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{{Ancient Egyptian religion}}
{{Ancient Egyptian religion}}


'''Apophis''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|.|ˈ|p|ɒ|.|f|ɪ|s}}; {{langx|grc|Ἄποφις|Ápophis}}), also known as '''Apep''' ({{langx|egy|ꜥꜣpp}}) or '''Aphoph''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|.|ˈ|f|ɒ|f}}, {{langx|cop|Ⲁⲫⲱⲫ|Aphōph}})<ref name="Wörterbuch">[[Adolf Erman|Erman, Adolf]], and [[Hermann Grapow]], eds. 1926&ndash;1953. ''Wörterbuch der aegyptischen Sprache im Auftrage der deutschen Akademien''. 6 vols. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs'schen Buchhandlungen. (Reprinted Berlin: Akademie-Verlag GmbH, 1971).</ref> is the [[Ancient Egyptian deities|ancient Egyptian deity]] who embodied darkness and [[Isfet (Egyptian mythology)|disorder]], and was thus the opponent of light and [[Maat]] (order/[[truth]]). [[Ra]] was the bringer of light and hence the biggest opposer of Apophis.
'''Apophis''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|.|ˈ|p|ɒ|.|f|ɪ|s}}; {{langx|grc|Ἄποφις|Ápophis}}), also known as '''Apep''' ({{langx|egy|ꜥꜣpp}}) or '''Aphoph''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|.|ˈ|f|ɒ|f}}, {{langx|cop|Ⲁⲫⲱⲫ|Aphōph}})<ref name="Wörterbuch">[[Adolf Erman|Erman, Adolf]], and [[Hermann Grapow]], eds. 1926&ndash;1953. ''Wörterbuch der aegyptischen Sprache im Auftrage der deutschen Akademien''. 6 vols. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs'schen Buchhandlungen. (Reprinted Berlin: Akademie-Verlag GmbH, 1971).</ref> is the [[Ancient Egyptian deities|ancient Egyptian deity]] of the [[underworld]] who embodied darkness and [[Isfet (Egyptian mythology)|disorder]], and was thus the opponent of light and [[Maat]] (order/[[truth]]). [[Ra]] was the bringer of light and hence the biggest opposer of Apophis.


==Features==
==Features==
Because [[Ra]] was the [[solar deity]], bringer of light, and thus the upholder of [[Maat]], Apophis was viewed as the greatest enemy of [[Ra]], and thus was given the title ''Enemy of [[Ra]]'', and also "the Lord of Chaos".
Because Ra was the [[solar deity]], bringer of light, and thus the upholder of [[Maat]], Apophis was viewed as the greatest enemy of Ra, and thus was given the title ''Enemy of Ra'', and also "the Lord of Chaos".


"The Lord of Chaos" was seen as a giant [[snake]] or [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] leading to such titles as ''Serpent from the Nile'' and ''Evil [[Dragon]]''. Some elaborations said that he stretched 16 [[yard]]s in length and had a head made of [[flint]].  
"The Lord of Chaos" was seen as a giant [[snake]] or [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] leading to such titles as ''Serpent from the Nile'' and ''Evil [[Dragon]]''. Some elaborations said that he stretched 16 [[yard]]s in length and had a head made of [[flint]].  
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Presented on a [[Amratian culture|Naqada I]] (c. 4000–3550 BCE) C-ware bowl (now in Cairo) a snake was painted on the inside rim combined with other desert and aquatic animals as an enemy of a deity, seemingly a solar deity, who is invisibly hunting in a big rowing vessel.<ref>C. Wolterman, in ''Jaarbericht van Ex Oriente Lux'', Leiden Nr.37 (2002).</ref> The snake on the inside rim is believed to be Apophis.
Presented on a [[Amratian culture|Naqada I]] (c. 4000–3550 BCE) C-ware bowl (now in Cairo) a snake was painted on the inside rim combined with other desert and aquatic animals as an enemy of a deity, seemingly a solar deity, who is invisibly hunting in a big rowing vessel.<ref>C. Wolterman, in ''Jaarbericht van Ex Oriente Lux'', Leiden Nr.37 (2002).</ref> The snake on the inside rim is believed to be Apophis.


