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File:Handmade soap cropped and simplified.jpg

A handmade soap bar

File:Sodium stearate v2.svg

Two equivalent images of the chemical structure of sodium stearate, a typical ingredient found in bar soaps

File:Action of soap on oil.ogv

Emulsifying action of soap on oil

Soap is a salt of a fatty acid (sometimes other carboxylic acids) used for cleaning and lubricating products as well as other applications.^[1] In a domestic setting, soaps, specifically "toilet soaps", are surfactants usually used for washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping. In industrial settings, soaps are used as thickeners, components of some lubricants, emulsifiers, and catalysts.

Soaps are often produced by mixing fats and oils with a base.^[2] Humans have used soap for millennia; evidence exists for the production of soap-like materials in ancient Babylon around 2800 BC.^[3]

Types

File:Decorative Soaps.jpg

A collection of decorative bar soaps, as often found in hotels

Toilet soaps

File:Micelle.svg

Structure of a micelle, a cell-like structure formed by the aggregation of soap subunits (such as sodium stearate): The exterior of the micelle is hydrophilic (attracted to water) and the interior is lipophilic (attracted to oils).

In a domestic setting, "soap" usually refers to what is technically called a toilet soap, used for household and personal cleaning. Toilet soaps are salts of fatty acids with the general formula (RCO₂⁻)M⁺, where M is Na (sodium) or K (potassium).^[4]

When used for cleaning, soap solubilizes particles and grime, which can then be separated from the article being cleaned. The insoluble oil/fat "dirt" become associated inside micelles, tiny spheres formed from soap molecules with polar hydrophilic (water-attracting) groups on the outside and encasing a lipophilic (fat-attracting) pocket, which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water, making them soluble. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water. In hand washing, as a surfactant, when lathered with a little water, soap kills microorganisms by disorganizing their membrane lipid bilayer and denaturing their proteins.^[5]^[6]^[7] It also emulsifies oils, enabling them to be carried away by running water.^[8]

When used in hard water, soap does not lather well but forms soap scum (related to metallic soaps, see below).^[9]

Non-toilet soaps

So-called metallic soaps are key components of most lubricating greases and thickeners.^[4] A commercially important example is lithium stearate. Greases are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap and mineral oil. Many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and mixtures thereof. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils. In ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to olive oil, which would produce calcium soaps.^[10] Metal soaps are also included in modern artists' oil paints formulations as a rheology modifier.^[11] Metal soaps can be prepared by neutralizing fatty acids with metal oxides:

2 RCO₂H + CaO → (RCO₂)₂Ca + H₂O

A cation from an organic base such as ammonium can be used instead of a metal; ammonium nonanoate is an ammonium-based soap that is used as an herbicide.^[12]

Another class of non-toilet soaps are resin soaps, which are produced in the paper industry by the action of tree rosin with alkaline reagents used to separate cellulose from raw wood. A major component of such soaps is the sodium salt of abietic acid. Resin soaps are used as emulsifiers.^[13]

Soapmaking

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The production of toilet soaps usually entails saponification of triglycerides, which are vegetable or animal oils and fats. An alkaline solution (often lye) induces saponification whereby the triglyceride fats first hydrolyze into salts of fatty acids. Glycerol (glycerin) is liberated. The glycerin is sometimes left in the soap product as a softening agent, although it is sometimes separated.^[14]^[15] Handmade soap can differ from industrially made soap in that an excess of fat or coconut oil beyond that needed to consume the alkali is used (in a cold-pour process, this excess fat is called "superfatting"), and the glycerol left in acts as a moisturizing agent. However, the glycerine also makes the soap softer. The addition of glycerol and processing of this soap produces glycerin soap. Superfatted soap is more skin-friendly than one without extra fat, although it can leave a "greasy" feel. Sometimes, an emollient is added, such as jojoba oil or shea butter.^[16] Sand or pumice may be added to produce a scouring soap. The scouring agents serve to remove dead cells from the skin surface being cleaned. This process is called exfoliation.

To make antibacterial soap, compounds such as triclosan or triclocarban can be added. There is some concern that use of antibacterial soaps and other products might encourage antimicrobial resistance in microorganisms.^[17]

The type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide (soda lye), are firm, whereas potassium soaps, derived from potassium hydroxide (potash lye), are softer or often liquid. Historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard. These are used exclusively in greases.

For making toilet soaps, triglycerides (oils and fats) are derived from coconut, olive, or palm oils, as well as tallow.^[18] Triglyceride is the chemical name for the triesters of fatty acids and glycerin. Tallow, i.e., rendered fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals. Hence, the fat compound in many soap is known as sodium tallowate. Each species offers quite different fatty acid content, resulting in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps. Soap made from pure olive oil, sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap, is reputed for its particular mildness. The term "Castile" is also sometimes applied to soaps from a mixture of oils with a high percentage of olive oil.

