher tolerance to drought and aphids.<ref name=":3"/><ref name="fabre">Fabre et al. 2001, pp. 88–89</ref> Genetic relationship studies, however, did not separate ''C. brevifolia'' as a separate species, the markers being indistinguishable from those of ''C. libani''.<ref name="Fady">Fady et al. 2000</ref><ref name="Kharrat">Kharrat 2006, p. 282</ref>


==Distribution and habitat==
==Distribution and habitat==
[[File:Male cone of Cedar of Lebanon.JPG|200px|thumb|Male cone]]
[[File:Male cone of Cedar of Lebanon.JPG|thumb|Male cone]]
''C. libani'' var. ''libani'' is endemic to elevated mountains around the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] in Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey. The tree grows in well-drained calcareous [[Orthent|lithosols]] on rocky, north- and west-facing slopes and ridges and thrives in rich loam or a sandy clay in full sun.<ref name=":0"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Cedrus+libani|title=Cedrus libani Cedar of Lebanon PFAF Plant Database|website=pfaf.org|publisher=Plants for a Future|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> Its natural habitat is characterised by warm, dry summers and cool, moist winters with an annual precipitation of {{Convert|1000|to|1500|mm|abbr=on}}; the trees are blanketed by a heavy snow cover at the higher elevations.<ref name=":0"/> In Lebanon and Turkey, it occurs most abundantly at elevations of {{Convert|1300|to|3000|m|abbr=on}}, where it forms pure [[forest]]s or mixed forests with Cilician fir (''[[Abies cilicica]]''), European black pine (''[[Pinus nigra]]''), Turkish pine (''[[Pinus brutia]]''), and several [[juniper]] species. In Turkey, it can occur as low as {{Convert|500|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":2">{{cite iucn |author=Gardner, M. |date=2013 |title=''Cedrus libani'' var. ''libani'' |volume=2013 |page=e.T42305A2970821 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42305A2970821.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref><ref name=":0"/>
''C. libani'' var. ''libani'' is endemic to elevated mountains around the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] in Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey. The tree grows in well-drained calcareous [[Orthent|lithosols]] on rocky, north- and west-facing slopes and ridges and thrives in rich loam or a sandy clay in full sun.<ref name=":0"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Cedrus+libani|title=Cedrus libani Cedar of Lebanon PFAF Plant Database|website=pfaf.org|publisher=Plants for a Future|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> Its natural habitat is characterised by warm, dry summers and cool, moist winters with an annual precipitation of {{Convert|1000|to|1500|mm|abbr=on}}; the trees are blanketed by a heavy snow cover at the higher elevations.<ref name=":0"/> In Lebanon and Turkey, it occurs most abundantly at elevations of {{Convert|1300|to|3000|m|abbr=on}}, where it forms pure [[forest]]s or mixed forests with Cilician fir (''[[Abies cilicica]]''), European black pine (''[[Pinus nigra]]''), Turkish pine (''[[Pinus brutia]]''), and several [[juniper]] species. In Turkey, it can occur as low as {{Convert|500|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":2">{{cite iucn |author=Gardner, M. |date=2013 |title=''Cedrus libani'' var. ''libani'' |volume=2013 |article-number=e.T42305A2970821 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42305A2970821.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref><ref name=":0"/>


''C. libani'' var. ''brevifolia'' grows in similar conditions in the [[Troodos Mountains]] of [[Cyprus]] at medium to high elevations ranging from {{Convert|900|to|1525|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":2"/><ref name=":0"/>
''C. libani'' var. ''brevifolia'' grows in similar conditions in the [[Troodos Mountains]] of [[Cyprus]] at medium to high elevations ranging from {{Convert|900|to|1525|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":2"/><ref name=":0"/>


==History and symbolism==
==History and symbolism==
In the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]], one of the earliest great works of literature, the Sumerian hero [[Gilgamesh]] and his friend [[Enkidu]] travel to the legendary [[Cedar Forest]] to kill its guardian and cut down its trees. While early versions of the story place the forest in Iran, later Babylonian accounts of the story place the Cedar Forest in Lebanon.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Archaeology and Homeric epic |last1=Sherratt |first1=Susan |last2=Bennet |first2=John |publisher=Oxbow Books |year=2017 |isbn=9781785702969 |location=Oxford |pages=127 |oclc=959610992}}</ref>
In the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]], one of the earliest great works of literature, the Sumerian hero [[Gilgamesh]] and his friend [[Enkidu]] travel to the legendary [[Cedar Forest]] to kill its guardian and cut down its trees. While early versions of the story place the forest in Iran, later Babylonian accounts of the story place the Cedar Forest in Lebanon.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Archaeology and Homeric epic |last1=Sherratt |first1=Susan |last2=Bennet |first2=John |publisher=Oxbow Books |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-78570-296-9 |location=Oxford |pages=127 |oclc=959610992}}</ref>
[[File:085.Cedars_Are_Cut_Down_for_the_Jerusalem_Temple.jpg|thumb|Cedars of Lebanon felled for use in the [[Solomon's Temple|Jerusalem Temple]], illustration by [[Gustave Doré]] (1866)]]
The Lebanon cedar is mentioned several times in the [[Bible]]. Hebrew priests were ordered by [[Moses]] to use the bark of the Lebanon cedar in the treatment of leprosy.<ref>Leviticus 14:1–4</ref> [[Solomon]] also procured cedar timber to build the [[Temple in Jerusalem]].<ref name="ourladyoflebanon-dc.org">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ourladyoflebanon-dc.org/histcedars.html|title=Welcome to Our Lady of Lebanon Maronite Church's Homepage|access-date=19 July 2016|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090602041955/http://www.ourladyoflebanon-dc.org/histcedars.html|archive-date=2 June 2009}}</ref> The Hebrew prophet [[Isaiah]] used the Lebanon cedar (together with "oaks of Bashan", "all the high mountains" and "every high tower") as examples of loftiness as a metaphor for the pride of the world<ref>Isaiah 2:13</ref> and in [[Psalm]] 92:12 it says "The righteous shall flourish like the palm tree: he shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon".<ref>Psalm 92:12 – "The righteous shall flourish like the palm tree: he shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon"</ref>