The few descriptions of the origin of Apophis in myth usually demonstrate that it was born after [[Ra]], usually from his [[umbilical cord]]. Geraldine Pinch claims that a much later creation myth explained that, "Apophis sprang from the saliva of the goddess [[Neith]] when she was still in the primeval waters. Her spit became a snake 120 yards long."<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book |last1=Pinch |first1=Geraldine |url=https://archive.org/details/handbook-of-egyptian-mythology-by-geraldine-pinch |title=Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517024-5 |pages=106}}</ref>  
The few descriptions of the origin of Apophis in myth usually demonstrate that it was born after Ra, usually from his [[umbilical cord]]. Geraldine Pinch claims that a much later creation myth explained that, "Apophis sprang from the saliva of the goddess [[Neith]] when she was still in the primeval waters. Her spit became a snake 120 yards long."<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book |last1=Pinch |first1=Geraldine |url=https://archive.org/details/handbook-of-egyptian-mythology-by-geraldine-pinch |title=Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517024-5 |pages=106}}</ref>  
But Apophis was commonly believed to have existed from the beginning of time in the waters of [[Nu (mythology)|Nu]] of primeval chaos.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/TheCompleteGodsAndGoddessesOfAncientEgypt |title=The Complete Gods And Goddesses Of Ancient Egypt |language=English}}</ref>
But Apophis was commonly believed to have existed from the beginning of time in the waters of [[Nu (mythology)|Nu]] of primeval chaos.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/TheCompleteGodsAndGoddessesOfAncientEgypt |title=The Complete Gods And Goddesses Of Ancient Egypt |language=English}}</ref>


==Battles with Ra==
==Battles with Ra==
[[File:Set speared Apep.jpg|thumb|right|[[Set (god)|Set]]  spearing the snake Apophis ([[Egyptian Museum]], [[Cairo]])]]
[[File:Set speared Apep.jpg|thumb|right|[[Set (god)|Set]]  spearing the snake Apophis ([[Egyptian Museum]], [[Cairo]])]]
[[File:Apep 2.jpg|right|175px|thumbnail|The sun god [[Ra]], in the form of Great Cat, slays the snake Apophis<ref>tomb of Inherkha, [[Deir el-Medina]]</ref>]]
[[File:Apep 2.jpg|right|175px|thumbnail|The sun god Ra, in the form of Great Cat, slays the snake Apophis<ref>tomb of Inherkha, [[Deir el-Medina]]</ref>]]


Tales of Apophis battles against [[Ra]] were elaborated during the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]].<ref>J. Assmann, ''Egyptian Solar Religion in the New Kingdom'', transl. by A. Alcock (London, 1995), 49-57.</ref> Storytellers said that every day Apophis must lie below the horizon and not persist in the mortal kingdom. This appropriately made him a part of the [[duat|underworld]]. In some stories, Apophis waited for [[Ra]] in a western mountain called ''Manu'', where the sun set, and in others, Apophis lurked just before dawn, in the ''Tenth region of the Night''. The wide range of Apophis possible locations gained him the title ''World-Encircler''. It was thought that his terrifying roar would cause the underworld to rumble. Myths sometimes say that Apophis was trapped there, because he had been the previous chief god overthrown by [[Ra]], or because he was evil and had been imprisoned.
Tales of Apophis battles against Ra were elaborated during the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]].<ref>J. Assmann, ''Egyptian Solar Religion in the New Kingdom'', transl. by A. Alcock (London, 1995), 49-57.</ref> Storytellers said that every day Apophis must lie below the horizon and not persist in the mortal kingdom. This appropriately made him a part of the [[duat|underworld]]. In some stories, Apophis waited for Ra in a western mountain called ''Manu'', where the sun set, and in others, Apophis lurked just before dawn, in the ''Tenth region of the Night''. The wide range of Apophis' possible locations gained him the title ''World-Encircler''. It was thought that his terrifying roar would cause the underworld to rumble. Myths sometimes say that Apophis was trapped there, because he had been the previous chief god overthrown by [[Ra]], or because he was evil and had been imprisoned.