Fatty acid content of various fats used for soapmaking
	Lauric acid	Myristic acid	Palmitic acid	Stearic acid	Oleic acid	Linoleic acid	Linolenic acid
fats	C₁₂ saturated	C₁₄ saturated	C₁₆ saturated	C₁₈ saturated	C₁₈ monounsaturated	C₁₈ diunsaturated	C₁₈ triunsaturated
Tallow	0	4	28	23	35	2	1
Coconut oil	48	18	9	3	7	2	0
Palm kernel oil	46	16	8	3	12	2	0
Palm oil	0	1	44	4	37	9	0
Laurel oil	54	0	0	0	15	17	0
Olive oil	0	0	11	2	78	10	0
Canola oil	0	1	3	2	58	9	23

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Gallery

Dudu-Osun – a popular type of African black soap

Dudu-Osun – a popular type of African black soap
Azul e branco soap – a bar of blue-white soap

Azul e branco soap – a bar of blue-white soap
Handmade soaps sold at a shop in Hyères, France

Handmade soaps sold at a shop in Hyères, France
Traditional Marseille soap (left) and Aleppo soap (right)

Traditional Marseille soap (left) and Aleppo soap (right)
Modern soap shop in Tübingen (2019)

Modern soap shop in Tübingen (2019)
Lye being dissolved in water for soapmaking

Lye being dissolved in water for soapmaking
Greases for automotive applications contain soaps.

Greases for automotive applications contain soaps.
Soap on a platter

Soap on a platter

History

Proto-soaps in the Ancient world

File:MODOAmigo.jpg

Twentieth century packaging of Amigo del Obrero (Worker's Friend) soap, part of the Museo del Objeto del Objeto collection

Proto-soaps, which mixed fat and alkali and were used for cleansing, are mentioned in Sumerian, Babylonian and Egyptian texts.^[19]^[20]

The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon.^[21] A formula for making a soap-like substance was written on a Sumerian clay tablet around 2500 BC. This was produced by heating a mixture of oil and wood ash, the earliest recorded chemical reaction, and used for washing woolen clothing.^[22]

The Ebers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates the ancient Egyptians used a soap-like product as a medicine and created this by combining animal fats or vegetable oils with a soda ash substance called trona.^[22] Egyptian documents mention a similar substance was used in the preparation of wool for weaving.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

In the reign of Nabonidus (556–539 BC), a recipe for a soap-like substance consisted of uhulu [ashes], cypress [oil] and sesame [seed oil] "for washing the stones for the servant girls".^[23]

True soaps in the Ancient world

True soaps, which we might recognise as soaps today, were different to proto-soaps. They foamed, were made deliberately, and could be produced in a hard or soft form because of an understanding of lye sources.^[20] It is uncertain as to who was the first to invent true soap.^[19]^[24]

Knowledge of how to produce true soap emerged at some point between early mentions of proto-soaps and the first century AD.^[19]^[20] Alkali was used to clean textiles such as wool for thousands of years^[25] but soap only forms when there is enough fat, and experiments show that washing wool does not create visible quantities of soap.^[19] Experiments by Sally Pointer show that the repeated laundering of materials used in perfume-making lead to noticeable amounts of soap forming. This fits with other evidence from Mesopotamian culture.^[19]

Pliny the Elder, whose writings chronicle life in the first century AD, describes soap as "an invention of the Gauls".^[26] The word Script error: No such module "Lang"., Latin for soap, has connected to a mythical Mount Sapo, a hill near the River Tiber where animals were sacrificed.^[27] But in all likelihood, the word was borrowed from an early Germanic language and is cognate with Latin Script error: No such module "Lang"., "tallow". It first appears in Pliny the Elder's account,^[28] Historia Naturalis, which discusses the manufacture of soap from tallow and ashes. There he mentions its use in the treatment of scrofulous sores, as well as among the Gauls as a dye to redden hair which the men in Germania were more likely to use than women.^[29]^[30] The Romans avoided washing with harsh soaps before encountering the milder soaps used by the Gauls around 58 BC.^[31] Aretaeus of Cappadocia, writing in the 2nd century AD, observes among "Celts, which are men called Gauls, those alkaline substances that are made into balls [...] called soap".^[32] The Romans' preferred method of cleaning the body was to massage oil into the skin and then scrape away both the oil and any dirt with a strigil.^[33] The standard design is a curved blade with a handle, all of which is made of metal.^[34]

The 2nd-century AD physician Galen describes soap-making using lye and prescribes washing to carry away impurities from the body and clothes. The use of soap for personal cleanliness became increasingly common in this period. According to Galen, the best soaps were Germanic, and soaps from Gaul were second best. Zosimos of Panopolis, circa 300 AD, describes soap and soapmaking.^[35]

In the Southern Levant, the ashes from barilla plants, such as species of Salsola, saltwort (Seidlitzia rosmarinus) and Anabasis, were used to make potash.^[36]^[37] Traditionally, olive oil was used instead of animal lard throughout the Levant, which was boiled in a copper cauldron for several days.^[38] As the boiling progresses, alkali ashes and smaller quantities of quicklime are added and constantly stirred.^[38] In the case of lard, it required constant stirring while kept lukewarm until it began to trace. Once it began to thicken, the brew was poured into a mold and left to cool and harden for two weeks. After hardening, it was cut into smaller cakes. Aromatic herbs were often added to the rendered soap to impart their fragrance, such as yarrow leaves, lavender, germander, etc.

Ancient China

A detergent similar to soap was manufactured in ancient China from the seeds of Gleditsia sinensis.^[39] Another traditional detergent is a mixture of pig pancreas and plant ash called zhuyizi (Template:Zh). Soap made of animal fat did not appear in China until the modern era.^[40] Soap-like detergents were not as popular as ointments and creams.^[39]

Islamic Golden Age

Hard toilet soap with a pleasant smell was produced in the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, when soap-making became an established industry. Recipes for soap-making are described by Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (c. 865–925), who also gave a recipe for producing glycerine from olive oil. In the Middle East, soap was produced from the interaction of fatty oils and fats with alkali. In Syria, soap was produced using olive oil together with alkali and lime. Soap was exported from Syria to other parts of the Muslim world and to Europe.^[41]

A 12th-century document describes the process of soap production.^[42] It mentions the key ingredient, alkali, which later became crucial to modern chemistry, derived from al-qaly or "ashes".