The Lebanon cedar is mentioned several times in the [[Bible]]. Hebrew priests were ordered by [[Moses]] to use the bark of the Lebanon cedar in the treatment of leprosy.<ref>Leviticus 14:1–4</ref> [[Solomon]] also procured cedar timber to build the [[Temple in Jerusalem]].<ref name="ourladyoflebanon-dc.org">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ourladyoflebanon-dc.org/histcedars.html|title=Welcome to Our Lady of Lebanon Maronite Church's Homepage|access-date=19 July 2016|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090602041955/http://www.ourladyoflebanon-dc.org/histcedars.html|archive-date=2 June 2009}}</ref> The Hebrew prophet [[Isaiah]] used the Lebanon cedar (together with "oaks of Bashan", "all the high mountains" and "every high tower") as examples of loftiness as a metaphor for the pride of the world<ref>Isaiah 2:13</ref> and in [[Psalm]] 92:12 it says "The righteous shall flourish like the palm tree: he shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon".<ref>Psalm 92:12 – "The righteous shall flourish like the palm tree: he shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon"</ref>
According to a [[Rabbinic literature|rabbinic legend]] found in the [[Talmud]], the cedar of Lebanon appears symbolically in [[Yohanan ben Zakkai]]'s meeting with the Roman general [[Vespasian]] during the [[First Jewish–Roman War]]. As the story goes, when ben Zakkai secretly fled the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|besieged Jerusalem]] to negotiate with Vespasian, he prophesied the general's rise to the imperial throne by citing a prophecy from the Book of Isaiah: ''"And the Lebanon shall fall by a mighty one"'' ([[Isaiah 10]]:34). In this interpretation, "Lebanon" is understood to represent the Temple in Jerusalem, which was built using cedars from Lebanon, and the "mighty one" is Vespasian, implying that his destruction of the Temple would signal his ascent as emperor.<ref>[[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]], [[Gittin]] 56b; [[Lamentations Rabbah]] 1:5 §31</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Shaye J. D. |author-link=Shaye J. D. Cohen |title=From the Maccabees to the Mishnah |date=2014 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-23904-6 |edition=3rd |location=Louisville, Ky |page=24}}</ref>


===National and regional significance===
===National and regional significance===
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==Cultivation==
==Cultivation==
Cultivation of Lebanon cedar dates back at least 3,200 years, when the [[Hittites|Hittite Empire]] established two populations of the species in northern Turkey where it did not occur naturally.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Özcan | first=Ali Uğur | last2=Çiçek | first2=Kerim | title=How long do we think humans have been planting forests? A case study with ''Cedrus libani'' A. Rich | journal=New Forests | volume=54 | issue=1 | date=2023 | issn=0169-4286 | doi=10.1007/s11056-021-09900-y | pages=49–65 | url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11056-021-09900-y | access-date=2025-04-08| url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Cultivation of Lebanon cedar dates back at least 3,200 years, when the [[Hittites|Hittite Empire]] established two populations of the species in northern Turkey where it did not occur naturally.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Özcan | first1=Ali Uğur | last2=Çiçek | first2=Kerim | title=How long do we think humans have been planting forests? A case study with ''Cedrus libani'' A. Rich | journal=New Forests | volume=54 | issue=1 | date=2023 | issn=0169-4286 | doi=10.1007/s11056-021-09900-y | pages=49–65 | bibcode=2023NewFo..54...49O | url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11056-021-09900-y | access-date=2025-04-08| url-access=subscription }}</ref>


The Lebanon cedar is now widely planted as an [[ornamental tree]] in parks and gardens.<ref name=":5">Hemery & Simblet 2014, p. 55</ref><ref>Howard 1955, p. 168</ref>
The Lebanon cedar is now widely planted as an [[ornamental tree]] in parks and gardens.<ref name=":5">Hemery & Simblet 2014, p. 55</ref><ref>Howard 1955, p. 168</ref>