The [[Coffin Texts]] imply that Apophis used a magical gaze to overwhelm [[Ra]] and his entourage.<ref>[[Joris Borghouts|Borghouts, J. F.]] (1973). "The Evil Eye of Apopis". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology '''59'''. 114–115.</ref> [[Ra]] was assisted by a number of defenders who travelled with him, including [[Set (god)|Set]] and possibly the [[Eye of Ra]].<ref>Borghouts, J. F. (1973). "The Evil Eye of Apopis". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology '''59'''. 116.</ref> Apophis movements were thought to cause earthquakes, and his battles with [[Set (god)|Set]] may have been meant to explain the origin of thunderstorms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pinch |first1=Geraldine |title=Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-517024-5 |pages=107 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/handbook-of-egyptian-mythology-by-geraldine-pinch}}</ref> In one account, [[Ra]] himself defeats Apophis in the form of a [[Cats in ancient Egypt|cat]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pinch |first1=Geraldine |title=Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-517024-5 |pages=107–108 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/handbook-of-egyptian-mythology-by-geraldine-pinch}}</ref>
The [[Coffin Texts]] imply that Apophis used a magical gaze to overwhelm Ra and his entourage.<ref>[[Joris Borghouts|Borghouts, J. F.]] (1973). "The Evil Eye of Apopis". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology '''59'''. 114–115.</ref> Ra was assisted by a number of defenders who travelled with him, including [[Set (god)|Set]] and possibly the [[Eye of Ra]].<ref>Borghouts, J. F. (1973). "The Evil Eye of Apopis". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology '''59'''. 116.</ref> Apophis movements were thought to cause earthquakes, and his battles with [[Set (god)|Set]] may have been meant to explain the origin of thunderstorms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pinch |first1=Geraldine |title=Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-517024-5 |pages=107 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/handbook-of-egyptian-mythology-by-geraldine-pinch}}</ref> In one account, Ra himself defeats Apophis in the form of a [[Cats in ancient Egypt|cat]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pinch |first1=Geraldine |title=Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-517024-5 |pages=107–108 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/handbook-of-egyptian-mythology-by-geraldine-pinch}}</ref>


==Religious Practices==
==Religious practices==
[[Ra|Ra's]] victory each night was thought to be ensured by the prayers of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] [[priest]]s and worshippers at [[temple]]s. The Egyptians practiced a number of [[ritual]]s and [[superstition]]s that were thought to ward off Apophis , and aid [[Ra]] in continuing his journey across the sky.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Never-Ending Battles Between God Ra And Indestructible Apophis In Ancient Egyptian Beliefs - Ancient Pages |url=https://www.ancientpages.com/2021/05/20/never-ending-battles-between-god-ra-and-indestructible-apophis-in-ancient-egyptian-beliefs/ |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=www.ancientpages.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
Ra's victory each night was thought to be ensured by the prayers of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] [[priest]]s and worshippers at [[temple]]s. The Egyptians practiced a number of [[ritual]]s and [[superstition]]s that were thought to ward off Apophis and to aid Ra in continuing his journey across the sky.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Never-Ending Battles Between God Ra And Indestructible Apophis In Ancient Egyptian Beliefs - Ancient Pages |url=https://www.ancientpages.com/2021/05/20/never-ending-battles-between-god-ra-and-indestructible-apophis-in-ancient-egyptian-beliefs/ |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=www.ancientpages.com |language=en-US}}</ref>


In an annual [[Ritual|rite]] called the ''Ritual of Overthrowing Apophis'', priests would build an [[effigy]] of Apophis that was thought to contain all of the evil and darkness in [[Egypt]], and burn it to protect everyone from Apophis evil for another year.
In an annual [[Ritual|rite]] called the ''Ritual of Overthrowing Apophis'', priests would build an [[effigy]] of Apophis that was thought to contain all of the evil and darkness in [[Egypt]], and burn it to protect everyone from Apophis evil for another year.