By the 13th century, the manufacture of soap in the Middle East had become a major cottage industry, with sources in Nablus, Fes, Damascus, and Aleppo.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Medieval Europe

Soapmakers in Naples were members of a guild in the late sixth century (then under the control of the Eastern Roman Empire),^[43] and in the eighth century, soap-making was well known in Italy and Spain.^[44] The Carolingian capitulary De Villis, dating to around 800, representing the royal will of Charlemagne, mentions soap as being one of the products the stewards of royal estates are to tally. The lands of Medieval Spain were a leading soapmaker by 800, and soapmaking began in the Kingdom of England about 1200.^[45] Soapmaking is mentioned both as "women's work" and as the produce of "good workmen" alongside other necessities, such as the produce of carpenters, blacksmiths, and bakers.^[46]

In Europe, soap in the 9th century was produced from animal fats and had an unpleasant smell. This changed when olive oil began to be used in soap formulas instead, after which much of Europe's soap production moved to the Mediterranean olive-growing regions.^[47] Hard toilet soap was introduced to Europe by Arabs and gradually spread as a luxury item. It was often perfumed.^[41]^[47]

By the 15th century, the manufacture of soap in Christendom often took place on an industrial scale, with sources in Antwerp, Castile, Marseille, Naples and Venice.^[44]

16th–17th century

In France, by the second half of the 16th century, the semi-industrialized professional manufacture of soap was concentrated in a few centers of Provence—Toulon, Hyères, and Marseille—which supplied the rest of France.^[48] In Marseilles, by 1525, production was concentrated in at least two factories, and soap production at Marseille tended to eclipse the other Provençal centers.^[49]

English manufacture tended to concentrate in London.^[50] The demand for high-quality hard soap was significant enough during the Tudor period that barrels of ashes were imported for the manufacture of soap.^[20]

Finer soaps were later produced in Europe from the 17th century, using vegetable oils (such as olive oil) as opposed to animal fats. Many of these soaps are still produced, both industrially and by small-scale artisans. Castile soap is a popular example of the vegetable-only soaps derived from the oldest "white soap" of Italy. In 1634 Charles I granted the newly formed Society of Soapmakers a monopoly in soap production who produced certificates from 'foure Countesses, and five Viscountesses, and divers other Ladies and Gentlewomen of great credite and quality, besides common Laundresses and others', testifying that 'the New White Soap washeth whiter and sweeter than the Old Soap'.^[51]

During the Restoration era (February 1665 – August 1714) a soap tax was introduced in England, which meant that until the mid-1800s, soap was a luxury, used regularly only by the well-to-do. The soap manufacturing process was closely supervised by revenue officials who made sure that soapmakers' equipment was kept under lock and key when not being supervised. Moreover, soap could not be produced by small makers because of a law that stipulated that soap boilers must manufacture a minimum quantity of one imperial ton at each boiling, which placed the process beyond the reach of the average person. The soap trade was boosted and deregulated when the tax was repealed in 1853.^[52]^[53]^[54]

Modern period

Industrially manufactured bar soaps became available in the late 18th century, as advertising campaigns in Europe and America promoted popular awareness of the relationship between cleanliness and health.^[55] In modern times, the use of soap has become commonplace in industrialized nations due to a better understanding of the role of hygiene in reducing the population size of pathogenic microorganisms.^[56]

Advertising for Dobbins' medicated toilet soap

Advertising for Dobbins' medicated toilet soap
A 1922 magazine advertisement for Palmolive Soap

A 1922 magazine advertisement for Palmolive Soap
Liquid soap

Liquid soap
A soap dispenser

A soap dispenser

File:Langtry cartoon.png

Caricature of Lillie Langtry, from Punch, Christmas 1890: The soap box on which she sits reflects her endorsements of cosmetics and soaps.

Until the Industrial Revolution, soapmaking was conducted on a small scale and the product was rough. In 1780, James Keir established a chemical works at Tipton, for the manufacture of alkali from the sulfates of potash and soda, to which he afterwards added a soap manufactory. The method of extraction proceeded on a discovery of Keir's. In 1790, Nicolas Leblanc discovered how to make alkali from common salt.^[31] Andrew Pears started making a high-quality, transparent soap, Pears soap, in 1807 in London.^[57] His son-in-law, Thomas J. Barratt, became the brand manager (the first of its kind) for Pears in 1865.^[58] In 1882, Barratt recruited English actress and socialite Lillie Langtry to become the poster-girl for Pears soap, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.^[59]^[60]

William Gossage produced low-priced, good-quality soap from the 1850s. Robert Spear Hudson began manufacturing a soap powder in 1837, initially by grinding the soap with a mortar and pestle. American manufacturer Benjamin T. Babbitt introduced marketing innovations that included the sale of bar soap and distribution of product samples. William Hesketh Lever and his brother, James, bought a small soap works in Warrington in 1886 and founded what is still one of the largest soap businesses, formerly called Lever Brothers and now called Unilever. These soap businesses were among the first to employ large-scale advertising campaigns.

