Espresso: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 15:52, 16 November 2025

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File:Tazzina di caffè a Ventimiglia.jpg

A cup of espresso in Ventimiglia, Italy

Espresso (Template:IPAc-en, Script error: No such module "IPA".) is a concentrated form of coffee produced by forcing hot water under high pressure through finely ground coffee beans. Originating in Italy, espresso has become one of the most popular coffee-brewing methods worldwide. It is characterized by its small serving size, typically 25–30 ml, and its distinctive layers: a dark body topped with a lighter-colored foam called "crema".

Espresso machines use pressure to extract a highly concentrated coffee with a complex flavor profile in a short time, usually 25–30 seconds. The result is a beverage with a higher concentration of suspended and dissolved solids than regular drip coffee, giving espresso its characteristic body and intensity.^[1]^[2] While espresso contains more caffeine per unit volume than most coffee beverages, its typical serving size results in less caffeine per serving compared to larger drinks such as drip coffee.^[3]

Espresso serves as the base for other coffee drinks, including cappuccino, caffè latte, and americano. It can be made with various types of coffee beans and roast levels, allowing for a wide range of flavors and strengths, despite the widespread myth that it is made with dark-roast coffee beans.^[4] The quality of an espresso is influenced by factors such as the grind size, water temperature, pressure, and the barista's skill in tamping (packing and leveling) the coffee grounds.

The cultural significance of espresso extends beyond its consumption, playing a central role in coffee shop culture and the third-wave coffee movement, which emphasizes artisanal production and high-quality beans.

Etymology and spelling

File:Victoria Arduino, 1922.jpg

A man pulls a shot of espresso while leaning out of a train in a 1922 advertisement for a "caffé espresso" machine. The imagery references the shared associations of speed and steam, as well as name: in Italy, a class of trains is called "espresso".Template:Sfn

Although some English dictionaries translate espresso as 'pressed-out',^[5] the word also conveys the sense of 'expressly for you' and 'quickly':

The words express, expres and espresso each have several meanings in English, French and Italian. The first meaning is to do with the idea of "expressing" ("pressing out of") or squeezing the flavour from the coffee using the pressure of the steam. The second meaning is to do with speed, as in a train. Finally there is the notion of doing something "expressly" for a person ... The first Bezzera and Pavoni espresso machines in 1906 took 45 seconds to make a cup of coffee, one at a time, expressly for you.Template:Sfn

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Modern espresso, using hot water under pressure, as pioneered by Gaggia in the 1940s, was originally called crema caffè (Template:Literally), as seen on old Gaggia machines, due to the crema.Template:Sfn

English speakers in America and England have spelled and pronounced espresso as expresso since at least the 1940s.^[6] Dictionary.com attributes the origin to ex- being a more common way that words start in English, making pronunciation easier, and several sources speculate an association between the drink and the word "express" may have contributed to its uptake.^[7]Template:Sfn Template:Efn Outside of the Anglosphere, expresso is commonly used in France, Portugal and Spain. In the 1970s, the spelling espresso gained prominence,^[6] and by 1996, the third edition of Fowler's Modern English Usage described expresso as "entirely driven out".Template:Sfn As of 2016, the Oxford Dictionary online entry for espresso described the alternate spelling as "common".^[8]

Italy uses the term espresso, substituting s for most x letters in Latin-root words, with the term deriving from the past participle of the Italian verb esprimere, itself derived from the Latin exprimere, which means 'to express', and refers to the process by which hot water is forced under pressure through ground coffee;^[9] x is not considered part of the standard Italian alphabet. Italians commonly refer to espresso simply as caffè (Template:Literally), espresso being the ordinary coffee to order.

According to Slate magazine, most commentary on whether expresso should be considered correct takes the negative. Such sources include Garner's Modern American Usage and Oxford Dictionaries online, who defer to how espresso is spelled in Italy.^[6]^[8] Among some of these opponents, its use is considered a faux pas, and a mark of lacking sophistication. The Oxford English Dictionary and Merriam-Webster call it a variant spelling.^[6]

History

Early history

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Coffee arrived in Italy in the 16th century, and the first recorded coffee houses followed a century later. By the mid-19th century, coffee was drunk throughout Italy, as drip coffee in homes and as infused coffee in cafés. The drink's popularity expanded following the 1890s as economic depression ended, and businesses responded by working to make their brewing processes more efficient. This coincided with broader efforts by manufacturers across Europe that had been underway since the mid-19th century. These manufacturers were motivated to reduce wait times for café patrons, and wanted to produce machines that could brew coffee in large batches to be portioned later.Template:Sfn^[10]

One of these machines was created by Angelo Moriondo, an inventor from Turin. In 1884, Moriondo patented a coffee machine that used steam to propel water through coffee grounds, which was "almost certainly the first Italian bar machine that controlled the supply of steam and water separately through the coffee". According to Bersten, this made Moriondo "certainly one of the earliest discoverers of the expresso machine, if not the earliest".^[11]Template:Sfn Unlike the modern espresso machine, it brewed in bulk, rather than in individual servings.Template:Sfn

Bezzera's invention

File:Bezzera & caffè espresso.jpg

Luigi Bezzera at the 1906 World Fair Expo in Milan

A machine that could brew individual servings came in the new century. In 1901, the inventor Luigi Bezzera of Milan filed a patent for his coffee maker. This machine contained a boiler, which when heated generated steam that would direct water through one of several heads, cooled on its path to a temperature considered more suitable for brewing. To the heads, a portafilter containing compressed coffee could be attached, producing coffee in individual portions, that is, 'expressly' for the customer.Template:Sfn^[10]

In 1903, another Milanese man, Desiderio Pavoni, purchased Bezzera's patents. He modified the design by adding a mechanism to release pressure and in 1905 began to sell machines. These are generally held to be the first commercial espresso machines. Although early espresso machines could produce coffee at a rate of 1,000 an hour, the steam and high temperatures gave the drinks a black appearance and a burnt, bitter taste. The pressure they generated was around Template:Convert, too little to produce a drink that would be considered espresso today, and they lacked the foam "crema". Shots were longer and took more time to pull—almost a minute, around twice that of the modern espresso.^[10]Template:Sfn

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In 1906, Bezzera and Pavoni attended the World Fair Expo in Milan, selling their respective machines. During the following decade, the market for espresso was limited to Milan.^[10] This gradually expanded, helped by the popularity of American-style bars which permitted coffee served standing rather than sitting, and by World War I, when young Italian men who were given coffee as rations took up a daily habit. Still, for the first thirty years, few establishments could afford the expensive machines, and Pavoni and two other manufacturers—Template:Ill in Turin and San Marco in Udine—produced most machines for the small Italian market, relying on exports across Europe to remain profitable.Template:Sfn

The machine continued to develop over its first decades. Design shifted from one of austerity to opulence. With their Art Deco appearance, by the 1920s espresso machines were held out popularly in Italy to represent domestic modernity, a trend driven in part by the marketing efforts of Pier Teresio Arduino of Victoria Arduino. Machines also developed in other respects: they shrank, and their energy source moved from gas to electricity.Template:Sfn^[10] The uptake of coffee continued, peaking in 1929, and in the 1930s a culture of drinking espresso outside the home surpassed the earlier habit of drinking a basic coffee at home. After its peak, coffee consumption declined as fascists banned luxury items, and the Great Depression impacted consumption. This culminated in 1941, when Italy lost its African territories and all imports of coffee were halted.Template:Sfn

Achieving higher pressures

For decades, manufacturers endeavoured to produce a machine that could use higher pressures without the resulting coffee tasting burned. Arduino tried, unsuccessfully, to incorporate air pumps and screw pistons.^[10] In 1935 in Trieste, Template:Convert east of Milan, Francesco Illy registered a patent for the Illetta, a machine that used compressed air rather than steam. Three years later in Milan, Achille Gaggia registered a patent to do the same, employing a hand-pulled, rotating piston.Template:Sfn

In 1947, Gaggia further developed the piston mechanism. The new machines contained much smaller boilers, which generated steam to push water into a receptacle. These were a standardized size, producing a coffee of a standardized size. In the receptacle, a lever-operated piston containing gears and a spring further pressurized the water up to 12 atmospheres. This water was shot through a coffee puck, producing a foam ("crema") out of essential oils and colloids. Gaggia began selling these the following year, using advertising to emphasize the lack of steam and the presence of crema. For the latter, the drink was marketed under the name Script error: No such module "Lang".. These are typically seen as the first modern espresso machines.Template:Sfn^[10]

Over the next decade, workshops in Milan continued to innovate new designs. One of these came from the Template:Ill company, which replaced springs with hydraulics. Like Gaggia, they attempted to market the coffee under a new name—this time, Script error: No such module "Lang".. The major development came in 1961 by Ernesto Valente with the invention of the Faema E61. Valente had been the original manufacturer of Gaggia's 1948 machine, but their business agreement ended after disagreement over what market should be targeted: Gaggia saw espresso machines as a niche, expensive product for establishments that could afford them, while Valente saw an opportunity for a broad market with cheap machines.Template:Sfn^[10]

In the Faema E61, operation was mechanized, using an on-off switch to control an electric pump that pressurized water to Template:Convert. Water was drawn directly from the plumbing, pressurized, and sent through a copper pipe inside a boiler. As it travelled, the water was maintained at a temperature considered by the manufacturers to be ideal for brewing.^[10]Template:Sfn The new machine was cheap, with a "pop" design, and it came as much of Italy gained electricity for the first time. For the barista, there was no longer a need to pause between espressos as the boiler came back to temperature, and the horizontal boiler permitted eye-level conversation with customers.Template:Sfn

Italians also spread espresso culture into their East African colonies, Italian Somalia and Italian Eritrea.^[12]

Characteristics

File:A good cappuccino starts with a perfect espresso!! (4441914182).jpg

A layer of crema forms on top

Espresso is generally thicker than coffee brewed by other methods, with a viscosity similar to that of warm honey. This is due to the higher concentration of suspended and dissolved solids and the crema on top (a foam with a creamy consistency).^[13] As a result of the pressurized brewing process, the flavors and chemicals in a typical cup of espresso are very concentrated.