The first Lebanon cedars in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] were introduced by [[Edward Pococke]], who collected seed in 1638–39 while based in Syria as chaplain to the [[Levant Company|Turkey Company]]; on his return to Britain, he was given the living of [[Childrey]]; a tree he planted at the Rectory there in 1646 is the oldest surviving specimen in Britain.<ref name="Mitchell">{{cite book | last=Mitchell | first=Alan F. | last2=Mitchell | first2=Alan | title=Alan Mitchell's Trees of Britain | publisher=Whitman Publishing & Distribution Company | date=1996 | isbn=0-00-219972-6 | page=44}}</ref> Most other very early-planted trees in Britain were killed in an unusually severe winter in 1739–1740, but one planted at [[Peper Harow]] in [[Surrey]] in 1735 also survives.<ref name="Mitchell"/> In [[Ireland]], one at [[Adare Manor]] in [[County Limerick]], thought to have been planted in 1645, may also be from Pococke's original import, but this is not verified.<ref name="Mitchell"/> The species is mentioned in ''[[Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber]]'' by [[John Evelyn]].<ref>Hemery & Simblet 2014, p. 54</ref> In Britain, cedars of Lebanon are known for their use in London's [[Highgate Cemetery]].<ref name=":5"/>
The first Lebanon cedars in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] were introduced by [[Edward Pococke]], who collected seed in 1638–39 while based in Syria as chaplain to the [[Levant Company|Turkey Company]]; on his return to Britain, he was given the living of [[Childrey]]; a tree he planted at the Rectory there in 1646 is the oldest surviving specimen in Britain.<ref name="Mitchell">{{cite book | last1=Mitchell | first1=Alan F. | last2=Mitchell | first2=Alan | title=Alan Mitchell's Trees of Britain | publisher=Whitman Publishing & Distribution Company | date=1996 | isbn=0-00-219972-6 | page=44}}</ref> Most other very early-planted trees in Britain were killed in an unusually severe winter in 1739–1740, but one planted at [[Peper Harow]] in [[Surrey]] in 1735 also survives.<ref name="Mitchell"/> In [[Ireland]], one at [[Adare Manor]] in [[County Limerick]], thought to have been planted in 1645, may also be from Pococke's original import, but this is not verified.<ref name="Mitchell"/> The species is mentioned in ''[[Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber]]'' by [[John Evelyn]].<ref>Hemery & Simblet 2014, p. 54</ref> In Britain, cedars of Lebanon are known for their use in London's [[Highgate Cemetery]]<ref name=":5" /> and [[Blenheim Palace]].


''C. libani'' has gained the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]]<ref name="RHSPF">{{Cite web
''C. libani'' has gained the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]]<ref name="RHSPF">{{Cite web
| url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/100314/Cedrus-libani/Details | title = ''Cedrus libani'' | website = www.rhs.org | publisher = Royal Horticultural Society | access-date = 12 April 2020}}</ref> (confirmed 2017).<ref>{{Cite web  | url= https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf | title = AGM Plants – Ornamental | date = July 2017 | page = 16 | publisher = Royal Horticultural Society | access-date = 24 January 2018}}</ref>
| url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/100314/Cedrus-libani/Details | title = ''Cedrus libani'' | website = www.rhs.org | publisher = Royal Horticultural Society | access-date = 12 April 2020}}</ref> (confirmed 2017).<ref>{{Cite web  | url= https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf | title = AGM Plants – Ornamental | date = July 2017 | page = 16 | publisher = Royal Horticultural Society | access-date = 24 January 2018}}</ref>


[[Arkansas]], among other [[United States|US]] states, has a Champion Tree program that records exceptional tree specimens. A Lebanon cedar listed by the state is located inside [[Hot Springs National Park]] and is estimated to be over 100 years old.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.aad.arkansas.gov/cedar-lebanon-cedrus-libani | title=Cedar Lebanon (Cedrus libani) | access-date=5 January 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106010249/https://www.aad.arkansas.gov/cedar-lebanon-cedrus-libani | archive-date=6 January 2019 | url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[Arkansas]], among other [[United States|US]] states, has a Champion Tree program that records exceptional tree specimens. A Lebanon cedar listed by the state is located inside [[Hot Springs National Park]] and is estimated to be over 100 years old.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.aad.arkansas.gov/cedar-lebanon-cedrus-libani | title=Cedar Lebanon (Cedrus libani) | work=Arkansas Agriculture Department | access-date=5 January 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106010249/https://www.aad.arkansas.gov/cedar-lebanon-cedrus-libani | archive-date=6 January 2019 }}</ref>


===Propagation===
===Propagation===
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==Ecology and conservation==
==Ecology and conservation==
Over the centuries, extensive [[deforestation]] has occurred, with only small remnants of the original forests surviving. Deforestation has been particularly severe in Lebanon and on Cyprus; on Cyprus, only small trees up to {{Convert|25|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall survive, though [[Pliny the Elder]] recorded cedars {{Convert|40|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall there.<ref name="willan">Willan, R. G. N. (1990). The Cyprus Cedar. ''Int. Dendrol. Soc. Yearbk''. 1990: 115–118.</ref> Attempts have been made at various times throughout history to conserve the Lebanon cedars. The first was made by the [[Roman emperor]] [[Hadrian]]; he created an imperial forest and ordered it marked by inscribed [[Boundary marker|boundary stones]], two of which are in the museum of the [[American University of Beirut]].<ref>Shackley, pp. 420–421</ref>
Over the centuries, extensive [[deforestation]] has occurred, with only small remnants of the original forests surviving. Deforestation has been particularly severe in Lebanon and on Cyprus; on Cyprus, only small trees up to {{Convert|25|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall survive, though [[Pliny the Elder]] recorded cedars {{Convert|40|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall there.<ref name="willan">Willan, R. G. N. (1990). The Cyprus Cedar. ''Int. Dendrol. Soc. Yearbk''. 1990: 115–118.</ref> Attempts have been made at various times throughout history to conserve the Lebanon cedars. The first was made by the [[Roman emperor]] [[Hadrian]]; he created an imperial forest and ordered it marked by inscribing [[Boundary marker|boundary stones]], two of which are in the museum of the [[American University of Beirut]].<ref>Shackley, pp. 420–421</ref>