Liquid soap

Liquid soap was invented in the nineteenth century; in 1865, William Sheppard patented a liquid version of soap.^[61] In 1898, B.J. Johnson developed a soap derived from palm and olive oils; his company, the B.J. Johnson Soap Company, introduced "Palmolive" brand soap that same year.^[62] This new brand of soap became popular rapidly, and to such a degree that B.J. Johnson Soap Company changed its name to Palmolive.^[63]

In the early 1900s, other companies began to develop their own liquid soaps. Such products as Pine-Sol and Tide appeared on the market, making the process of cleaning things other than skin, such as clothing, floors, and bathrooms, much easier.^[64]^[65]

Liquid soap also works better for more traditional or non-machine washing methods, such as using a washboard.^[66]

References

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External links

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History of Soap making – SoapHistory

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↑ footnote 48, p. 104, Understanding the Middle Ages: the transformation of ideas and attitudes in the Medieval world, Harald Kleinschmidt, illustrated, revised, reprint edition, Boydell & Brewer, 2000, Template:ISBN.
↑ ^a ^b Anionic and Related Lime Soap Dispersants, Raymond G. Bistline Jr., in Anionic Surfactants: Organic Chemistry, Helmut Stache, ed., Volume 56 of Surfactant science series, CRC Press, 1996, chapter 11, p. 632, Template:ISBN.
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[43] tnote 48, p. 104, Understanding the Middle Ages: the transformation of ideas and attitudes in the Medieval world, Harald Kleinschmidt, illustrated, revised, reprint edition, Boydell & Brewer, 2000, Template:ISBN.