Espresso contains more caffeine per unit volume than most coffee beverages, but as its usual serving size of 25–30 ml (1 US oz) is much smaller than other coffee drinks, the overall caffeine content of a single "serving" of espresso is generally lower than that of other coffees.^[14] While the exact caffeine content of any coffee drink will vary, a typical Template:Convert serving of espresso contains approximately 65 milligrams of caffeine, but a typical Template:Convert serving of drip coffee contains 150–200 mg of caffeine.^[15]^[16]^[17]

Unlike other coffee drinks, an espresso contains three phases: an emulsion of oil droplets, suspended solids, and a layer of gas bubbles or foam. In the mouth, the dispersed oil droplets are perceived as creamy, and they contibute to what is known as the drink's "body". These droplets preserve some aromatic compounds that are lost to the air in other brewing methods.Template:Sfn

The crema, a layer of dense foam that appears at the top of the drink, is unique to espresso.^[18]^[19] It is made up of emulsified oils in the ground coffee turned into a colloid, which does not occur in other brewing methods. Crema is produced when water placed under very high pressure dissolves more carbon dioxide, a gas present inside the coffee that is produced during the roasting process.^[20]Template:Rp

Process

File:Linea doubleespresso.jpg

Espresso brewing

Espresso is made by forcing very hot water under high pressure through finely ground compacted coffee. There is no universal standard defining the process of extracting espresso,^[21] but several institutions have published definitions that restrict the amount and type of ground coffee used, the temperature and pressure of the water, and the rate of extraction.^[22]^[23] Typically, an espresso is made using an espresso machine.

The act of producing a shot of espresso is often called "pulling" a shot, originating from lever espresso machines, with which a barista pulls down a handle attached to a spring-loaded piston, which forces hot water through the coffee at high pressure. However, it is more common for an electric pump to generate the pressure.^[24]

File:Fine espresso.png

Finely ground coffee for espresso

Tamping down the coffee promotes the water's even penetration through the grounds.^[25] This process produces a thicker beverage by extracting both solid and dissolved components.

The technical parameters outlined by the Italian Espresso National Institute for making a "certified Italian espresso" are:^[26]

Parameter	Value
Necessary portion of ground coffee	7 g ± 0,5
Exit temperature of water from unit	88 °C ± 2 °C
Temperature in cup	67 °C ± 3 °C
Entry water pressure	9 bar ± 1
Percolation time	25 ± 5 seconds
Viscosity at 45 °C	> 1,5 mPa s
Total fat	> 2 mg/ml
Caffeine	< 100 mg/cup
Volume in cup (including crema)	25 ml ± 2,5

Roasts

Any bean or roasting level can be used to produce authentic espresso. For example, in southern Italy, a darker roast is generally preferred. Farther north, the trend moves toward slightly lighter roasts, while outside Italy a wide range is popular.Template:Sfn

Variables

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File:Doppio ristretto Chiang Mai.jpg

A double ristretto, the first half of the shot in the bottom glass, the other half in the top glass.

The main variables in a shot of espresso are the "size" and "length".^[27]^[28] This terminology is standardized, but the precise sizes and proportions vary substantially.

Cafés may have a standardized shot (size and length), such as "triple ristretto",^[28] only varying the number of shots in espresso-based drinks such as caffè latte, but not changing the extraction.

The size can be a single, double, or triple, using a proportional amount of ground coffee, roughly 7, 14, and 21 grams; correspondingly sized filter baskets are used. The Italian multiplier term doppio is often used for a double, with solo and triplo being more rarely used for singles and triples. The single shot is the traditional shot size, being the maximum that could easily be pulled on a lever machine. Single baskets are sharply tapered or stepped down in diameter to provide comparable depth to the double baskets and, therefore, comparable resistance to water pressure. Most double baskets are gently tapered (the "Faema model"), while others, such as the La Marzocco, have straight sides.

File:Doppio.jpg

Extracting a doppio

Triple baskets are normally straight-sided. Portafilters will often come with two spouts, usually closely spaced, and a double-size basket. Each spout can optionally dispense into a separate cup, yielding two solo-size (but doppio-brewed) shots, or into a single cup (hence the close spacing). True solo shots are rare, with a single shot in a café generally being half of a doppio shot. In espresso-based drinks in America, particularly larger milk-based drinks, a drink with three or four shots of espresso will be called "triple" or "quad", respectively.

The length of the shot can be ristretto (or stretto) (reduced), normale or standard (normal), or lungo (long):^[29] these may correspond to a smaller or larger drink with the same amount of ground coffee and same level of extraction or to different length of extraction. Proportions vary, and the volume (and low density) of crema makes volume-based comparisons difficult (precise measurement uses the mass of the drink). Typically, ristretto is half the volume of normale, and lungo is double to triple the normale volume. For a double shot (14 grams of dry coffee), a normale uses about 60 ml of water. A double ristretto, a common form associated with espresso, uses half the amount of water, about 30 ml. Ristretto, normale, and lungo may not simply be the same shot stopped at different times (which could result in an under- or over-extracted shot), but have the grind adjusted (finer for ristretto, coarser for lungo) to achieve the target volume.^[20]Template:Rp A significantly longer shot is the caffè crema, which is longer than a lungo, ranging in size from Template:Convert, and brewed in the same way, with a coarser grind. Passing too much water through the ground coffee can add other, potentially unpleasant flavors to the espresso.^[20]Template:Rp

Machines

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Home espresso machines have increased in popularity with the general rise of interest in espresso. Today, a wide range of home espresso equipment can be found in kitchen and appliance stores, online vendors, and department stores. The first espresso machine for home use was the Gaggia Gilda.Template:Sfn Soon afterwards, similar machines such as the Faema Faemina, FE-AR La Peppina, and VAM Caravel followed suit, with similar form factors and operational principles.Template:Sfn

These machines still have a small but dedicated share of fans. Until the advent of the first small electrical pump-based espresso machines, such as the Gaggia Baby and Quickmill 810, home espresso machines were not widely adopted. In recent years, the increased availability of convenient countertop fully automatic home espresso makers and pod-based espresso serving systems has increased the quantity of espresso consumed at home. The popularity of home espresso making parallels the increase of home coffee roasting. Some amateurs pursue both home roasting coffee and making espresso.

Nutrition

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In a 100 ml (grams, 3.5 oz) reference amount, espresso has significant levels of dietary mineral, magnesium, B vitamins, niacin, and riboflavin, and around 212 mg of caffeine per 100 grams of liquid brewed coffee (table).^[30]

Espresso-based drinks

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When it is not served by itself, espresso is frequently blended, often with milk—steamed (without significant foam), wet foamed (microfoam) and dry foamed—or hot water.^[31] Several are listed below; for reference, espresso typically has a volume between Template:Convert.

	Type	Drink volume ml (US fl oz)	Notes
File:Ristretto - by Charles Haynes.jpg	Ristretto	Template:Convert	Espresso concentrated to approximately 20 ml.
File:Macchiato (7199366530).jpg	Macchiato	Template:Convert	In the classic Italian method of making macchiato (meaning 'spot' or 'stain'), a spoonful of milk foam is added to espresso. In the modern method, the cup is filled to the edge with microfoam.
File:Carajillo en Duralex Cigogne.jpg	Lungo	Template:Convert	Espresso pulled with twice as much water.
File:Espresso Americano.jpeg	Americano	Template:Convert	Espresso topped up with hot water in a ratio of 1:5.
File:Nero Espresso long black (3168418775).jpg	Long black	Template:Convert	Like americano, but the espresso is poured into the hot water.^[32]
File:Cappuccino at Sightglass Coffee.jpg	Cappuccino	Template:Convert	An espresso with a large amount of milk and milk foam. Latte art technique is used.
File:Coffee with milk (563800) (cropped).jpg	Caffè latte	Template:Convert	At least 210 g of lightly whipped milk with foam at a temperature of 58–70 °C is poured into the espresso.
File:Latte macchiato.jpg	Latte macchiato	Template:Convert	Milk and milk foam are poured into a tall glass, which is left to stand for at least half a minute, then a shot of espresso is poured in, creating three colored layers.