The Egyptian priests had a detailed guide to fighting Apophis , referred to as ''The Books of Overthrowing Apep'' (or the ''Book of Apophis'', in Greek).<ref>Chapters 3-5 of {{Cite thesis |title=Magic and religion as a performative theological unity : the apotropaic 'Ritual of Overthrowing Apophis' |url=https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/3174997 |publisher=University of Liverpool |date=1999 |degree=phd |language=en |first=Panagiotis |last=I. Kousoulis}}</ref> The chapters described a gradual process of dishonoring, dismemberment, and disposal, which include:
The Egyptian priests had a detailed guide to fighting Apophis, referred to as ''The Books of Overthrowing Apep'' (or the ''Book of Apophis'', in Greek).<ref>Chapters 3-5 of {{Cite thesis |title=Magic and religion as a performative theological unity : the apotropaic 'Ritual of Overthrowing Apophis' |url=https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/3174997 |publisher=University of Liverpool |date=1999 |degree=phd |language=en |first=Panagiotis |last=I. Kousoulis}}</ref> The chapters described a gradual process of dishonoring, dismemberment, and disposal, which include:
*Spitting Upon Apophis  
*Spitting Upon Apophis  
*Defiling Apophis with the Left Foot
*Defiling Apophis with the Left Foot
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*Putting Fire Upon Apophis  
*Putting Fire Upon Apophis  


In addition to stories about [[Ra|Ra's]] victories, this guide had instructions for making [[wax]] models, or small drawings, of the serpent, which would be spat on, mutilated and burnt, whilst reciting [[Spell (paranormal)|spells]] that would aid [[Ra]] in killing Apophis. Fearing that even the image of Apophis could give power to the demon, any rendering would always include another deity to subdue the monster.
In addition to stories about Ra's victories, this guide had instructions for making [[wax]] models, or small drawings, of the serpent, which would be spat on, mutilated and burnt, whilst reciting [[Spell (paranormal)|spells]] that would aid Ra in killing Apophis. Fearing that even the image of Apophis could give power to the demon, any rendering would always include another deity to subdue the monster.


As Apophis was thought to live in the underworld, he was sometimes thought of as an ''Eater of [[Egyptian soul|Soul]]s''. Thus the dead also needed protection, so they were sometimes buried with spells that could destroy Apophis . The ''[[Book of the Dead]]'' does not frequently describe occasions when [[Ra]] defeated the chaos snake explicitly called Apophis. Only ''Book of the Dead'' Spells 7 and 39 can be explained as such.<ref>J.F.Borghouts, ''Book of the Dead [39]: From Shouting to Structure'' (Studien zum Altaegyptischen Totenbuch 10, Wiesbaden, 2007).</ref>
As Apophis was thought to live in the underworld, he was sometimes thought of as an ''Eater of [[Egyptian soul|Soul]]s''. Thus the dead also needed protection, so they were sometimes buried with spells that could destroy Apophis . The ''[[Book of the Dead]]'' does not frequently describe occasions when Ra defeated the chaos snake explicitly called Apophis. Only ''Book of the Dead'' Spells 7 and 39 can be explained as such.<ref>J.F.Borghouts, ''Book of the Dead [39]: From Shouting to Structure'' (Studien zum Altaegyptischen Totenbuch 10, Wiesbaden, 2007).</ref>