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 In a domestic setting, "soap" usually refers to what is technically called a toilet soap, used for household and personal cleaning. Toilet soaps are salts of fatty acids with the general formula ([[Carboxylate ion|RCO<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup>]])M<sup>+</sup>, where M is [[Sodium|Na]] (sodium) or [[Potassium|K]] (potassium).<ref name=UllSoap/>
-When used for cleaning, soap [[solubilize]]s particles and grime, which can then be separated from the article being cleaned. The insoluble oil/fat "dirt" become associated inside [[micelle]]s, tiny spheres formed from soap molecules with polar [[hydrophile|hydrophilic]] (water-attracting) groups on the outside and encasing a [[lipophilicity|lipophilic]] (fat-attracting) pocket, which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water, making them soluble. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water. In [[hand washing]], as a surfactant, when lathered with a little water, soap kills [[microorganism]]s by disorganizing their membrane [[lipid bilayer]] and [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturing]] their [[protein]]s.{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}} It also [[emulsifies]] oils, enabling them to be carried away by running water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cool.conservation-us.org/waac/wn/wn23/wn23-3/wn23-304.html|title=A Brief History of Aluminum Stearate as a Component of Paint|last=Tumosa|first=Charles S.|date=2001-09-01|website=cool.conservation-us.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318085239/http://cool.conservation-us.org/waac/wn/wn23/wn23-3/wn23-304.html|archive-date=2017-03-18}}</ref>
+When used for cleaning, soap [[solubilize]]s particles and grime, which can then be separated from the article being cleaned. The insoluble oil/fat "dirt" become associated inside [[micelle]]s, tiny spheres formed from soap molecules with polar [[hydrophile|hydrophilic]] (water-attracting) groups on the outside and encasing a [[lipophilicity|lipophilic]] (fat-attracting) pocket, which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water, making them soluble. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water. In [[hand washing]], as a surfactant, when lathered with a little water, soap kills [[microorganism]]s by disorganizing their membrane [[lipid bilayer]] and [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturing]] their [[protein]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jabr |first=Ferris |date=2020-03-13 |title=Why soap works |url=https://medicine.yale.edu/news-article/why-soap-works/ |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=medicine.yale.edu |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Getting back to chemistry basics: How simple soap saves lives {{!}} Emory University {{!}} Atlanta GA |url=https://news.emory.edu/stories/2020/03/esc_soap_saves_lives/campus.html |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=news.emory.edu |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author1=Donavyn Coffey |date=2022-06-18 |title=How does soap kill germs? |url=https://www.livescience.com/how-soap-kills-germs |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=Live Science |language=en}}</ref> It also [[emulsifies]] oils, enabling them to be carried away by running water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cool.conservation-us.org/waac/wn/wn23/wn23-3/wn23-304.html|title=A Brief History of Aluminum Stearate as a Component of Paint|last=Tumosa|first=Charles S.|date=2001-09-01|website=cool.conservation-us.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318085239/http://cool.conservation-us.org/waac/wn/wn23/wn23-3/wn23-304.html|archive-date=2017-03-18}}</ref>
 When used in [[hard water]], soap does not lather well but forms [[soap scum]] (related to [[metallic soap]]s, see below).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holman |first1=John S. |last2=Stone |first2=Phil |title=Chemistry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j9auT6Jd_JMC&pg=PA174 |publisher=Nelson Thornes |date=2001 |page=174 |isbn=9780748762392}}</ref>
@@ Line 38: / Line 38: @@
 The type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. [[Sodium]] soaps, prepared from [[sodium hydroxide]] (soda lye), are firm, whereas [[potassium]] soaps, derived from [[potassium hydroxide]] (potash lye), are softer or often liquid. Historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of [[bracken]] or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard. These are used exclusively in [[Grease (lubricant)|greases]].
-For making toilet soaps, [[triglyceride]]s (oils and fats) are derived from coconut, olive, or palm oils, as well as [[tallow]].<ref name="Ullmann">David J. Anneken, Sabine Both, Ralf Christoph, Georg Fieg, Udo Steinberner, Alfred Westfechtel "Fatty Acids" in Ullmann's ''Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'' 2006, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a10_245.pub2}}.</ref> Triglyceride is the chemical name for the [[Ester|triesters]] of fatty acids and [[glycerin]]. Tallow, ''i.e.,'' [[Rendering (animal products)|rendered]] fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals. Each species offers quite different fatty acid content, resulting in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps. Soap made from pure [[olive oil]], sometimes called [[Castile soap]] or [[Marseille soap]], is reputed for its particular mildness. The term "Castile" is also sometimes applied to soaps from a mixture of oils with a high percentage of olive oil.
+For making toilet soaps, [[triglyceride]]s (oils and fats) are derived from coconut, olive, or palm oils, as well as [[tallow]].<ref name="Ullmann">David J. Anneken, Sabine Both, Ralf Christoph, Georg Fieg, Udo Steinberner, Alfred Westfechtel "Fatty Acids" in Ullmann's ''Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'' 2006, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a10_245.pub2}}.</ref> Triglyceride is the chemical name for the [[Ester|triesters]] of fatty acids and [[glycerin]]. Tallow, ''i.e.,'' [[Rendering (animal products)|rendered]] fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals. Hence, the fat compound in many soap is known as '''sodium tallowate'''. Each species offers quite different fatty acid content, resulting in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps. Soap made from pure [[olive oil]], sometimes called [[Castile soap]] or [[Marseille soap]], is reputed for its particular mildness. The term "Castile" is also sometimes applied to soaps from a mixture of oils with a high percentage of olive oil.
 {| class="wikitable" |
@@ Line 71: / Line 71: @@
 File:Bars of pure Marseille and Aleppo soap, 2024.jpg |Traditional [[Marseille soap]] (left) and [[Aleppo soap]] (right)
 File:Soap Shop, Tübingen (2019).jpg|Modern soap shop in [[Tübingen]] (2019)
-File:Pouring lye into water to make soap.jpg|[[Lye]] being dissolved in water for soapmaking.
+File:Pouring lye into water to make soap.jpg|[[Lye]] being dissolved in water for soapmaking
 File:Wheel Bearing Grease.jpg|Greases for automotive applications contain soaps.
 File:Pexels-pixabay-206299.jpg|Soap on a platter
@@ Line 79: / Line 79: @@
 ===Proto-soaps in the Ancient world===