File:Mocha coffee.jpg

Caffè mocha

Other variants include:

Caffè crema: "long" espresso from more water and coarser ground coffee, approximately 120–180 ml
Espresso con panna: espresso with cream
Viennese coffee: 2 shots of espresso with whipped cream
Caffè mocha: caffè latte with chocolate
Espresso martini: espresso with coffee liqueur and vodka
Caffè corretto ('corrected coffee'): espresso with brandy, grappa, or sambuca
Freddo espresso: espresso is mixed with the sugar and ice in a drink mixer
Espresso and tonic

Notes

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References

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Works cited

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External links

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Understanding Espresso series by James Hoffmann

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Espresso: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 15:52, 16 November 2025

Contents

Etymology and spelling

History

Early history

Bezzera's invention

Achieving higher pressures

Characteristics

Process

Roasts

Variables

Machines

Nutrition

Espresso-based drinks

See also

Notes

References

Works cited

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 {{Use American English|date=October 2024}}
 {{Use mdy dates|date=October 2024}}
-{{Infobox beverage
-| name = Espresso
-| image = Tazzina di caffè a Ventimiglia.jpg
-| image_size = 250px
-| caption = A cup of espresso in [[Ventimiglia]], Italy
-| type =
-| origin = [[Italy]]
-| introduced = 1901
-| color = Brown, black
-}}
-{{Infobox nutritional value
-| name = Coffee, brewed, espresso, restaurant-prepared
-| kJ = 8.4
-| carbs = 0.
-| fat = 0.2
-| protein = 0.1
-| magnesium_mg = 80
-| riboflavin_mg = 0.2
-| niacin_mg = 5.2
-| water = 97.8 g
-| opt1n = Theobromine
-| opt1v = 0 mg
-| opt2n = Caffeine
-| opt2v = 212 mg
-| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/171891/nutrients Link to Full USDA Nutrient Report]
-}}
-'''Espresso''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Back ache-espresso.wav|ɛ|ˈ|s|p|r|ɛ|s|oʊ}}, {{IPA|it|eˈsprɛsso|lang}}) is a concentrated form of [[coffee]] produced by forcing hot water under high pressure through finely ground coffee beans. Originating in Italy, espresso has become one of the most popular coffee-brewing methods worldwide. It is characterized by its small serving size, typically 25–30 ml, and its distinctive layers: a dark body topped with a lighter-colored foam called "crema".
+[[File:Tazzina di caffè a Ventimiglia.jpg|thumb|A cup of espresso in [[Ventimiglia]], Italy]]
+'''Espresso''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Back ache-espresso.wav|ɛ|ˈ|s|p|r|ɛ|s|oʊ}}, {{IPA|it|eˈsprɛsso|lang}}) is a concentrated form of [[coffee]] produced by forcing hot water under high pressure through finely ground coffee beans. Originating in [[Italy]], espresso has become one of the most popular coffee-brewing methods worldwide. It is characterized by its small serving size, typically 25–30 ml, and its distinctive layers: a dark body topped with a lighter-colored foam called "crema".
 [[Espresso machine]]s use pressure to extract a highly concentrated coffee with a complex flavor profile in a short time, usually 25–30 seconds. The result is a beverage with a higher concentration of suspended and dissolved solids than regular [[drip coffee]], giving espresso its characteristic body and intensity.<ref>{{cite news |title=The History of the Espresso |url=https://esquirescoffee.co.uk/news/history-espresso/ |work=Esquires Coffee |date=12 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-12-13|title=Espresso Coffee Maker Through History|url=https://espressocoffeebrewers.com/espresso-coffee-history/|access-date=2021-04-08|website=EspressoCoffeeBrewers.com|language=en-US}}</ref> While espresso contains more caffeine per unit volume than most coffee beverages, its typical serving size results in less caffeine per serving compared to larger drinks such as drip coffee.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coffee versus Espresso: Unraveling the Caffeine Mystery |url=https://www.compasscoffee.com/blogs/the-daily-grind/coffee-vs-espresso-unraveling-the-caffeine-mystery?srsltid=AfmBOopvzlFTF3LBKHCVAQCGRELCgl6DDXSFPC5f4kY7snBmEuggzV3K |access-date=2024-11-02 |website=Compass Coffee |language=en}}</ref>
-Espresso serves as the base for other coffee drinks, including [[cappuccino]], [[Latte|caffè latte]], and [[Caffè americano|americano]]. It can be made with various types of coffee beans and roast levels, allowing for a wide range of flavors and strengths, despite the widespread myth that it is made with dark-roast coffee beans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Debunking 5 Common Espresso Myths |url=https://us.ecscoffee.com/blogs/ecs/debunking-5-common-espresso-myths |access-date=2025-05-19 |website=ECS Coffee |language=en}}</ref> The quality of an espresso is influenced by factors such as the grind size, water temperature, pressure, and the [[barista]]'s skill in tamping the coffee grounds.
+Espresso serves as the base for other coffee drinks, including [[cappuccino]], [[Latte|caffè latte]], and [[Caffè americano|americano]]. It can be made with various types of coffee beans and roast levels, allowing for a wide range of flavors and strengths, despite the widespread myth that it is made with dark-roast coffee beans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Debunking 5 Common Espresso Myths |url=https://us.ecscoffee.com/blogs/ecs/debunking-5-common-espresso-myths |access-date=2025-05-19 |website=ECS Coffee |language=en}}</ref> The quality of an espresso is influenced by factors such as the grind size, water temperature, pressure, and the [[barista]]'s skill in tamping (packing and leveling) the coffee grounds.
 The cultural significance of espresso extends beyond its consumption, playing a central role in [[Coffeehouse|coffee shop]] culture and the [[Third-wave coffee|third-wave coffee movement]], which emphasizes artisanal production and high-quality beans.
 ==Etymology and spelling==
-Some English dictionaries translate ''espresso'' as 'pressed-out',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia = Oxford English Dictionary | title = espresso | url = http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50078079/50078079spg1 | access-date = 30 October 2009 | year = 1989 | publisher = Oxford University press }}</ref> but the word also conveys the senses of ''expressly for you'' and ''quickly'':
+[[File:Victoria Arduino, 1922.jpg|thumb|400x400px|A man pulls a shot of espresso while leaning out of a train in a 1922 advertisement for a "caffé espresso" machine. The imagery references the shared associations of speed and steam, as well as name: in Italy, a class of trains is called "espresso".{{Sfn|Morris|2010|p=164}}]]
+Although some English dictionaries translate ''espresso'' as 'pressed-out',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia = Oxford English Dictionary | title = espresso | url = http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50078079/50078079spg1 | access-date = 30 October 2009 | year = 1989 | publisher = Oxford University press }}</ref> the word also conveys the sense of 'expressly for you' and 'quickly':
-{{blockquote|The words ''express'', ''expres'' and ''espresso'' each have several meanings in English, French and Italian. The first meaning is to do with the idea of "expressing" ("pressing out of") or squeezing the flavour from the coffee using the pressure of the steam. The second meaning is to do with speed, as in a train. Finally there is the notion of doing something "expressly" for a person&nbsp;... The first Bezzera and Pavoni espresso machines in 1906 took 45 seconds to make a cup of coffee, one at a time, expressly for you.{{sfn|Bersten|1993|page=99}} }}
+{{blockquote|The words ''express'', ''expres'' and ''espresso'' each have several meanings in English, French and Italian. The first meaning is to do with the idea of "expressing" ("pressing out of") or squeezing the flavour from the coffee using the pressure of the steam. The second meaning is to do with speed, as in a train. Finally there is the notion of doing something "expressly" for a person&nbsp;... The first Bezzera and Pavoni espresso machines in 1906 took 45 seconds to make a cup of coffee, one at a time, expressly for you.{{sfn|Bersten|1993|page=99}}}}
 Modern espresso, using hot water under pressure, as pioneered by [[Gaggia]] in the 1940s, was originally called ''[[crema caffè]]'' ({{literally|cream coffee}}), as seen on old Gaggia machines, due to the crema.{{sfn|Morris|2007}}