== Gallery ==
== Gallery ==
<gallery>
<gallery>
File:LdM Imenemsaouf.jpg|Apophis below the barque of [[Ra]] with seven knives, Book of the Dead of Amenemsaouf, [[Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt|21st Dynasty]], [[Louvre|Louvre Museum]], [[Paris]]
File:LdM Imenemsaouf.jpg|Apophis below the barque of Ra with seven knives, Book of the Dead of Amenemsaouf, [[Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt|21st Dynasty]], [[Louvre|Louvre Museum]], [[Paris]]
File:Edfu16.JPG|The hieroglyph for Apophis name showing a serpent stabbed with five knives, [[Temple of Edfu]], [[Ptolemaic period]]
File:Edfu16.JPG|The hieroglyph for Apophis name showing a serpent stabbed with five knives, [[Temple of Edfu]], [[Ptolemaic period]]
File:Papyrus of Hunefer, detail.jpg|[[Ra]], in the form of a [[cat]], smiting Apophis with a knife. [[Papyrus of Hunefer]], [[19th-dynasty|19th dynasty]]
File:Papyrus of Hunefer, detail.jpg|Ra, in the form of a [[cat]], smiting Apophis with a knife. [[Papyrus of Hunefer]], [[19th-dynasty|19th dynasty]]
File:Apep 1.jpg|[[Atum]] facing Apophis , [[KV16|tomb of Ramesses I]], 19th Dynasty (c. 1292–1290 BC)
File:Apep 1.jpg|[[Atum]] facing Apophis , [[KV16|tomb of Ramesses I]], 19th Dynasty (c. 1292–1290 BC)
File:A shallow white cross-lined ware bowl illustrating a man on a boat alongside a hippo and crocodile MET DP259217.jpg|Example of a Naqada 1 C-Ware bowl (though not the one depicting Apophis )
File:A shallow white cross-lined ware bowl illustrating a man on a boat alongside a hippo and crocodile MET DP259217.jpg|Example of a Naqada 1 C-Ware bowl (though not the one depicting Apophis )
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* [[99942 Apophis]], near Earth asteroid
* [[99942 Apophis]], near Earth asteroid
* [[Apep (star system)]], triple star system that is a gamma-ray burst progenitor in the Milky Way
* [[Apep (star system)]], triple star system that is a gamma-ray burst progenitor in the Milky Way
* [[Apollyon]]
* [[Ethnoherpetology]]
* [[Ethnoherpetology]]
* Referenced in John Langan's [[The Fisherman (novel)|''The Fisherman'' (novel)]], the world-girdling serpent harnessed as a source of magical potency
* Referenced in John Langan's [[The Fisherman (novel)|''The Fisherman'' (novel)]], the world-girdling serpent harnessed as a source of magical potency
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{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:African dragons]]
[[Category:Egyptian dragons]]
[[Category:Amratian culture]]
[[Category:Amratian culture]]
[[Category:Chaos gods]]
[[Category:Chaos gods]]
[[Category:Dragon deities]]
[[Category:Egyptian death gods]]
[[Category:Egyptian death gods]]
[[Category:Egyptian demons]]
[[Category:Egyptian demons]]

Latest revision as of 14:57, 7 November 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "about". Script error: No such module "redirect hatnote". Script error: No such module "Infobox".Template:Template otherScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".Template:Wikidata imageTemplate:Compare image with Wikidata Template:Ancient Egyptian religion

Apophis (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Langx), also known as Apep (Template:Langx) or Aphoph (Template:IPAc-en, Template:Langx)[1] is the ancient Egyptian deity of the underworld who embodied darkness and disorder, and was thus the opponent of light and Maat (order/truth). Ra was the bringer of light and hence the biggest opposer of Apophis.

Features

Because Ra was the solar deity, bringer of light, and thus the upholder of Maat, Apophis was viewed as the greatest enemy of Ra, and thus was given the title Enemy of Ra, and also "the Lord of Chaos".

"The Lord of Chaos" was seen as a giant snake or serpent leading to such titles as Serpent from the Nile and Evil Dragon. Some elaborations said that he stretched 16 yards in length and had a head made of flint.

Presented on a Naqada I (c. 4000–3550 BCE) C-ware bowl (now in Cairo) a snake was painted on the inside rim combined with other desert and aquatic animals as an enemy of a deity, seemingly a solar deity, who is invisibly hunting in a big rowing vessel.[2] The snake on the inside rim is believed to be Apophis.