 [[File:MODOAmigo.jpg|thumb|Twentieth century packaging of Amigo del Obrero (Worker's Friend) soap, part of the [[Museo del Objeto del Objeto]] collection]]
-Proto-soaps, which mixed fat and alkali and were used for cleansing, are mentioned in [[Sumer]]ian, [[Babylonia]]n and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] texts.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |date=2024-08-22 |title=An Experimental Exploration of the Earliest Soapmaking |url=https://exarc.net/issue-2024-3/at/experimental-exploration-earliest-soapmaking |journal=EXARC Journal |language=en |issue=EXARC Journal Issue 2024/3 |issn=2212-8956}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite podcast
+Proto-soaps, which mixed fat and alkali and were used for cleansing, are mentioned in [[Sumer]]ian, [[Babylonia]]n and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] texts.<ref name="EXARC Journal-2024">{{Cite journal |date=2024-08-22 |title=An Experimental Exploration of the Earliest Soapmaking |url=https://exarc.net/issue-2024-3/at/experimental-exploration-earliest-soapmaking |journal=EXARC Journal |language=en |issue=EXARC Journal Issue 2024/3 |issn=2212-8956}}</ref><ref name="Jess Shaw-2024">{{cite podcast
 | url=https://exarc.net/podcast/meaning-cleaning | title= The Meaning of Cleaning | website=Exarc.net | publisher=Exarc | host=Jess Shaw | date=2 February 2024 | time= | access-date=16 September 2024}}</ref>
@@ Line 89: / Line 89: @@
 === True soaps in the Ancient world ===
-True soaps, which we might recognise as soaps today, were different to proto-soaps. They foamed, were made deliberately, and could be produced in a hard or soft form because of an understanding of lye sources.<ref name=":1" /> It is uncertain as to who was the first to invent true soap.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Derry |first1=Thomas Kingston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mf88HKKYEbQC&dq=origin+of+soap+history&pg=PA265 |title=A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A. D. 1900 |last2=Williams |first2=Trevor Illtyd |date=1960-01-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=9780486274720 |page=265}}</ref>
+True soaps, which we might recognise as soaps today, were different to proto-soaps. They foamed, were made deliberately, and could be produced in a hard or soft form because of an understanding of lye sources.<ref name="Jess Shaw-2024" /> It is uncertain as to who was the first to invent true soap.<ref name="EXARC Journal-2024" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Derry |first1=Thomas Kingston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mf88HKKYEbQC&dq=origin+of+soap+history&pg=PA265 |title=A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A. D. 1900 |last2=Williams |first2=Trevor Illtyd |date=1960-01-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=9780486274720 |page=265}}</ref>
-Knowledge of how to produce true soap emerged at some point between early mentions of proto-soaps and the first century AD.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Alkali was used to clean textiles such as wool for thousands of years<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Cassidy |first=Cody |date=2020-05-05 |title=Who Discovered Soap? What to Know About the Origins of the Life-Saving Substance |url=https://time.com/5831828/soap-origins/ |access-date=2024-09-16 |magazine=TIME |language=en}}</ref> but soap only forms when there is enough fat, and experiments show that washing wool does not create visible quantities of soap.<ref name=":0" /> Experiments by Sally Pointer show that the repeated laundering of materials used in [[perfume]]-making lead to noticeable amounts of soap forming. This fits with other evidence from [[Mesopotamia]]n culture.<ref name=":0" />
+Knowledge of how to produce true soap emerged at some point between early mentions of proto-soaps and the first century AD.<ref name="EXARC Journal-2024" /><ref name="Jess Shaw-2024" /> Alkali was used to clean textiles such as wool for thousands of years<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Cassidy |first=Cody |date=2020-05-05 |title=Who Discovered Soap? What to Know About the Origins of the Life-Saving Substance |url=https://time.com/5831828/soap-origins/ |access-date=2024-09-16 |magazine=TIME |language=en}}</ref> but soap only forms when there is enough fat, and experiments show that washing wool does not create visible quantities of soap.<ref name="EXARC Journal-2024" /> Experiments by Sally Pointer show that the repeated laundering of materials used in [[perfume]]-making lead to noticeable amounts of soap forming. This fits with other evidence from [[Mesopotamia]]n culture.<ref name="EXARC Journal-2024" />
 Pliny the Elder, whose writings chronicle life in the first century AD, describes soap as "an invention of the Gauls".<ref>{{Cite web |title=The history of soapmaking |url=https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/history-science-technology-and-medicine/history-science/the-history-soapmaking |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812172210/https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/history-science-technology-and-medicine/history-science/the-history-soapmaking |archive-date=2022-08-12 |access-date=2022-08-21 |website=The history of soapmaking}}</ref> The word {{Lang|la|sapo}}, Latin for soap, has connected to a mythical Mount Sapo, a hill near the River Tiber where animals were sacrificed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bognolo |first=Guido |title=Surface Active Agents: Historical Perspectives and Future Developments |pages=5}}</ref> But in all likelihood, the word was borrowed from an early Germanic language and is [[cognate]] with Latin {{Lang|la|sebum}}, "[[tallow]]". It first appears in [[Pliny the Elder]]'s account,<ref>{{cite web |last=Harper |first=Douglas |title=Soap |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=soap |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208192853/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=soap |archive-date=2011-02-08 |access-date=2022-08-15 |website=etymonline.com}}</ref> ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Historia Naturalis]]'', which discusses the manufacture of soap from tallow and ashes. There he mentions its use in the treatment of [[Scrofula|scrofulous sores]], as well as among the [[Gauls]] as a dye to redden hair which the men in [[Germania]] were more likely to use than women.<ref>Pliny the Elder, ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/28*.html#191 XXVIII.191].</ref><ref>[[Martial]], Epigrammata, [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/martial/mart8.shtml VIII, 33, 20.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121162318/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/martial/mart8.shtml|date=2013-01-21}}</ref> The Romans avoided washing with harsh soaps before encountering the milder soaps used by the Gauls around 58&nbsp;BC.<ref name="Foreman">{{cite web |last=Foreman |first=Amanda |date=October 4, 2019 |title=The Long Road to Cleanliness |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-long-road-to-cleanliness-11570196433?mod=e2fb |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807091833/https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-long-road-to-cleanliness-11570196433?mod=e2fb |archive-date=August 7, 2020 |access-date=October 6, 2019 |work=www.wsj.com}}</ref> [[Aretaeus of Cappadocia]], writing in the 2nd century AD, observes among "Celts, which are men called Gauls, those alkaline substances that are made into balls [...] called ''soap''".