-The spelling ''expresso'' is mostly considered incorrect, although some sources call it a less common variant.<ref name=diction>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/expresso|title=Expresso |work=Dictionary.com}}</ref> It is common in French and Portuguese. Italy uses the term ''espresso'', substituting ''s'' for most ''x'' letters in [[Latin]]-root words, with the term deriving from the past participle of the Italian verb ''esprimere'', itself derived from the Latin ''exprimere'', which means 'to express', and refers to the process by which hot water is forced under pressure through ground coffee;<ref name="philips">{{cite web|url=https://www.philips.it/c-e/ho/articolo/caffe/suggerimenti-caffe/come-preparare-un-caffe-espresso-perfetto.html|title=Qual è il caffè espresso perfetto e come va bevuto?|access-date=13 June 2022|language=it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Is it espresso or expresso? Yes |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/espresso-vs-expresso-usage-history |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Merriam-Webster |language=en}}</ref> ''x'' is not considered part of the standard [[Italian orthography#Alphabet|Italian alphabet]]. Italians commonly refer to espresso simply as ''[[Coffee in Italy|caffè]]'' ({{literally|coffee}}), espresso being the ordinary coffee to order. The same happens in Portugal (''café''), with some regional variations (''[[Bica (coffee)|bica]]'' in [[Lisbon]] and ''cimbalino'' traditionally in [[Porto]]). In Spain, while ''café expreso'' is seen as the more formal denomination, ''café solo'' (alone, without milk) is the usual way to ask for it at an espresso bar. Some sources state that ''expresso'' is an incorrect spelling, including ''Garner's Modern American Usage''.<ref name="slate.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/lexicon_valley/2014/08/18/espresso_or_expresso_the_x_spelling_actually_has_considerable_historical.html|title=Espresso or expresso? The x spelling actually has considerable historical precedent|author=Ben Yagoda|date=18 August 2014|work=Slate Magazine}}</ref> While the 'expresso' spelling is recognized as mainstream usage in some American dictionaries,<ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/expresso Expresso. Merriam-webster.com (13 August 2010). Retrieved on 13 February 2011]</ref><ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/expresso Expresso | Define Expresso at Dictionary.com]. Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved on 13 February 2011.</ref> some cooking websites call the 'x' variant illegitimate.<ref>[http://homecooking.about.com/od/cookingfaqs/f/faqespresso.htm What is espresso? Or is it expresso?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707075353/http://homecooking.about.com/od/cookingfaqs/f/faqespresso.htm |date=7 July 2011 }}. Homecooking.about.com (14 June 2010). Retrieved on 13 February 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.espressopeople.com/guides/espresso/whatis What is Espresso]. Espresso People. Retrieved on 13 February 2011. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901142626/http://www.espressopeople.com/guides/espresso/whatis |date=1 September 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://espresso.net/blog/expresso-or-espresso/|title=The Great Debate: Espresso vs. Expresso|work=Espresso Blog|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016074645/https://espresso.net/blog/expresso-or-espresso/|archive-date=16 October 2015}}</ref> Oxford Dictionaries online states: "The spelling ''expresso'' is not used in the original Italian and is strictly incorrect, although it is common."<ref name="oxforddictionaries.com">[https://web.archive.org/web/20130116054224/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/espresso?q=expresso Definition of espresso from Oxford Dictionaries Online]. Oxforddictionaries.com. Retrieved on 13 February 2011.</ref> The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' and ''Merriam-Webster'' call it a variant spelling.<ref name="slate.com"/> The ''Online Etymology Dictionary'' calls ''expresso'' a variant of ''espresso''.<ref name="etymonline.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=espresso+&searchmode=none|title=Online Etymology Dictionary}}</ref> The ''Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style'' (2000) describes the spelling ''expresso'' as "wrong", and specifies ''espresso'' as the only correct form.{{sfn|Garner|2000|pp=129–130}} The third edition of [[H. W. Fowler|Fowler]]'s ''[[A Dictionary of Modern English Usage|Modern English Usage]]'', published by the [[Oxford University Press]] in 1996, noted that the form ''espresso'' "has entirely driven out the variant ''expresso'' (which was presumably invented under the impression that it meant 'fast, express')".{{sfn|Burchfield|1996|page=286}}
+English speakers in America and England have spelled and pronounced ''espresso'' as ''expresso'' since at least the 1940s.<ref name="slate.com">{{cite web |author=Ben Yagoda |date=18 August 2014 |title=Espresso or expresso? The x spelling actually has considerable historical precedent |url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/lexicon_valley/2014/08/18/espresso_or_expresso_the_x_spelling_actually_has_considerable_historical.html |work=Slate Magazine}}</ref> ''[[Dictionary.com]]'' attributes the origin to ex- being a more common way that words start in English, making pronunciation easier, and several sources speculate an association between the drink and the word "express" may have contributed to its uptake.<ref name="diction">{{cite web |title=Expresso |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/Expresso |work=Dictionary.com}}</ref>{{sfn|Burchfield|1996|page=286}}{{Efn|Sources give varying explanations for how English speakers associate ''espresso'' with the term "express". ''[[Merriam-Webster]]'' credits the link to the speed of the drink's preparation. ''[[Dictionary.com]]'' draws a connection to the energy conferred by the caffeine-content. [[H. W. Fowler|Fowler]]'s ''[[Modern English Usage]]'' (3rd ed) speculates that English speakers assumed "express" to be espresso's translated meaning.<ref name="MW-grammar" /><ref name="diction" />{{sfn|Burchfield|1996|page=286}}}} Outside of the [[Anglosphere]], ''expresso'' is commonly used in France, Portugal and Spain. In the 1970s, the spelling ''espresso'' gained prominence,<ref name="slate.com" /> and by 1996, the third edition of [[H. W. Fowler|Fowler]]'s ''[[A Dictionary of Modern English Usage|Modern English Usage]]'' described ''expresso'' as "entirely driven out".{{sfn|Burchfield|1996|page=286}} As of 2016, the Oxford Dictionary online entry for ''espresso'' described the alternate spelling as "common".<ref name="oxforddictionaries.com">[https://web.archive.org/web/20160418185544/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/espresso?q=expresso Definition of espresso from Oxford Dictionaries Online]. Oxforddictionaries.com. Retrieved on 18 April 2016.</ref>
+Italy uses the term ''espresso'', substituting ''s'' for most ''x'' letters in [[Latin]]-root words, with the term deriving from the past participle of the Italian verb ''esprimere'', itself derived from the Latin ''exprimere'', which means 'to express', and refers to the process by which hot water is forced under pressure through ground coffee;<ref name="MW-grammar">{{Cite web |title=Is it espresso or expresso? Yes |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/espresso-vs-expresso-usage-history |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Merriam-Webster |language=en}}</ref> ''x'' is not considered part of the standard [[Italian orthography#Alphabet|Italian alphabet]]. Italians commonly refer to espresso simply as ''[[Coffee in Italy|caffè]]'' ({{literally|coffee}}), espresso being the ordinary coffee to order.
+According to [[Slate (magazine)|''Slate'']] magazine, most commentary on whether ''expresso'' [[Linguistic prescription|should be considered correct]] takes the negative. Such sources include ''Garner's Modern American Usage'' and Oxford Dictionaries online, who defer to how ''espresso'' is spelled in Italy.<ref name="slate.com" /><ref name="oxforddictionaries.com" /> Among some of these opponents, its use is considered a [[faux pas]], and a mark of lacking sophistication. The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' and ''Merriam-Webster'' call it a variant spelling.<ref name="slate.com" />
 ==History==
-===Precursors===
+===Early history===
-[[File:Angelo-moriondo-portrait-espresso-machine-inventor.jpg|thumb|[[Angelo Moriondo]], inventor of an important precursor of the espresso machine]]
+{{Multiple image
-[[File:Espresso-machine-first-patent-angelo-moriondo.jpg|thumb|First patent (vol. 33 n. 256, 1884) for the espresso machine, by Angelo Moriondo]]
+| image1            = Angelo-moriondo-portrait-espresso-machine-inventor.jpg
-[[Angelo Moriondo]], from [[Turin]], patented a [[Angelo Moriondo#First espresso machine|steam-driven "instantaneous" coffee beverage making device]] in 1884 (No. 33/256). The device is "almost certainly the first Italian bar machine that controlled the supply of steam and water separately through the coffee" and Moriondo is "certainly one of the earliest discoverers of the expresso {{sic}} machine, if not the earliest". He was granted patent no. 33/256 dated 16 May 1884 (according to the "Bollettino delle privative industriali del Regno d'Italia", 2nd Series, Volume 15, Year 1884, pp. 635 – 655).<ref>{{cite news|language=en|first=Ian|last=Bersten|url=https://coffeeandteaperceptionsandillusions.files.wordpress.com/2018/08/the-moriondo-patent-discovery-and-dr-sebastien-delprat-from-france-final-pdf.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190221165741/https://coffeeandteaperceptionsandillusions.files.wordpress.com/2018/08/the-moriondo-patent-discovery-and-dr-sebastien-delprat-from-france-final-pdf.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-02-21|title=The first Espresso machine - Angelo Moriondo}}</ref>{{sfn|Bersten|1993|page=105}} Unlike true espresso machines, it brewed in bulk, not as individual servings.
+| image2            = Espresso-machine-first-patent-angelo-moriondo.jpg
+| footer            = [[Angelo Moriondo]] and his 1884 patent
+}}
+Coffee arrived in Italy in the 16th century, and the first recorded coffee houses followed a century later. By the mid-19th century, coffee was drunk throughout Italy, as [[drip coffee]] in homes and as infused coffee in cafés. The drink's popularity expanded following the 1890s as economic depression ended, and businesses responded by working to make their brewing processes more efficient. This coincided with broader efforts by manufacturers across Europe that had been underway since the mid-19th century. These manufacturers were motivated to reduce wait times for café patrons, and wanted to produce machines that could brew coffee in large batches to be portioned later.{{Sfn|Morris|2010|pp=161–163}}<ref name="Stamp">{{cite web |last=Stamp |first=Jimmy |date=19 June 2012 |title=The Long History of the Espresso Machine |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/the-long-history-of-the-espresso-machine-126012814/ |access-date=13 July 2015 |publisher=Smithsonian}}</ref>