Extensive [[reforestation]] of cedar is carried out in the Mediterranean region. In Turkey, over 50 million young cedars are planted annually, covering an area around {{Convert|300|km2|acre}}.<ref>Anon. ''History of Turkish Forestry''. Turkish Ministry of Forestry.</ref><ref name="khuri">Khuri, S. & Talhouk, S. N. (1999). ''Cedar of Lebanon''. pp. 108–111. in: Farjon, A. & Page, C. N. ''Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan: Conifers''. IUCN/SSC Conifer Specialist Group. {{ISBN|2-8317-0465-0}}.</ref> Lebanese cedar populations are also expanding through an active program combining replanting and protection of natural regeneration from browsing [[goat]]s, hunting, forest fires, and woodworms.<ref name="khuri"/> The Lebanese approach emphasizes natural regeneration by creating proper growing conditions. The Lebanese state has created several reserves, including the Chouf Cedar Reserve, the Jaj Cedar Reserve, the Tannourine Reserve, the Ammouaa and Karm Shbat Reserves in the Akkar district, and the Forest of the [[Cedars of God]] near [[Bsharri]].<ref>Talhouk & Zurayk 2004, pp. 411–414</ref><ref>Semaan, M. & Haber, R. (2003). In situ conservation on ''Cedrus libani'' in Lebanon. ''Acta Hort''. 615: 415–417.</ref><ref>[http://www.shoufcedar.org/ Cedars of Lebanon Nature Reserve] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519235704/http://www.shoufcedar.org/|date=19 May 2012}}</ref>
Extensive [[reforestation]] of cedar is carried out in the Mediterranean region. In Turkey, over 50 million young cedars are planted annually, covering an area around {{Convert|300|km2|acre}}.<ref>Anon. ''History of Turkish Forestry''. Turkish Ministry of Forestry.</ref><ref name="khuri">Khuri, S. & Talhouk, S. N. (1999). ''Cedar of Lebanon''. pp. 108–111. in: Farjon, A. & Page, C. N. ''Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan: Conifers''. IUCN/SSC Conifer Specialist Group. {{ISBN|2-8317-0465-0}}.</ref> Lebanese cedar populations are also expanding through an active program combining replanting and protection of natural regeneration from browsing [[goat]]s, hunting, forest fires, and woodworms.<ref name="khuri"/> The Lebanese approach emphasizes natural regeneration by creating proper growing conditions. The Lebanese state has created several reserves, including the Chouf Cedar Reserve, the Jaj Cedar Reserve, the Tannourine Reserve, the Ammouaa and Karm Shbat Reserves in the [[Akkar District|Akkar]] district, and the [[Cedars of God]] forest near [[Bsharri]].<ref>Talhouk & Zurayk 2004, pp. 411–414</ref><ref>Semaan, M. & Haber, R. (2003). In situ conservation on ''Cedrus libani'' in Lebanon. ''Acta Hort''. 615: 415–417.</ref><ref>[http://www.shoufcedar.org/ Cedars of Lebanon Nature Reserve] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519235704/http://www.shoufcedar.org/|date=19 May 2012}}</ref>


Because during the seedling stage, differentiating ''C. libani'' from ''C. atlantica'' or ''C. deodara'' is difficult,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/07/18/climate/lebanon-climate-change-environment-cedars.html|title=Climate Change Is Killing the Cedars of Lebanon|last=Barnard|first=Anne|work=The New York Times |date=18 July 2018 |access-date=19 July 2018|language=en}}</ref> the [[American University of Beirut]] has developed a DNA-based method of identification to ensure that reforestation efforts in Lebanon are of the cedars of Lebanon and not other types.<ref>Farjon, Aljos. ''Conifers: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan'', International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, 1999, p. 110</ref>
Because during the seedling stage, differentiating ''C. libani'' from ''C. atlantica'' or ''C. deodara'' is difficult,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/07/18/climate/lebanon-climate-change-environment-cedars.html|title=Climate Change Is Killing the Cedars of Lebanon|last=Barnard|first=Anne|work=The New York Times |date=18 July 2018 |access-date=19 July 2018|language=en}}</ref> the [[American University of Beirut]] has developed a DNA-based method of identification to ensure that reforestation efforts in Lebanon are of the cedars of Lebanon and not other types.<ref>Farjon, Aljos. ''Conifers: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan'', International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, 1999, p. 110</ref>
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''C. libani'' is susceptible to a number of soil-borne, foliar, and stem pathogens. The seedlings are prone to fungal attacks. ''[[Botrytis cinerea]]'', a [[Parasitism|necrotrophic]] fungus known to cause considerable damage to food crops, attacks the cedar needles, causing them to turn yellow and drop. ''[[Armillaria mellea]]'' (commonly known as honey fungus) is a [[Basidiomycota|basidiomycete]] that fruits in dense clusters at the base of trunks or stumps and attacks the roots of cedars growing in wet soils. The Lebanese cedar shoot moth ([[Syndemis cedricola|''Parasyndemis cedricola'']]) is a species of [[moth]] of the family [[Tortricidae]] found in the forests of Lebanon and Turkey; its larvae feed on young cedar leaves and buds.<ref name=":4"/>
''C. libani'' is susceptible to a number of soil-borne, foliar, and stem pathogens. The seedlings are prone to fungal attacks. ''[[Botrytis cinerea]]'', a [[Parasitism|necrotrophic]] fungus known to cause considerable damage to food crops, attacks the cedar needles, causing them to turn yellow and drop. ''[[Armillaria mellea]]'' (commonly known as honey fungus) is a [[Basidiomycota|basidiomycete]] that fruits in dense clusters at the base of trunks or stumps and attacks the roots of cedars growing in wet soils. The Lebanese cedar shoot moth ([[Syndemis cedricola|''Parasyndemis cedricola'']]) is a species of [[moth]] of the family [[Tortricidae]] found in the forests of Lebanon and Turkey; its larvae feed on young cedar leaves and buds.<ref name=":4"/>