<ref>Aretaeus, ''The Extant Works of Aretaeus, the Cappadocian'', ed. and tr. Francis Adams (London) 1856:[https://books.google.com/books?id=v4gIAAAAIAAJ 238 and 496] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609210236/https://books.google.com/books?id=v4gIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=it|date=2016-06-09}}, noted in Michael W. Dols, "Leprosy in medieval Arabic medicine" ''Journal of the History of Medicine'' 1979:316 note 9; the Gauls with whom the Cappadocian would have been familiar are those of Anatolian [[Galatia (Roman province)|Galatia]].</ref> The Romans' preferred method of cleaning the body was to massage oil into the skin and then scrape away both the oil and any dirt with a [[strigil]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=De Puma |first1=Richard |title=A Third-Century B.C.E. Etruscan Tomb Group from Bolsena in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |pages=429–40}}</ref> The standard design is a curved blade with a handle, all of which is made of metal.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Padgett |first1=J. Michael |title=Objects of Desire: Greek Vases from the John B. Elliot Collection. |date=2002 |publisher=Record of the Art Museum, Princeton University. |pages=36–48}}</ref>
@@ Line 97: / Line 97: @@
 The 2nd-century AD physician [[Galen]] describes soap-making using lye and prescribes washing to carry away impurities from the body and clothes. The use of soap for personal cleanliness became increasingly common in this period. According to Galen, the best soaps were Germanic, and soaps from Gaul were second best. [[Zosimos of Panopolis]], ''circa'' 300&nbsp;AD, describes soap and soapmaking.<ref>{{cite book |last=Partington |first=James Riddick |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofgreekfi00part/page/307 |title=A History of Greek Fire and Gun Powder |author2=Hall, Bert S |publisher=JHU Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8018-5954-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofgreekfi00part/page/307 307] |url-access=registration}}</ref>
-In the Southern [[Levant]], the ashes from [[Barilla|barilla plants]], such as species of [[Salsola]], saltwort (''[[Seidlitzia rosmarinus]]'') and ''[[Anabasis articulata|Anabasis]]'', were used to make [[potash]].<ref>[[Zohar Amar]], ''Flora of the Bible'', Jerusalem 2012, s.v. '''ברית''', p. 216 (note 34) {{OCLC|783455868}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Abu-Rabiʻa |first=ʻAref |url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/AbuRabiaBedouin |title=Bedouin Century: Education and Development among the Negev Tribes in the Twentieth Century |date=2001 |location=New York |pages=47–48 |language=en |oclc=47119256 |access-date=2019-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725005846/http://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/AbuRabiaBedouin |archive-date=2019-07-25 |url-status=live}}</ref> Traditionally, olive oil was used instead of animal lard throughout the Levant, which was boiled in a copper cauldron for several days.<ref name="Cohen1989">{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Amnon |title=Economic Life in Ottoman Jerusalem |date=1989 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0521365511 |location=Cambridge |page=81 |language=en}}</ref> As the boiling progresses, alkali ashes and smaller quantities of [[quicklime]] are added and constantly stirred.<ref name="Cohen1989" /> In the case of lard, it required constant stirring while kept lukewarm until it began to trace. Once it began to thicken, the brew was poured into a mold and left to cool and harden for two weeks. After hardening, it was cut into smaller cakes. Aromatic herbs were often added to the rendered soap to impart their fragrance, such as [[yarrow]] leaves, [[lavender]], [[germander]], etc.
+In the Southern [[Levant]], the ashes from [[Barilla|barilla plants]], such as species of [[Salsola]], saltwort (''[[Seidlitzia rosmarinus]]'') and ''[[Anabasis articulata|Anabasis]]'', were used to make [[potash]].<ref>[[Zohar Amar]], ''Flora of the Bible'', Jerusalem 2012, s.v. '''ברית''', p. 216 (note 34) {{OCLC|783455868}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Abu-Rabiʻa |first=ʻAref |url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/AbuRabiaBedouin |title=Bedouin Century: Education and Development among the Negev Tribes in the Twentieth Century |date=2001 |location=New York |pages=47–48 |doi=10.3167/9781571818324 |isbn=978-1-57181-832-4 |language=en |oclc=47119256 |access-date=2019-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725005846/http://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/AbuRabiaBedouin |archive-date=2019-07-25 |url-status=live}}</ref> Traditionally, olive oil was used instead of animal lard throughout the Levant, which was boiled in a copper cauldron for several days.<ref name="Cohen1989">{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Amnon |title=Economic Life in Ottoman Jerusalem |date=1989 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0521365511 |location=Cambridge |page=81 |language=en}}</ref> As the boiling progresses, alkali ashes and smaller quantities of [[quicklime]] are added and constantly stirred.<ref name="Cohen1989" /> In the case of lard, it required constant stirring while kept lukewarm until it began to trace. Once it began to thicken, the brew was poured into a mold and left to cool and harden for two weeks. After hardening, it was cut into smaller cakes. Aromatic herbs were often added to the rendered soap to impart their fragrance, such as [[yarrow]] leaves, [[lavender]], [[germander]], etc.
 ===Ancient China===
@@ Line 117: / Line 117: @@
 ===16th–17th century===
-In France, by the second half of the 16th century, the semi-industrialized professional manufacture of soap was concentrated in a few centers of [[Provence]]—[[Toulon]], [[Hyères]], and [[Marseille]]—which supplied the rest of France.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nef, John U. |year=1936 |title=A Comparison of Industrial Growth in France and England from 1540 to 1640: III |journal=The Journal of Political Economy |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=643–666 (660ff.) |doi=10.1086/254976 |jstor=1824135 |s2cid=222453265}}</ref> In Marseilles, by 1525, production was concentrated in at least two factories, and soap production at Marseille tended to eclipse the other Provençal centers.<ref>Barthélemy, L. (1883) "La savonnerie marseillaise", noted by Nef 1936:660 note 99.</ref>
+In France, by the second half of the 16th century, the semi-industrialized professional manufacture of soap was concentrated in a few centers of [[Provence]]—[[Toulon]], [[Hyères]], and [[Marseille]]—which supplied the rest of France.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nef, John U. |year=1936 |title=A Comparison of Industrial Growth in France and England from 1540 to 1640: III |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-political-economy_1936-10_44_5/page/642 |journal=The Journal of Political Economy |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=643–666 (660ff.) |doi=10.1086/254976 |jstor=1824135 |s2cid=222453265}}</ref> In Marseilles, by 1525, production was concentrated in at least two factories, and soap production at Marseille tended to eclipse the other Provençal centers.<ref>Barthélemy, L. (1883) "La savonnerie marseillaise", noted by Nef 1936:660 note 99.</ref>