+One of these machines was created by [[Angelo Moriondo]], an inventor from [[Turin]]. In 1884, Moriondo patented a coffee machine that used steam to propel water through coffee grounds, which was "almost certainly the first Italian bar machine that controlled the supply of steam and water separately through the coffee". According to Bersten, this made Moriondo "certainly one of the earliest discoverers of the expresso machine, if not the earliest".<ref>{{cite news|language=en|first=Ian|last=Bersten|url=https://coffeeandteaperceptionsandillusions.files.wordpress.com/2018/08/the-moriondo-patent-discovery-and-dr-sebastien-delprat-from-france-final-pdf.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190221165741/https://coffeeandteaperceptionsandillusions.files.wordpress.com/2018/08/the-moriondo-patent-discovery-and-dr-sebastien-delprat-from-france-final-pdf.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-02-21|title=The first Espresso machine - Angelo Moriondo}}</ref>{{sfn|Bersten|1993|page=105}} Unlike the modern espresso machine, it brewed in bulk, rather than in individual servings.{{Sfn|Morris|2010|pp=161–163}}
+===Bezzera's invention===
+[[File:Bezzera & caffè espresso.jpg|thumb|350x350px|[[Luigi Bezzera]] at the 1906 World Fair Expo in Milan|left]]
+A machine that could brew individual servings came in the new century. In 1901, the inventor [[Luigi Bezzera]] of Milan filed a patent for his coffee maker. This machine contained a boiler, which when heated generated steam that would direct water through one of several heads, cooled on its path to a temperature considered more suitable for brewing. To the heads, a [[portafilter]] containing compressed coffee could be attached, producing coffee in individual portions, that is, 'expressly' for the customer.{{Sfn|Morris|2010|pp=163–164}}<ref name="Stamp" />
+In 1903, another Milanese man, Desiderio Pavoni, purchased Bezzera's patents. He modified the design by adding a mechanism to release pressure and in 1905 began to sell machines. These are generally held to be the first commercial espresso machines. Although early espresso machines could produce coffee at a rate of 1,000 an hour, the steam and high temperatures gave the drinks a black appearance and a burnt, bitter taste. The pressure they generated was around {{Convert|1.5|bar|lk=on}}, too little to produce a drink that would be considered espresso today, and they lacked the foam "crema". Shots were longer and took more time to pull—almost a minute, around twice that of the modern espresso.<ref name="Stamp" />{{Sfn|Morris|2010|pp=164–165}}
-[[File:Bezzera & caffè espresso.jpg|thumb|[[Luigi Bezzera]] and one of the first espresso machines at the World Expo 1906 in Milan, Italy]]
+{{Multiple images
-[[File:Bezzera Eagle 2 Coffee Maker.jpg|thumb|upright|Bezzera Eagle 2 Coffee Maker, presented at Central Cafe Budapest]]
+| image1            = Mumac - manometro.jpg
-Seventeen years later, in 1901, [[Luigi Bezzera]], from [[Milan]], devised and patented several improvements to the espresso machine, the first of which was applied for on 19 December 1901. Titled "Innovations in the machinery to prepare and immediately serve coffee beverage"; Patent No. 153/94, 61707, was granted on 5 June 1902. In 1903, the patent was bought by Desiderio Pavoni, who founded the La Pavoni company and began to produce the machine industrially, manufacturing one machine daily in a small workshop in Via Parini, Milan.<ref name="Stamp">{{cite web |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/the-long-history-of-the-espresso-machine-126012814/ |title=The Long History of the Espresso Machine |last=Stamp |first=Jimmy|date=19 June 2012 |publisher=Smithsonian |access-date=13 July 2015}}</ref>
+| image2            = Italian-American cafe espresso shop on MacDougal Street 8d21753v (cropped).jpg
+| direction         = vertical
+| header            = Early espresso machines
+| caption1          = Early 20th-century design. The pressure gauge goes to 3 [[Bar (unit)|bars]].
+| image3            = Macchina Gaggia.jpg
+| caption3          = Gaggia design, {{circa|1950}}
+| caption2          = [[Art Deco]] design, in an Italian-American cafe; New York, {{circa|1942}}
+| image4            = Faema E61 - 1961.jpg
+| caption4          = [[E-61|Faema E61]]
+}}
-===Spread===
+In 1906, Bezzera and Pavoni attended the World Fair Expo in Milan, selling their respective machines. During the following decade, the market for espresso was limited to Milan.<ref name="Stamp" /> This gradually expanded, helped by the popularity of American-style bars which permitted coffee served standing rather than sitting, and by World War I, when young Italian men who were given coffee as rations took up a daily habit. Still, for the first thirty years, few establishments could afford the expensive machines, and Pavoni and two other manufacturers—{{Ill|Victoria Arduino|fr}} in Turin and San Marco in Udine—produced most machines for the small Italian market, relying on exports across Europe to remain profitable.{{Sfn|Morris|2010|p=162, 164}}
-{{Refimprove section|date=January 2025}}
-A detailed discussion of the spread of espresso is given in {{Harv|Morris|2007}}. In Italy, the rise of espresso consumption was associated with [[Industrial society|industrialization]] and [[urbanization]], notably in Turin, Genoa, and Milan, in northwest Italy.{{Citation needed|date=November 2021}} Italians also spread [[Coffee culture|espresso culture]] into their [[East Africa]]n colonies, [[Italian Somalia]] and [[Italian Eritrea]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rogerblench.info/Writing/Postcards/Africa/Postcard%20from%20Eritrea.htm|title=Roger Blench: Postcard from Eritrea|website=RogerBlench.info|language=en|access-date=2021-11-16}}</ref>
-The third-wave coffee movement encompasses espresso machines as a broader coffee culture that values relationships with growers and importers and the craftsmanship involved in making specific coffee-based drinks. The mention of brands such as Synesso, La Marzocco, and Slayer, known for their top-notch equipment, highlights the differences between traditional espresso machines and super-automatic machines to achieve a complete coffee preparation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morris |first=Jonathan |date=18 August 2011 |title='Making Italian Espresso, Making Espresso Italian' |url=https://uhra.herts.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/2299/16547/jm2.pdf?sequence=2 |journal=Food and History |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=155–183|doi=10.1484/J.FOOD.1.102222 |hdl=2299/16547 }}</ref>
+The machine continued to develop over its first decades. Design shifted from one of austerity to opulence. With their [[Art Deco]] appearance, by the 1920s espresso machines were held out popularly in Italy to represent domestic modernity, a trend driven in part by the marketing efforts of Pier Teresio Arduino of Victoria Arduino. Machines also developed in other respects: they shrank, and their energy source moved from gas to electricity.{{Sfn|Morris|2010|p=164}}<ref name="Stamp" /> The uptake of coffee continued, peaking in 1929, and in the 1930s a culture of drinking espresso outside the home surpassed the earlier habit of drinking a basic coffee at home. After its peak, coffee consumption declined as [[Italian fascism|fascists]] banned luxury items, and the [[Great Depression]] impacted consumption. This culminated in 1941, when Italy lost [[Italian East Africa|its African territories]] and all imports of coffee were halted.{{Sfn|Morris|2010|pp=165–167}}
+===Achieving higher pressures===
+For decades, manufacturers endeavoured to produce a machine that could use higher pressures without the resulting coffee tasting burned. Arduino tried, unsuccessfully, to incorporate air pumps and screw pistons.<ref name="Stamp" /> In 1935 in [[Trieste]], {{Convert|400|mi|km}} east of Milan, [[Francesco Illy]] registered a patent for the Illetta, a machine that used compressed air rather than steam. Three years later in Milan, [[Gaggia|Achille Gaggia]] registered a patent to do the same, employing a hand-pulled, rotating piston.{{Sfn|Morris|2010|p=167}}
+In 1947, Gaggia further developed the piston mechanism. The new machines contained much smaller boilers, which generated steam to push water into a receptacle. These were a standardized size, producing a coffee of a standardized size. In the receptacle, a lever-operated piston containing gears and a spring further pressurized the water up to 12 atmospheres. This water was shot through a coffee puck, producing a foam ("crema") out of [[essential oil]]s and [[colloid]]s. Gaggia began selling these the following year, using advertising to emphasize the lack of steam and the presence of crema. For the latter, the drink was marketed under the name {{Lang|it|crema caffè}}. These are typically seen as the first modern espresso machines.{{Sfn|Morris|2010|p=168}}<ref name="Stamp" />
+Over the next decade, workshops in Milan continued to innovate new designs. One of these came from the {{Ill|La Cimbali|lt=Cimbali|it|Gruppo Cimbali}} company, which replaced springs with hydraulics. Like Gaggia, they attempted to market the coffee under a new name—this time, {{Lang|it|cimbalino}}. The major development came in 1961 by [[Carlo Ernesto Valente|Ernesto Valente]] with the invention of the ''[[E-61|Faema E61]]''. Valente had been the original manufacturer of Gaggia's 1948 machine, but their business agreement ended after disagreement over what market should be targeted: Gaggia saw espresso machines as a niche, expensive product for establishments that could afford them, while Valente saw an opportunity for a broad market with cheap machines.{{Sfn|Morris|2010|p=168}}<ref name="Stamp" />
+In the ''Faema E61'', operation was mechanized, using an on-off switch to control an electric pump that pressurized water to {{Convert|9|bar|lk=on}}. Water was drawn directly from the plumbing, pressurized, and sent through a copper pipe inside a boiler. As it travelled, the water was maintained at a temperature considered by the manufacturers to be ideal for brewing.<ref name="Stamp" />{{Sfn|Morris|2010|pp=168–170}} The new machine was cheap, with a "pop" design, and it came as much of Italy gained electricity for the first time. For the [[barista]], there was no longer a need to pause between espressos as the boiler came back to temperature, and the horizontal boiler permitted eye-level conversation with customers.{{Sfn|Morris|2010|pp=168–170}}