==In Art and Literature==
==In art and literature==
An engraving of a painting by [[William Henry Bartlett]], ''Beirout and Mount Lebanon'' was published in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838 with a poetical illustration by [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]], entitled {{ws|[[s:Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838/The Cedars of Lebanon|The Cedars of Lebanon]]}}<ref> {{cite book|last =Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA98|section=picture|year=1837|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.}}{{cite book|last =Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA100|section=poetical illustration|page=29|year=1837|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.}}</ref>
An engraving of a painting by [[William Henry Bartlett]], ''Beirout and Mount Lebanon'' was published in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838 with a poetical illustration by [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]], entitled {{ws|[[s:Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838/The Cedars of Lebanon|The Cedars of Lebanon]]}}<ref> {{cite book|last =Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA98|section=picture|year=1837|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.}}{{cite book|last =Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA100|section=poetical illustration|page=29|year=1837|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.}}</ref>


== Gallery ==
== Gallery ==
<gallery mode="packed" caption="Cedar views in Lebanon">
<gallery mode="packed" caption="Cedar views in Lebanon" heights=220 widths=220>
File:Réserve des cèdres de Tannourine au Liban-Nord S73F2380.jpg|Tannourine
File:Réserve des cèdres de Tannourine au Liban-Nord S73F2380.jpg|Tannourine
File:Cedars01(js).jpg|"Cedars of God" grove, Bsharri
File:Cedars01(js).jpg|"Cedars of God" grove, Bsharri
Line 148: Line 150:


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* {{Cite journal|last1=Fabre|first1=JP|last2=Bariteau|first2=M|last3=Chalon|first3=A|last4=Thevenet|first4=J|year=2001|title=Possibilités de multiplication de pucerons Cedrobium laportei Remaudiére (Homoptera, Lachnidae) sur différentes provenances du genre Cedrus et sur deux hybrides d'espéces, perspectives d'utilisation en France|journal=International Meeting on Sylviculture of Cork Oak (Quercus Suber L.) and Atlas Cedar (Cedrus Atlantica Manetti)|url=https://prodinra.inra.fr/?locale=es#!ConsultNotice:62810}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Fady|first1=B.|last2=Lefèvre|first2=F.|last3=Reynaud|first3=M.|last4=Vendramin|first4=G. G.|last5=Bou Dagher-Kharrat|first5=M.|last6=Anzidei|first6=M.|last7=Pastorelli|first7=R.|last8=Savouré|first8=A.|last9=Bariteau|first9=M.|date=1 October 2003|title=Gene flow among different taxonomic units: evidence from nuclear and cytoplasmic markers in Cedrus plantation forests|journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |volume=107|issue=6|pages=1132–1138|doi=10.1007/s00122-003-1323-z|issn=0040-5752|pmid=14523524|s2cid=11703268}}
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* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nqkKTQcGOtYC|title=A Handbook of the World's Conifers (2 Vols.)|last=Farjon|first=Aljos|date=27 April 2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004177185|language=en}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nqkKTQcGOtYC|title=A Handbook of the World's Conifers (2 Vols.)|last=Farjon|first=Aljos|date=27 April 2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17718-5|language=en}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://ww2.bgbm.org/mcl/PTaxonDetail.asp?NameId=781&PTRefFK=1273|title=A critical inventory of vascular plants of the circum-mediterranean countries|date=1984|editor-last=Greuter|editor-first=W.|editor-link=Werner Greuter|editor2-last=Burdet|editor2-first=H.M.|website=ww2.bgbm.org|publisher=Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum, Berlin|access-date=10 January 2017|ref=Greuter|editor3-last=Long|editor3-first=G.}}
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* {{Citation|last=Masri|first=Rania|title=Cedars awareness and salvation effort lecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology seminar on the environment in Lebanon|url=http://almashriq.hiof.no/lebanon/300.social_sciences/360/363/363.7/cedars2.html|year=1995|contribution=The Cedars of Lebanon: significance, awareness and management of the Cedrus libani in Lebanon|publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology}}
* {{Citation|last=Masri|first=Rania|title=Cedars awareness and salvation effort lecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology seminar on the environment in Lebanon|url=http://almashriq.hiof.no/lebanon/300.social_sciences/360/363/363.7/cedars2.html|year=1995|contribution=The Cedars of Lebanon: significance, awareness and management of the Cedrus libani in Lebanon|publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology}}
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==External links==
==External links==
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[[Category:Flora of Morocco]]
[[Category:Flora of Morocco]]
[[Category:Forest history]]
[[Category:Forest history]]
[[Category:Locations in Mesopotamian mythology]]
[[Category:Places in Mesopotamian mythology]]
[[Category:Epic of Gilgamesh]]
[[Category:Epic of Gilgamesh]]
[[Category:National symbols of Lebanon]]
[[Category:National symbols of Lebanon]]