The few descriptions of the origin of Apophis in myth usually demonstrate that it was born after Ra, usually from his umbilical cord. Geraldine Pinch claims that a much later creation myth explained that, "Apophis sprang from the saliva of the goddess Neith when she was still in the primeval waters. Her spit became a snake 120 yards long."[3] But Apophis was commonly believed to have existed from the beginning of time in the waters of Nu of primeval chaos.[4]

Battles with Ra

File:Set speared Apep.jpg
Set spearing the snake Apophis (Egyptian Museum, Cairo)
File:Apep 2.jpg
The sun god Ra, in the form of Great Cat, slays the snake Apophis[5]

Tales of Apophis battles against Ra were elaborated during the New Kingdom.[6] Storytellers said that every day Apophis must lie below the horizon and not persist in the mortal kingdom. This appropriately made him a part of the underworld. In some stories, Apophis waited for Ra in a western mountain called Manu, where the sun set, and in others, Apophis lurked just before dawn, in the Tenth region of the Night. The wide range of Apophis' possible locations gained him the title World-Encircler. It was thought that his terrifying roar would cause the underworld to rumble. Myths sometimes say that Apophis was trapped there, because he had been the previous chief god overthrown by Ra, or because he was evil and had been imprisoned.

The Coffin Texts imply that Apophis used a magical gaze to overwhelm Ra and his entourage.[7] Ra was assisted by a number of defenders who travelled with him, including Set and possibly the Eye of Ra.[8] Apophis movements were thought to cause earthquakes, and his battles with Set may have been meant to explain the origin of thunderstorms.[9] In one account, Ra himself defeats Apophis in the form of a cat.[10]

Religious practices

Ra's victory each night was thought to be ensured by the prayers of the Egyptian priests and worshippers at temples. The Egyptians practiced a number of rituals and superstitions that were thought to ward off Apophis and to aid Ra in continuing his journey across the sky.[11]

In an annual rite called the Ritual of Overthrowing Apophis, priests would build an effigy of Apophis that was thought to contain all of the evil and darkness in Egypt, and burn it to protect everyone from Apophis evil for another year.

The Egyptian priests had a detailed guide to fighting Apophis, referred to as The Books of Overthrowing Apep (or the Book of Apophis, in Greek).[12] The chapters described a gradual process of dishonoring, dismemberment, and disposal, which include:

  • Spitting Upon Apophis
  • Defiling Apophis with the Left Foot
  • Taking a Lance to Smite Apophis
  • Fettering Apophis
  • Taking a Knife to Smite Apophis
  • Putting Fire Upon Apophis

In addition to stories about Ra's victories, this guide had instructions for making wax models, or small drawings, of the serpent, which would be spat on, mutilated and burnt, whilst reciting spells that would aid Ra in killing Apophis. Fearing that even the image of Apophis could give power to the demon, any rendering would always include another deity to subdue the monster.

As Apophis was thought to live in the underworld, he was sometimes thought of as an Eater of Souls. Thus the dead also needed protection, so they were sometimes buried with spells that could destroy Apophis . The Book of the Dead does not frequently describe occasions when Ra defeated the chaos snake explicitly called Apophis. Only Book of the Dead Spells 7 and 39 can be explained as such.[13]

Gallery

See also

References

Template:Reflist

External links

Template:Sister project

Template:Ancient Egyptian religion footer Template:Authority control

  1. ↑ Erman, Adolf, and Hermann Grapow, eds. 1926–1953. Wörterbuch der aegyptischen Sprache im Auftrage der deutschen Akademien. 6 vols. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs'schen Buchhandlungen. (Reprinted Berlin: Akademie-Verlag GmbH, 1971).
  2. ↑ C. Wolterman, in Jaarbericht van Ex Oriente Lux, Leiden Nr.37 (2002).
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ tomb of Inherkha, Deir el-Medina
  6. ↑ J. Assmann, Egyptian Solar Religion in the New Kingdom, transl. by A. Alcock (London, 1995), 49-57.
  7. ↑ Borghouts, J. F. (1973). "The Evil Eye of Apopis". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 59. 114–115.
  8. ↑ Borghouts, J. F. (1973). "The Evil Eye of Apopis". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 59. 116.
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Chapters 3-5 of Template:Cite thesis
  13. ↑ J.F.Borghouts, Book of the Dead [39]: From Shouting to Structure (Studien zum Altaegyptischen Totenbuch 10, Wiesbaden, 2007).
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