+Italians also spread [[Coffee culture|espresso culture]] into their [[East Africa]]n colonies, [[Italian Somalia]] and [[Italian Eritrea]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rogerblench.info/Writing/Postcards/Africa/Postcard%20from%20Eritrea.htm|title=Roger Blench: Postcard from Eritrea|website=RogerBlench.info|language=en|access-date=2021-11-16}}</ref>
 ==Characteristics==
+[[File:A_good_cappuccino_starts_with_a_perfect_espresso!!_(4441914182).jpg|thumb|340x340px|A layer of crema forms on top]]
 Espresso is generally thicker than coffee brewed by other methods, with a viscosity similar to that of warm honey. This is due to the higher concentration of [[Suspended solids|suspended]] and [[dissolved solids]] and the crema on top (a foam with a creamy consistency).<ref>Illy, "Il caffè e i cinque sensi" [http://www.illy.com/wps/wcm/connect/it/caffe/degustazione-caffe]: "La tazzina di porcellana bianca incornicia la crema: una trama sottile nei toni del nocciola, percorsa da leggere striature rossastre"</ref> As a result of the pressurized brewing process, the flavors and chemicals in a typical cup of espresso are very concentrated.
 Espresso contains more [[caffeine]] per unit volume than most coffee beverages, but as its usual serving size of 25–30 ml (1 US oz) is much smaller than other coffee drinks, the overall caffeine content of a single "serving" of espresso is generally lower than that of other coffees.<ref name="Mr. Coffee blog post">{{cite web|title=The Great Debate: Does Espresso or Drip Coffee Have More Caffeine?|url=http://www.mrcoffee.com/blog/archive/2014/october/the-great-debate%3A-does-espresso-or-drip-coffee-have-more-caffeine%3F.html|publisher=[[Mr. Coffee]]|date=24 October 2014|access-date=21 June 2015|archive-date=22 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522222417/https://www.mrcoffee.com/blog/archive/2014/october/the-great-debate:-does-espresso-or-drip-coffee-have-more-caffeine?.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> While the exact caffeine content of any coffee drink will vary, a typical {{convert|30|ml|USoz|0|abbr=off}} serving of espresso contains approximately 65 milligrams of caffeine, but a typical {{convert|240|ml|USoz|0|abbr=off}} serving of drip coffee contains 150–200&nbsp;mg of caffeine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/4291|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131124143904/http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/4291 |title=Show Foods|archive-date=24 November 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/caffeine/AN01211 How much caffeine is in your daily habit?]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/4290|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122090248/http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/4290 |title=Show Foods|archive-date=22 November 2013}}</ref>
-The three dispersed phases in espresso are what make the beverage unique. The first dispersed phase is an emulsion of oil droplets. The second phase is suspended solids, while the third is the layer of gas bubbles or foam. The dispersion of very small oil droplets is perceived in the mouth as creamy. This characteristic of espresso contributes to what is known as the body of the beverage. These oil droplets preserve some of the aromatic compounds that are lost to the air in other coffee forms, enhancing the strong flavor of espresso.{{sfn|Illy|Viani|2005}}
+Unlike other coffee drinks, an espresso contains three phases: an emulsion of oil droplets, suspended solids, and a layer of gas bubbles or foam. In the mouth, the dispersed oil droplets are perceived as creamy, and they contibute to what is known as the drink's "body". These droplets preserve some aromatic compounds that are lost to the air in other brewing methods.{{sfn|Illy|Viani|2005}}
-The crema is a layer of dense foam that forms on top of the drink.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Crema? |url=http://www.seattlecoffeegear.com/learn/coffee-101/articles/what-is-crema |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512211256/http://www.seattlecoffeegear.com/learn/coffee-101/articles/what-is-crema |archive-date=12 May 2013 |access-date=8 June 2013 |publisher=seattlecoffeegear}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Espresso Crema |date=7 October 2014 |url=http://www.chemistryviews.org/details/ezine/6372721/Espresso_Crema.html |access-date=8 October 2014 |publisher=ChemistryViews.org}}</ref> It consists of [[Emulsion|emulsified]] oils in the ground coffee turned into a [[colloid]], which does not occur in other brewing methods. Crema is produced when water placed under very high pressure dissolves more carbon dioxide, a gas present inside the coffee that is produced during the roasting process.<ref name="The World Atlas Of Coffee">{{Cite book|last=Hoffmann|first=James|author-link=James Hoffmann|title=The World Atlas of Coffee 2nd Edition|publisher=Mitchell Beazley|year=2018|isbn=978-1-78472-429-0|location=Great Britain|language=English}}</ref>{{rp|96}}
+The crema, a layer of dense foam that appears at the top of the drink, is unique to espresso.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Crema? |url=http://www.seattlecoffeegear.com/learn/coffee-101/articles/what-is-crema |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512211256/http://www.seattlecoffeegear.com/learn/coffee-101/articles/what-is-crema |archive-date=12 May 2013 |access-date=8 June 2013 |publisher=seattlecoffeegear}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Espresso Crema |date=7 October 2014 |url=http://www.chemistryviews.org/details/ezine/6372721/Espresso_Crema.html |access-date=8 October 2014 |publisher=ChemistryViews.org}}</ref> It is made up of [[Emulsion|emulsified]] oils in the ground coffee turned into a [[colloid]], which does not occur in other brewing methods. Crema is produced when water placed under very high pressure dissolves more carbon dioxide, a gas present inside the coffee that is produced during the roasting process.<ref name="The World Atlas Of Coffee">{{Cite book|last=Hoffmann|first=James|author-link=James Hoffmann|title=The World Atlas of Coffee 2nd Edition|publisher=Mitchell Beazley|year=2018|isbn=978-1-78472-429-0|location=Great Britain|language=English}}</ref>{{rp|96}}
-Espresso is served on its own, and is also used as the base for various other coffee drinks, including [[caffè latte]], [[cappuccino]], ''[[caffè macchiato]]'', ''[[caffè mocha]]'', [[flat white]], and [[Caffè americano|americano]].
 ==Process==
 [[File:linea doubleespresso.jpg|thumb|Espresso brewing]]
-[[File:Fine espresso.png|thumb|Finely ground coffee for espresso]]
+Espresso is made by forcing very hot water under high pressure through finely ground compacted coffee. There is no universal standard defining the process of extracting espresso,<ref>{{cite web|title=Today's Espresso Scene|url=http://www.home-barista.com/espresso-guide-todays-scene.html|publisher=Home Barista|access-date=29 April 2011}}</ref> but several institutions have published definitions that restrict the amount and type of ground coffee used, the temperature and pressure of the water, and the rate of extraction.<ref>{{cite web|title=Espresso Coffee|url=http://www.coffeeresearch.org/espresso/definitions.htm|publisher=Coffee Research Institute|access-date=29 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=L'Espresso Italiano Certificato|url=http://www.espressoitaliano.org/doc/EIC%20-%20Eng%20-%20LQ.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060609024348/http://www.espressoitaliano.org/doc/EIC%20-%20Eng%20-%20LQ.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-09 |url-status=live|publisher=Istituto Nazionale Espresso Italiano|access-date=29 April 2011}}</ref> Typically, an espresso is made using an [[espresso machine]].
-Espresso is made by forcing very hot water under high pressure through finely ground compacted coffee. There is no universal standard defining the process of extracting espresso,<ref>{{cite web|title=Today's Espresso Scene|url=http://www.home-barista.com/espresso-guide-todays-scene.html|publisher=Home Barista|access-date=29 April 2011}}</ref> but several published definitions attempt to constrain the amount and type of ground coffee used, the temperature and pressure of the water, and the rate of extraction.<ref>{{cite web|title=Espresso Coffee|url=http://www.coffeeresearch.org/espresso/definitions.htm|publisher=Coffee Research Institute|access-date=29 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=L'Espresso Italiano Certificato|url=http://www.espressoitaliano.org/doc/EIC%20-%20Eng%20-%20LQ.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060609024348/http://www.espressoitaliano.org/doc/EIC%20-%20Eng%20-%20LQ.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-09 |url-status=live|publisher=Istituto Nazionale Espresso Italiano|access-date=29 April 2011}}</ref> Generally, one uses an [[espresso machine]] to make espresso.
-The act of producing a shot of espresso is often called "pulling" a shot, originating from lever espresso machines, with which a [[barista]] pulls down a handle attached to a spring-loaded piston, which forces hot water through the coffee at high pressure. However, it is more common for an electric pump to generate the pressure.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davids |first=Kenneth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qYrWAAAAQBAJ&dq=Espresso+electric+pump&pg=PT52 |title=Espresso: Ultimate Coffee, Second Edition |date=2013-10-15 |publisher=St. Martin's Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-4668-5477-2 |language=en}}</ref>
-[[Coffee tamping|Tamping]] down the coffee promotes the water's even penetration through the grounds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coffeeresearch.org/espresso/tamping.htm |title=Espresso Tamping |publisher=CoffeeResearch.org |access-date=8 December 2013}}</ref> This process produces a thicker beverage by extracting both solid and dissolved components.