Latest revision as of 22:56, 22 October 2025

Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Script error: No such module "Redirect hatnote". Template:Speciesbox

Cedrus libani, commonly known as cedar of Lebanon, Lebanon cedar, or Lebanese cedar (Template:Langx), is a species of large evergreen conifer in the genus Cedrus, which belongs to the pine family and is native to the mountains of the Eastern Mediterranean basin. Known for its longevity, height, and durable wood, it has held profound significance for millennia. The tree features in ancient Mesopotamian and Israelite literature, notably in the Hebrew Bible, according to which the tree was used in the construction of the Jerusalem Temple by Solomon, who received the trees from Hiram of Tyre. Today, it is the national emblem of Lebanon and is widely used as an ornamental tree in parks and gardens.

Description

File:Cedrus libani shoot.jpg
Foliage

Cedrus libani can reach Script error: No such module "convert". in height, with a massive monopodial columnar trunk up to Script error: No such module "convert". in diameter.[1] The trunks of old, open-grown trees often fork into several large, erect branches.[2] The rough and scaly bark is dark grey to blackish brown, and is run through by deep, horizontal fissures that peel in small chips. The first-order branches are ascending in young trees; they grow to a massive size and take on a horizontal, wide-spreading disposition. Second-order branches are dense and grow in a horizontal plane. The crown is conical when young, becoming broadly tabular with age with fairly level branches; trees growing in dense forests maintain more conical shape.[1]

Shoots and leaves

The shoots are dimorphic, with both long and short shoots. New shoots are pale brown, older shoots turn grey, grooved and scaly. C. libani has slightly resinous ovoid vegetative buds measuring Script error: No such module "convert". long and Script error: No such module "convert". wide enclosed by pale brown deciduous scales. The leaves are needle-like, arranged in spirals and concentrated at the proximal end of the long shoots, and in clusters of 15–35 on the short shoots; they are Script error: No such module "convert". long and Script error: No such module "convert". wide, rhombic in cross-section, and vary from light green to glaucous green with stomatal bands on all four sides.[1][3]

Cones

Cedrus libani produces cones beginning at around the age of 20–40. Its cones are borne in autumn, the male cones appear in early September and the female ones in late September.[4][3] Male cones occur at the ends of the short shoots; they are solitary and erect about Script error: No such module "convert". long and mature from pale green to pale yellow-brown. The female seed cones also grow at the terminal ends of short shoots. The young seed cones are resinous, sessile, and pale green; they require 12 months after pollination to mature. The mature, woody cones are Script error: No such module "convert". long and Script error: No such module "convert". wide; they are scaly, resinous, ovoid or barrel-shaped, and green ripening to grey-brown the autumn after pollination. Mature cones open from top to bottom, they disintegrate and lose their seed scales, releasing the seeds until only the cone rachis remains attached to the branches.[2][3][4][5]

The seed scales are thin, broad, and coriaceous, measuring Script error: No such module "convert". long and Script error: No such module "convert". wide. The seeds are ovoid, Script error: No such module "convert". long and Script error: No such module "convert". wide, attached to a light brown wedge-shaped wing that is Script error: No such module "convert". long and Script error: No such module "convert". wide.[5] C. libani grows rapidly until the age of 45 to 50 years; growth becomes extremely slow after the age of 70.[4]

Taxonomy

File:Cedar of Lebanon cone.JPG
Female cone showing flecks of resin

Cedrus is the Latin name for true cedars.[6] The specific epithet refers to the Lebanon mountain range where the species was first described by French botanist Achille Richard; the tree is commonly known as the Lebanon cedar or cedar of Lebanon.[1][7] Two to three distinct types are accepted as varieties: C. libani var. libani, C. libani var. brevifolia,[1] and C. libani var. stenocoma;[8] the last not being considered distinct by all authorities.

C. libani var. libani: Lebanon cedar, cedar of Lebanon – grows in Lebanon, western Syria, and south-central Turkey. C. libani var. stenocoma (the Taurus cedar), considered a subspecies in earlier literature, is now considered as a variety or ecotype of C. libani var. libani. It usually has a spreading crown that does not flatten. This distinct morphology is a habit that is assumed to cope with the competitive environment, since the tree occurs in dense stands mixed with the tall-growing Abies cilicica, or in pure stands of young cedar trees.[5] Isozyme analysis however placed var. stenocoma closer to var. brevifolia than to var. libani, even placing var. brevifolia embedded within var. stenocoma samples.[9]

C. libani var. brevifolia: The Cyprus cedar occurs on the island's Troodos Mountains.[5] This taxon was considered a separate species from C. libani because of morphological and ecophysiological trait differences.[10][11] It is characterised by slow growth, shorter needles, and higher tolerance to drought and aphids.[11][12] Genetic relationship studies, however, did not separate C. brevifolia as a separate species, the markers being indistinguishable from those of C. libani.[13][14]