-English manufacture tended to concentrate in London.<ref>Nef 1936:653, 660.</ref> The demand for high-quality hard soap was significant enough during the Tudor period that barrels of ashes were imported for the manufacture of soap.<ref name=":1" />
+English manufacture tended to concentrate in London.<ref>Nef 1936:653, 660.</ref> The demand for high-quality hard soap was significant enough during the Tudor period that barrels of ashes were imported for the manufacture of soap.<ref name="Jess Shaw-2024" />
 Finer soaps were later produced in Europe from the 17th century, using vegetable oils (such as [[olive oil]]) as opposed to animal fats. Many of these soaps are still produced, both industrially and by small-scale artisans. [[Castile soap]] is a popular example of the vegetable-only soaps derived from the oldest "white soap" of Italy. In 1634 Charles I granted the newly formed Society of Soapmakers a monopoly in soap production who produced certificates from 'foure Countesses, and five Viscountesses, and divers other Ladies and Gentlewomen of great credite and quality, besides common Laundresses and others', testifying that 'the New White Soap washeth whiter and sweeter than the Old Soap'.<ref>Keith Thomas, 'Noisomeness,' ''London Review of Books'', Vol. 42, No. 14, 16 July 2020.</ref>
@@ Line 143: / Line 143: @@
 Liquid soap was invented in the nineteenth century; in 1865, William Sheppard patented a liquid version of soap.<ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=49561|title=Improved liquid soap|status=patent|gdate=1865-08-22|invent1=Sheppard, William}}</ref> In 1898, B.J. Johnson developed a soap derived from palm and olive oils; his company, the [[Colgate-Palmolive#History|B.J. Johnson Soap Company]], introduced "[[Palmolive (soap)|Palmolive]]" brand soap that same year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Prigge |first=Matthew |date=2018-01-25 |title=The Story Behind This Bar of Palmolive Soap |url=https://www.milwaukeemag.com/story-behind-this-bar-of-palmolive-soap/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125175123/https://www.milwaukeemag.com/story-behind-this-bar-of-palmolive-soap/ |archive-date=2018-01-25 |access-date=2019-06-27 |website=Milwaukee Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref> This new brand of soap became popular rapidly, and to such a degree that B.J. Johnson Soap Company changed its name to [[Colgate-Palmolive|Palmolive]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Colgate-Palmolive Company History: Creating Bright Smiles for 200 Years |url=http://www.colgate.com/app/Colgate/US/Corp/History/1806.cvsp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060502094906/http://www.colgate.com/app/Colgate/US/Corp/History/1806.cvsp |archive-date=2 May 2006 |access-date=17 October 2012 |publisher=[[Colgate-Palmolive]] Company}}</ref>
-In the early 1900s, other companies began to develop their own liquid soaps. Such products as [[Pine-Sol]] and [[Tide (brand)|Tide]] appeared on the market, making the process of cleaning things other than skin, such as clothing, floors, and bathrooms, much easier.{{Citation needed|date=June 2025}}
+In the early 1900s, other companies began to develop their own liquid soaps. Such products as [[Pine-Sol]] and [[Tide (brand)|Tide]] appeared on the market, making the process of cleaning things other than skin, such as clothing, floors, and bathrooms, much easier.<ref name=e>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=bwQdAAAAIBAJ&pg=6598,929929 |title=There's Gold in those Pine Stumps |newspaper=Sarasota Journal |first=Hal |last=Boyle |authorlink=Hal Boyle |page=11 |date=September 12, 1954 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Heritage - Learn About Tide's History {{!}} Tide |url=https://tide.com/en-us/our-commitment/americas-number-one-detergent/our-heritage |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250806001944/https://tide.com/en-us/our-commitment/americas-number-one-detergent/our-heritage |archive-date=2025-08-06 |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=tide.com |language=en}}</ref>
 Liquid soap also works better for more traditional or non-machine washing methods, such as using a [[Washboard (laundry)|washboard]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The History of Liquid Soap |url=http://www.blueaspenoriginals.org/liquid-soap.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201140608/http://www.blueaspenoriginals.org/liquid-soap.html |archive-date=1 December 2012 |access-date=17 October 2012 |publisher=Blue Aspen Originals}}</ref>
@@ Line 176: / Line 176: @@
 ==Further reading==
-* {{Cite journal |last1=Kunatsa |first1=Yvonne |last2=Katerere |first2=David R. |year=2021 |title=Checklist of African Soapy Saponin-Rich Plants for Possible Use in Communities' Response to Global Pandemics |journal=Plants |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=842 |doi=10.3390/plants10050842 |doi-access=free |issn=2223-7747 |pmc=8143558 |pmid=33922037 |quote=Modern toilet soaps and detergents trace their origin to the ancient use of plants, commonly referred to as soapy plants, which possess foaming ability when they are agitated in water.}}
+* {{Cite journal |last1=Kunatsa |first1=Yvonne |last2=Katerere |first2=David R. |year=2021 |title=Checklist of African Soapy Saponin-Rich Plants for Possible Use in Communities' Response to Global Pandemics |journal=Plants |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=842 |doi=10.3390/plants10050842 |doi-access=free |issn=2223-7747 |pmc=8143558 |pmid=33922037 |bibcode=2021Plnts..10..842K |quote=Modern toilet soaps and detergents trace their origin to the ancient use of plants, commonly referred to as soapy plants, which possess foaming ability when they are agitated in water.}}
 * {{cite book|year=1895|last1=Carpenter|first1=William Lant|last2=Leask|first2=Henry|title=A treatise on the manufacture of soap and candles, lubricants and glycerin|url={{Google books|SD43AAAAMAAJ|A treatise on the manufacture of soap and candles, lubricants and glycerin|page=PR3|plainurl=yes}}}} Free ebook at [[Google Books]].
 * Donkor, Peter (1986). ''[https://www.slideshare.net/v2zq/yze151 Small-Scale Soapmaking: A Handbook]''. Ebook online at [[SlideShare]]. {{ISBN|0-946688-37-0}}.

Soap: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 00:59, 6 November 2025

Contents

Types

Toilet soaps

Non-toilet soaps

Soapmaking

Gallery

History

Proto-soaps in the Ancient world

True soaps in the Ancient world

Ancient China

Islamic Golden Age

Medieval Europe

16th–17th century

Modern period

Liquid soap

See also

Soap-related

References

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Soap: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 00:59, 6 November 2025

Types

Toilet soaps

Non-toilet soaps

Soapmaking

Gallery

History

Proto-soaps in the Ancient world

True soaps in the Ancient world

Ancient China

Islamic Golden Age

Medieval Europe

16th–17th century

Modern period

Liquid soap

See also

Soap-related

References

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Search