+The act of producing a shot of espresso is often called "pulling" a shot, originating from lever espresso machines, with which a [[barista]] pulls down a handle attached to a spring-loaded piston, which forces hot water through the coffee at high pressure. However, it is more common for an electric pump to generate the pressure.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davids |first=Kenneth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qYrWAAAAQBAJ&dq=Espresso+electric+pump&pg=PT52 |title=Espresso: Ultimate Coffee, Second Edition |date=2013-10-15 |publisher=St. Martin's Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-4668-5477-2 |language=en}}</ref>[[File:Fine espresso.png|thumb|162x162px|Finely ground coffee for espresso]][[Coffee tamping|Tamping]] down the coffee promotes the water's even penetration through the grounds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coffeeresearch.org/espresso/tamping.htm |title=Espresso Tamping |publisher=CoffeeResearch.org |access-date=8 December 2013}}</ref> This process produces a thicker beverage by extracting both solid and dissolved components.
 The technical parameters outlined by the Italian Espresso National Institute for making a "certified Italian espresso" are:<ref>{{cite web| title = Espresso Italiano Certificato| url = http://www.espressoitaliano.org/files/File/istituzionale_inei_hq_en.pdf| publisher = Istituto Nazionale Espresso Italiano| access-date = 15 February 2013}}</ref>
@@ Line 124: / Line 130: @@
 ===Variables===
 {{See also|Doppio|Ristretto|Lungo}}
-{{Refimprove section|date=January 2025}}
+[[File:Doppio ristretto Chiang Mai.jpg|thumb|upright|A double [[ristretto]], the first half of the shot in the bottom glass, the other half in the top glass.]]
-[[File:Doppio.jpg|thumb|Extracting a [[doppio]]]]
-[[File:Doppio ristretto Chiang Mai.jpg|thumb|A double [[ristretto]] with the first half of the shot in the glass at the bottom of the image, and the second half in the glass on the right]]
 The main variables in a shot of espresso are the "size" and "length".<ref name="hbbr">{{cite web|url=http://www.home-barista.com/tips/brewing-ratios-for-espresso-beverages-t2402.html|title=Brewing ratios for espresso beverages | website = Home-Barista.com|date=13 November 2006 }}</ref><ref name="gimmie">[https://web.archive.org/web/20091009163124/http://www.gimmecoffee.com/galleries/anatomy_of_a_triple_ristretto/ Anatomy of a Triple Ristretto by Jeremy Gauger, Gimme Coffee, 17 March 2009]</ref> This terminology is standardized, but the precise sizes and proportions vary substantially.
-Cafés may have a standardized shot (size and length), such as "triple [[ristretto]]",<ref name="gimmie" /> only varying the number of shots in espresso-based drinks such as lattes, but not changing the [[Espresso extraction|extraction]]. Changing between a double and a triple requires changing the filter basket size, while changing between ristretto, ''normale'', and [[lungo]] may require changing the grind.
+Cafés may have a standardized shot (size and length), such as "triple [[ristretto]]",<ref name="gimmie" /> only varying the number of shots in espresso-based drinks such as caffè latte, but not changing the [[Espresso extraction|extraction]].
-The size can be a single, double, or triple, using a proportional amount of ground coffee, roughly 7, 14, and 21&nbsp;grams; correspondingly sized filter baskets are used. The Italian [[Multiplier (linguistics)|multiplier]] term ''doppio'' is often used for a double, with ''solo'' and ''triplo'' being more rarely used for singles and triples. The single shot is the traditional shot size, being the maximum that could easily be pulled on a lever machine. Single baskets are sharply tapered or stepped down in diameter to provide comparable depth to the double baskets and, therefore, comparable resistance to water pressure. Most double baskets are gently tapered (the "Faema model"), while others, such as the La Marzocco, have straight sides. Triple baskets are normally straight-sided. Portafilters will often come with two spouts, usually closely spaced, and a double-size basket. Each spout can optionally dispense into a separate cup, yielding two ''solo''-size (but doppio-brewed) shots, or into a single cup (hence the close spacing). True ''solo'' shots are rare, with a single shot in a café generally being half of a doppio shot. In espresso-based drinks in America, particularly larger milk-based drinks, a drink with three or four shots of espresso will be called "triple" or "quad", respectively.{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}}
+The size can be a single, double, or triple, using a proportional amount of ground coffee, roughly 7, 14, and 21&nbsp;grams; correspondingly sized filter baskets are used. The Italian [[Multiplier (linguistics)|multiplier]] term ''doppio'' is often used for a double, with ''solo'' and ''triplo'' being more rarely used for singles and triples. The single shot is the traditional shot size, being the maximum that could easily be pulled on a lever machine. Single baskets are sharply tapered or stepped down in diameter to provide comparable depth to the double baskets and, therefore, comparable resistance to water pressure. Most double baskets are gently tapered (the "Faema model"), while others, such as the La Marzocco, have straight sides.[[File:Doppio.jpg|thumb|Extracting a [[doppio]]|left]]
+Triple baskets are normally straight-sided. Portafilters will often come with two spouts, usually closely spaced, and a double-size basket. Each spout can optionally dispense into a separate cup, yielding two ''solo''-size (but doppio-brewed) shots, or into a single cup (hence the close spacing). True ''solo'' shots are rare, with a single shot in a café generally being half of a doppio shot. In espresso-based drinks in America, particularly larger milk-based drinks, a drink with three or four shots of espresso will be called "triple" or "quad", respectively.
 The length of the shot can be ristretto (or ''stretto'') (reduced), ''normale'' or standard (normal), or lungo (long):<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/08/07/travel/fare-of-the-country-in-italy-espresso-is-the-elixir-of-life.html|title=Fare of the Country: In Italy, Espresso is the Elixir of Life|last=Hofmann|first=Paul|work=The New York Times |date=7 August 1983|access-date=25 March 2018|language=en}}</ref> these may correspond to a smaller or larger drink with the same amount of ground coffee and same level of extraction or to different length of extraction. Proportions vary, and the volume (and low density) of crema makes volume-based comparisons difficult (precise measurement uses the mass of the drink). Typically, ristretto is half the volume of ''normale'', and lungo is double to triple the ''normale'' volume. For a double shot (14 grams of dry coffee), a ''normale'' uses about 60 ml of water. A double ristretto, a common form associated with espresso, uses half the amount of water, about 30 ml. Ristretto, ''normale'', and lungo may not simply be the same shot stopped at different times (which could result in an under- or over-extracted shot), but have the grind adjusted (finer for ristretto, coarser for lungo) to achieve the target volume.<ref name="The World Atlas Of Coffee" />{{rp|103}} A significantly longer shot is the ''[[caffè crema]]'', which is longer than a lungo, ranging in size from {{convert|120|-|240|ml|impoz USoz|abbr=on}}, and brewed in the same way, with a coarser grind. Passing too much water through the ground coffee can add other, potentially unpleasant flavors to the espresso.<ref name="The World Atlas Of Coffee" />{{rp|99}}
@@ Line 138: / Line 143: @@
 ===Machines===
 {{Main|Espresso machine}}
-{{Refimprove section|date=January 2025}}
+{{Multiple image
-[[File:Victoria Arduino - Athena Leva-edit.jpg|thumb|A manual Italian handmade espresso machine]]
+| image1            = EspressoMachine 20200223 151208.jpg
-[[File:EspressoMachine 20200223 151208.jpg|thumb|An automatic Italian handmade espresso machine]]
+| image2            = Victoria Arduino - Athena Leva.jpg
+| direction         = horizontal
+| footer            = Handmade Italian espresso machines, automatic and manual
+| total_width       = 500
+}}
+Home [[espresso machine]]s have increased in popularity with the general rise of interest in espresso. Today, a wide range of home espresso equipment can be found in kitchen and appliance stores, online vendors, and department stores. The first espresso machine for home use was the [[Gaggia]] Gilda.{{sfn|Bersten|1993|page=131}} Soon afterwards, similar machines such as the Faema Faemina, FE-AR La Peppina, and VAM Caravel followed suit, with similar form factors and operational principles.{{sfn|Bersten|1993|pages=132-133}}
-Home [[espresso machine]]s have increased in popularity with the general rise of interest in espresso. Today, a wide range of home espresso equipment can be found in kitchen and appliance stores, online vendors, and department stores. The first espresso machine for home use was the [[Gaggia]] Gilda.{{sfn|Bersten|1993|page=131}} Soon afterwards, similar machines such as the Faema Faemina, FE-AR La Peppina, and VAM Caravel followed suit, with similar form factors and operational principles.{{sfn|Bersten|1993|pages=132-133}} These machines still have a small but dedicated share of fans. Until the advent of the first small electrical pump-based espresso machines, such as the Gaggia Baby and Quickmill 810, home espresso machines were not widely adopted. In recent years, the increased availability of convenient countertop fully automatic home espresso makers and pod-based espresso serving systems has increased the quantity of espresso consumed at home. The popularity of home espresso making parallels the increase of [[Home roasting coffee|home coffee roasting]]. Some amateurs pursue both home roasting coffee and making espresso.{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}}