Distribution and habitat

File:Male cone of Cedar of Lebanon.JPG
Male cone

C. libani var. libani is endemic to elevated mountains around the Eastern Mediterranean in Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey. The tree grows in well-drained calcareous lithosols on rocky, north- and west-facing slopes and ridges and thrives in rich loam or a sandy clay in full sun.[1][15] Its natural habitat is characterised by warm, dry summers and cool, moist winters with an annual precipitation of Script error: No such module "convert".; the trees are blanketed by a heavy snow cover at the higher elevations.[1] In Lebanon and Turkey, it occurs most abundantly at elevations of Script error: No such module "convert"., where it forms pure forests or mixed forests with Cilician fir (Abies cilicica), European black pine (Pinus nigra), Turkish pine (Pinus brutia), and several juniper species. In Turkey, it can occur as low as Script error: No such module "convert"..[16][1]

C. libani var. brevifolia grows in similar conditions in the Troodos Mountains of Cyprus at medium to high elevations ranging from Script error: No such module "convert"..[16][1]

History and symbolism

In the Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the earliest great works of literature, the Sumerian hero Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu travel to the legendary Cedar Forest to kill its guardian and cut down its trees. While early versions of the story place the forest in Iran, later Babylonian accounts of the story place the Cedar Forest in Lebanon.[17]

File:085.Cedars Are Cut Down for the Jerusalem Temple.jpg
Cedars of Lebanon felled for use in the Jerusalem Temple, illustration by Gustave Doré (1866)

The Lebanon cedar is mentioned several times in the Bible. Hebrew priests were ordered by Moses to use the bark of the Lebanon cedar in the treatment of leprosy.[18] Solomon also procured cedar timber to build the Temple in Jerusalem.[19] The Hebrew prophet Isaiah used the Lebanon cedar (together with "oaks of Bashan", "all the high mountains" and "every high tower") as examples of loftiness as a metaphor for the pride of the world[20] and in Psalm 92:12 it says "The righteous shall flourish like the palm tree: he shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon".[21]

According to a rabbinic legend found in the Talmud, the cedar of Lebanon appears symbolically in Yohanan ben Zakkai's meeting with the Roman general Vespasian during the First Jewish–Roman War. As the story goes, when ben Zakkai secretly fled the besieged Jerusalem to negotiate with Vespasian, he prophesied the general's rise to the imperial throne by citing a prophecy from the Book of Isaiah: "And the Lebanon shall fall by a mighty one" (Isaiah 10:34). In this interpretation, "Lebanon" is understood to represent the Temple in Jerusalem, which was built using cedars from Lebanon, and the "mighty one" is Vespasian, implying that his destruction of the Temple would signal his ascent as emperor.[22][23]

National and regional significance

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File:Flag of Lebanon.svg
The Flag of Lebanon

The Lebanon cedar is the national emblem of Lebanon, and is displayed on the flag of Lebanon and coat of arms of Lebanon. It is also the logo of Middle East Airlines, which is Lebanon's national carrier. Beyond that, it is also the main symbol of Lebanon's "Cedar Revolution" of 2005, the 17 October Revolution, also known as the Thawra ("Revolution") along with many Lebanese political parties and movements, such as the Lebanese Forces. Finally, Lebanon is sometimes metonymically referred to as the Land of the Cedars.[24][25]

Cultivation

Cultivation of Lebanon cedar dates back at least 3,200 years, when the Hittite Empire established two populations of the species in northern Turkey where it did not occur naturally.[26]

The Lebanon cedar is now widely planted as an ornamental tree in parks and gardens.[27][28]

The first Lebanon cedars in Britain were introduced by Edward Pococke, who collected seed in 1638–39 while based in Syria as chaplain to the Turkey Company; on his return to Britain, he was given the living of Childrey; a tree he planted at the Rectory there in 1646 is the oldest surviving specimen in Britain.[29] Most other very early-planted trees in Britain were killed in an unusually severe winter in 1739–1740, but one planted at Peper Harow in Surrey in 1735 also survives.[29] In Ireland, one at Adare Manor in County Limerick, thought to have been planted in 1645, may also be from Pococke's original import, but this is not verified.[29] The species is mentioned in Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber by John Evelyn.[30] In Britain, cedars of Lebanon are known for their use in London's Highgate Cemetery[27] and Blenheim Palace.

C. libani has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit[31] (confirmed 2017).[32]

Arkansas, among other US states, has a Champion Tree program that records exceptional tree specimens. A Lebanon cedar listed by the state is located inside Hot Springs National Park and is estimated to be over 100 years old.[33]

Propagation

File:Baby Cedrus Libani.jpg
An eight-month-old seedling
File:Lebanon Cedar in half Barrel.png
Small Cedrus libani in Shimizu Park Noda, Chiba Japan. Photo taken on 5, May 2005.

In order to germinate Cedrus libani seeds, potting soil is preferred, since it is less likely to contain fungal species which may kill the seedling in its early stages. Before sowing it is important to soak the seed at room temperature for a period of 24 hours followed by cold stratification (~3–5°C) for two to four weeks. Once the seeds have been sown, it is recommended that they be kept at room temperature (~20°C) and in the vicinity of sunlight. The soil should be kept slightly damp with low frequency watering. Over-watering may cause damping off which will quickly kill the seedlings. Initial growth will be around 3–5cm the first year and will accelerate subsequent years.[34]

Uses

Cedar wood is prized for its fine grain, attractive yellow colour, and fragrance. It is exceptionally durable and immune to insect ravages. Wood from C. libani has a density of 560 kg/m3; it is used for furniture, construction, and handicrafts. In Turkey, shelterwood cutting and clearcutting techniques are used to harvest timber and promote uniform forest regeneration. Cedar resin (cedria) and cedar essential oil (cedrum) are prized extracts from the timber and cones of the cedar tree.[35][36]

Ecology and conservation

Over the centuries, extensive deforestation has occurred, with only small remnants of the original forests surviving. Deforestation has been particularly severe in Lebanon and on Cyprus; on Cyprus, only small trees up to Script error: No such module "convert". tall survive, though Pliny the Elder recorded cedars Script error: No such module "convert". tall there.[37] Attempts have been made at various times throughout history to conserve the Lebanon cedars. The first was made by the Roman emperor Hadrian; he created an imperial forest and ordered it marked by inscribing boundary stones, two of which are in the museum of the American University of Beirut.[38]

Extensive reforestation of cedar is carried out in the Mediterranean region. In Turkey, over 50 million young cedars are planted annually, covering an area around Script error: No such module "convert"..[39][40] Lebanese cedar populations are also expanding through an active program combining replanting and protection of natural regeneration from browsing goats, hunting, forest fires, and woodworms.[40] The Lebanese approach emphasizes natural regeneration by creating proper growing conditions. The Lebanese state has created several reserves, including the Chouf Cedar Reserve, the Jaj Cedar Reserve, the Tannourine Reserve, the Ammouaa and Karm Shbat Reserves in the Akkar district, and the Cedars of God forest near Bsharri.[41][42][43]

Because during the seedling stage, differentiating C. libani from C. atlantica or C. deodara is difficult,[44] the American University of Beirut has developed a DNA-based method of identification to ensure that reforestation efforts in Lebanon are of the cedars of Lebanon and not other types.[45]

Diseases and pests

C. libani is susceptible to a number of soil-borne, foliar, and stem pathogens. The seedlings are prone to fungal attacks. Botrytis cinerea, a necrotrophic fungus known to cause considerable damage to food crops, attacks the cedar needles, causing them to turn yellow and drop. Armillaria mellea (commonly known as honey fungus) is a basidiomycete that fruits in dense clusters at the base of trunks or stumps and attacks the roots of cedars growing in wet soils. The Lebanese cedar shoot moth (Parasyndemis cedricola) is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae found in the forests of Lebanon and Turkey; its larvae feed on young cedar leaves and buds.[35]

In art and literature

An engraving of a painting by William Henry Bartlett, Beirout and Mount Lebanon was published in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838 with a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon, entitled Template:Ws[46]

Gallery

See also

References

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  1. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Farjon 2010, p. 258
  2. ↑ a b Masri 1995
  3. ↑ a b c Hemery & Simblet 2014, p. 53
  4. ↑ a b c CABI 2013, p. 116
  5. ↑ a b c d Farjon 2010, p. 259
  6. ↑ Farjon 2010, p. 254
  7. ↑ Bory 1823, p. 299
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Debazac 1964
  11. ↑ a b Ladjal 2001
  12. ↑ Fabre et al. 2001, pp. 88–89
  13. ↑ Fady et al. 2000
  14. ↑ Kharrat 2006, p. 282
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ a b Template:Cite iucn
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Leviticus 14:1–4
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Isaiah 2:13
  21. ↑ Psalm 92:12 – "The righteous shall flourish like the palm tree: he shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon"
  22. ↑ Babylonian Talmud, Gittin 56b; Lamentations Rabbah 1:5 §31
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Erman 1927, p. 261
  25. ↑ Cromer 2004, p. 58
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ a b Hemery & Simblet 2014, p. 55
  28. ↑ Howard 1955, p. 168
  29. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Hemery & Simblet 2014, p. 54
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  32. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  34. ↑ Tree Seed Online LTD
  35. ↑ a b CABI 2013, p. 117
  36. ↑ Coxe 1808, p. CED
  37. ↑ Willan, R. G. N. (1990). The Cyprus Cedar. Int. Dendrol. Soc. Yearbk. 1990: 115–118.
  38. ↑ Shackley, pp. 420–421
  39. ↑ Anon. History of Turkish Forestry. Turkish Ministry of Forestry.
  40. ↑ a b Khuri, S. & Talhouk, S. N. (1999). Cedar of Lebanon. pp. 108–111. in: Farjon, A. & Page, C. N. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan: Conifers. IUCN/SSC Conifer Specialist Group. Template:ISBN.
  41. ↑ Talhouk & Zurayk 2004, pp. 411–414
  42. ↑ Semaan, M. & Haber, R. (2003). In situ conservation on Cedrus libani in Lebanon. Acta Hort. 615: 415–417.
  43. ↑ Cedars of Lebanon Nature Reserve Template:Webarchive
  44. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  45. ↑ Farjon, Aljos. Conifers: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, 1999, p. 110
  46. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

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Bibliography

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External links

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