+These machines still have a small but dedicated share of fans. Until the advent of the first small electrical pump-based espresso machines, such as the Gaggia Baby and Quickmill 810, home espresso machines were not widely adopted. In recent years, the increased availability of convenient countertop fully automatic home espresso makers and pod-based espresso serving systems has increased the quantity of espresso consumed at home. The popularity of home espresso making parallels the increase of [[Home roasting coffee|home coffee roasting]]. Some amateurs pursue both home roasting coffee and making espresso.
+==Nutrition==
+{{Infobox nutritional value
+| name = Coffee, brewed, espresso, restaurant-prepared
+| kJ = 8.4
+| carbs = 0.
+| fat = 0.2
+| protein = 0.1
+| magnesium_mg = 80
+| riboflavin_mg = 0.2
+| niacin_mg = 5.2
+| water = 97.8 g
+| opt1n = Theobromine
+| opt1v = 0 mg
+| opt2n = Caffeine
+| opt2v = 212 mg
+| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/171891/nutrients Link to Full USDA Nutrient Report]
+}}
+In a 100 ml (grams, 3.5 oz) reference amount, espresso has significant levels of [[dietary mineral]], [[magnesium]], [[B vitamins]], [[Niacin (nutrient)|niacin]], and [[riboflavin]], and around 212&nbsp;mg of caffeine per 100 grams of liquid brewed coffee (table).<ref>{{cite news |author=Jacqueline Leeflang |author2=Lisa Hunter |title=Espresso Coffee Nutrients |url=https://nutrivore.com/foods/espresso-coffee-nutrients/ |work=Nutrivore.com}}</ref>
 ==Espresso-based drinks==
 {{Main|List of coffee drinks#Espresso}}
-In addition to being served alone, espresso is frequently blended, notably with [[milk]], either [[Steaming|steamed]] (without significant [[foam]]), wet foamed ([[microfoam]]) and dry foamed, or with hot water.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The art and craft of coffee: an enthusiast's guide to selecting, roasting, and brewing exquisite coffee|last=Kevin|first=Sinnott|year=2010|publisher=Quarry Books|isbn=9781592535637|location=Beverly, Mass.|page=160|oclc=437298903}}</ref>
-{| class="wikitable"
+When it is not served by itself, espresso is frequently blended, often with milk—[[Steaming|steamed]] (without significant [[foam]]), wet foamed ([[microfoam]]) and dry foamed—or hot water.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The art and craft of coffee: an enthusiast's guide to selecting, roasting, and brewing exquisite coffee|last=Kevin|first=Sinnott|year=2010|publisher=Quarry Books|isbn=9781592535637|location=Beverly, Mass.|page=160|oclc=437298903}}</ref> Several are listed below; for reference, espresso typically has a volume between {{convert|25|-|30|ml|USoz|abbr=on}}.
+{| class="wikitable col2center"
 |-
+!
 ! Type
-! Drink volume
+! width=130px | Drink volume <br> ml (US fl oz)
 ! Notes
 |-
-| Espresso
+| [[File:Ristretto - by Charles Haynes.jpg|130px]]
-| {{convert|25|-|30|ml|USoz|abbr=on}}
-| The basic drink from which other milk and non-milk coffee drinks are based.
-|-
 | [[Ristretto]]
-| {{convert|20|ml|USoz|abbr=on}}
+| {{convert|20|ml|USoz|abbr=values}}
-| Condensed espresso to approximately 20 ml.
+| Espresso concentrated to approximately 20 ml.
 |-
+| [[File:Macchiato (7199366530).jpg|130px]]
 | [[Caffè macchiato|Macchiato]]
-| {{convert|30|-|40|ml|USoz|abbr=on}}
+| {{convert|30|-|40|ml|USoz|abbr=values}}
-| Macchiato means 'spot' or 'stain' in Italian. According to the classic Italian method, a spoonful of milk foam is added to the espresso, according to the modern method, it is filled to the edge of the cup with microfoam.
+| In the classic Italian method of making macchiato (meaning 'spot' or 'stain'), a spoonful of milk foam is added to espresso. In the modern method, the cup is filled to the edge with microfoam.
 |-
+| [[File:Carajillo en Duralex Cigogne.jpg|130px]]
 | [[Lungo]]
-| {{convert|60|ml|USoz|abbr=on}}
+| {{convert|60|ml|USoz|abbr=values}}
-| Espresso pulled with double the amount of water.
+| Espresso pulled with twice as much water.
 |-
+| [[File:Espresso Americano.jpeg|130px]]
 | [[Caffè americano|Americano]]
-| {{convert|150|-|180|ml|USoz|abbr=on}}
+| {{convert|150|-|180|ml|USoz|abbr=values}}
 | Espresso topped up with hot water in a ratio of 1:5.
 |-
+| [[File:Nero Espresso long black (3168418775).jpg|130px]]
 | [[Long black]]
-| {{convert|150|-|180|ml|USoz|abbr=on}}
+| {{convert|150|-|180|ml|USoz|abbr=values}}
-| Similar to an americano, but on the contrary, the espresso is poured into the hot water.<ref>{{cite web |title=How To Make the Perfect Long Black Coffee |url=https://www.leafbeanmachine.com.au/how-to-make-the-perfect-karvan-long-black/ |website=Leaf Bean Machine |date=10 December 2022}}</ref>
+| Like americano, but the espresso is poured into the hot water.<ref>{{cite web |title=How To Make the Perfect Long Black Coffee |url=https://www.leafbeanmachine.com.au/how-to-make-the-perfect-karvan-long-black/ |website=Leaf Bean Machine |date=10 December 2022}}</ref>
 |-
+| [[File:Cappuccino at Sightglass Coffee.jpg|130px]]
 | [[Cappuccino]]
-| {{convert|150|-|180|ml|USoz|abbr=on}}
+| {{convert|150|-|180|ml|USoz|abbr=values}}
-| It is prepared as an espresso with a large amount of milk and milk foam. [[Latte art]] technique is often painted into the drink.
+| An espresso with a large amount of milk and milk foam. [[Latte art]] technique is used.
 |-
+| [[File:Coffee with milk (563800) (cropped).jpg|130x130px]]
 | [[Latte|Caffè latte]]
-| {{convert|250|-|280|ml|USoz|abbr=on}}
+| {{convert|250|-|280|ml|USoz|abbr=values}}
 | At least 210 g of lightly whipped milk with foam at a temperature of 58–70&nbsp;°C is poured into the espresso.
 |-
+| [[File:Latte macchiato.jpg|130px]]
 | ''[[Latte macchiato]]''
-| {{convert|250|ml|USoz|abbr=on}}
+| {{convert|250|ml|USoz|abbr=values}}
-| Milk and milk foam are poured into a tall glass, which is left to stand for at least half a minute, then one shot of espresso is poured into it, creating three colored layers.
+| Milk and milk foam are poured into a tall glass, which is left to stand for at least half a minute, then a shot of espresso is poured in, creating three colored layers.
-|-
 |}
+[[File:Mocha coffee.jpg|thumb|''[[Caffè mocha]]'']]
-<gallery perrow=4>
+Other variants include:
-File:Ristretto - by Charles Haynes.jpg|Ristretto
-File:Macchiato (7199366530).jpg|Macchiato
-File:Carajillo en Duralex Cigogne.jpg|Lungo
-File:Espresso Americano.jpeg|Americano
-File:Nero Espresso long black (3168418775).jpg|Long black
-File:Cappuccino at Sightglass Coffee.jpg|Cappuccino
-File:Coffee with milk (563800).jpg|Preparation of caffè latte
-File:Latte macchiato with coffee beans.jpg|''Latte macchiato''
-</gallery>
-Other variants:
 * ''[[Caffè crema]]'': "long" espresso from more water and coarser ground coffee, approximately 120–180 ml
 * ''[[Espresso con panna]]'': espresso with cream
@@ Line 216: / Line 240: @@
 {{Portal|Italy|Drink|Coffee}}
 * [[List of coffee drinks]]
-* [[Caffeinated drink]] – type of drink
+* [[Caffeinated drink]]
 * ''[[Caffè macchiato]]''
-* [[Doppio]]
-* [[Lungo]]
+==Notes==
-* [[Ristretto]]
+{{Notelist}}
 ==References==
 {{Reflist}}
-===Works cited===
+==Works cited==
+* {{Cite book |last1=Illy |first1=Francesco |author-link=Francesco Illy |last2=Illy |first2=Riccardo |title=The Book of Coffee |year=1992 |publisher=Abbeville Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-55859-321-3 |edition=1st American}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Bersten |first=Ian |title=Coffee Floats Tea Sinks: Through History and Technology to a Complete Understanding |year=1993 |publisher=Helian Books |isbn= 0-646-09180-8 }}
 * {{Cite book |last=Burchfield |first=R. W. |author-link=Robert Burchfield |title=Fowler's Modern English Usage |edition=third |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-869126-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/newfowlersmodern00fowl }}
 * {{cite book | last= Garner | first= Bryan | title= The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style | year= 2000| location= New York | publisher= Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-513508-4 }}
 * {{Cite book |last1=Illy |first1=Andrea |author-link=Andrea Illy |last2=Viani |first2=Rinantonio |title=Espresso: The Science of Quality |year=2005 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=0-12-370371-9}}
-* {{Cite book |last1=Illy |first1=Francesco |author-link=Francesco Illy |last2=Illy |first2=Riccardo |title=The Book of Coffee |year=1992 |publisher=Abbeville Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-55859-321-3 |edition=1st American}}
 * {{Cite web |title=The Cappuccino Conquests: The Transnational History of Italian Coffee |first=Jonathan |last=Morris |url=https://www.academia.edu/379110 |work=Academia.org |publisher=[[University of Hertfordshire]] |year=2007 }}
+* {{Cite journal |last=Morris |first=Jonathan |date=Jan 2010 |title=Making Italian Espresso, Making Espresso Italian |journal=[[Food & History]] |volume=8 |issue=2 |doi=10.1484/J.FOOD.1.102222 |doi-access=free}}
 ==Further reading==
-* {{Cite book|last=Davids|first=Kenneth|title=Coffee: A Guide to Buying, Brewing, and Enjoying|year=2013|edition=5|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-1466854420}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Fumagalli |first=Ambrogio |title=Coffee Makers |year=1995 |publisher=Chronicle Books |isbn=0-8118-1082-8 }}
 * Schomer, David C. ''Espresso Coffee: Professional Techniques''. 1996.
+* {{Cite book|last=Davids|first=Kenneth|title=Coffee: A Guide to Buying, Brewing, and Enjoying|year=2013|edition=5|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-1466854420}}
 ==External links==
-*{{Commons category-inline}}
+{{Commons category}}
-*{{Wiktionary-inline|espresso}}
+{{Wiktionary|espresso}}
+* [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLxz0FjZMVOl3MuAzK5l3gjakoOGrmK8fP Understanding Espresso series] by [[James Hoffmann]]
 {{Coffee|nocat=1}}

Espresso: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 15:52, 16 November 2025

Etymology and spelling

History

Early history

Bezzera's invention

Achieving higher pressures

Characteristics

Process

Roasts

Variables

Machines

Nutrition

Espresso-based drinks

See also

Notes

References

Works cited

Further reading

External links

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