Azadirachta indica: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Species of plant}}
{{Short description|Species of plant}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2025}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=3}}
{{Speciesbox
{{Speciesbox
| name = Neem
| name = Neem
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| status = LC
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Barstow, M. |author2=Deepu, S. |date=2018 |title=''Azadirachta indica'' |volume=2018 |page=e.T61793521A61793525 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T61793521A61793525.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Barstow, M. |author2=Deepu, S. |date=2018 |title=''Azadirachta indica'' |volume=2018 |article-number=e.T61793521A61793525 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T61793521A61793525.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Azadirachta
| genus = Azadirachta
| species = indica
| species = indica
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==Description==
==Description==
{{More citations needed|section|date=May 2019}}
{{More citations needed|section|date=May 2019}}
Margosa is a fast-growing [[tree]] that can reach a height of {{convert|15|–|20|m|ft}}, and rarely {{convert|35|–|40|m|ft|abbr=on}}. It is [[evergreen]], shedding many of its leaves during the dry winter months. The branches are wide and spreading. The fairly dense crown is roundish and may reach a diameter of {{convert|20|–|25|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The opposite, [[pinnate]] leaves are {{convert|20|-|40|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, with 20 to 30 medium to dark green leaflets about {{convert|3|–|8|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} long.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Neem {{!}} Azadirachta indica |url=https://pfaf.org/plants/neem-azadirachta-indica/ |access-date=25 October 2023 |website=Plants For A Future|date=8 January 2018 }}</ref> The terminal leaflet often is missing. The [[Petiole (botany)|petiole]]s are short.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Factsheet - Azadirachta indica (Neem) |url=https://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/weeds/key/weeds/Media/Html/Azadirachta_indica_(Neem).htm |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=keys.lucidcentral.org}}</ref>
The neem tree is a fast-growing [[tree]] that can reach a height of {{convert|15|–|20|m|ft}}, and rarely {{convert|35|–|40|m|ft|abbr=on}}. It is [[evergreen]], shedding many of its leaves during the dry winter months. The branches are wide and spreading. The fairly dense crown is roundish and may reach a diameter of {{convert|20|–|25|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The opposite, [[pinnate]] leaves are {{convert|20|-|40|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, with 20 to 30 medium to dark green leaflets about {{convert|3|–|8|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} long.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Neem {{!}} Azadirachta indica |url=https://pfaf.org/plants/neem-azadirachta-indica/ |access-date=25 October 2023 |website=Plants For A Future|date=8 January 2018 }}</ref> The terminal leaflet often is missing. The [[Petiole (botany)|petiole]]s are short.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Factsheet - Azadirachta indica (Neem) |url=https://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/weeds/key/weeds/Media/Html/Azadirachta_indica_(Neem).htm |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=keys.lucidcentral.org}}</ref>


White and fragrant [[flower]]s are arranged in more-or-less drooping [[Axillary bud|axillary]] [[panicle]]s which are up to {{convert|25|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long. The [[inflorescence]]s, which branch up to the third degree, bear from 250 to 300 flowers. An individual flower is {{convert|5|–|6|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|8|–|11|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} wide. [[Protantrism|Protandrous]], bisexual flowers and male flowers exist on the same individual tree.
White and fragrant [[flower]]s are arranged in more-or-less drooping [[Axillary bud|axillary]] [[panicle]]s which are up to {{convert|25|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long. The [[inflorescence]]s, which branch up to the third degree, bear from 250 to 300 flowers. An individual flower is {{convert|5|–|6|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|8|–|11|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} wide. [[Protantrism|Protandrous]], bisexual flowers and male flowers exist on the same individual tree.
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The [[fruit]] is a smooth ([[Glossary of botanical terms#glabrous|glabrous]]), olive-like [[drupe]] which varies in shape from elongate oval to nearly roundish, and when ripe is {{convert|14|-|28|mm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} by {{convert|10|-|15|mm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}}. The fruit skin (exocarp) is thin and the bitter-sweet pulp (mesocarp) is yellowish-white and very fibrous. The mesocarp is {{convert|3|-|5|mm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} thick. The white, hard inner shell (endocarp) of the fruit encloses one, rarely two, or three, elongated [[seed]]s (kernels) having a brown seed coat.
The [[fruit]] is a smooth ([[Glossary of botanical terms#glabrous|glabrous]]), olive-like [[drupe]] which varies in shape from elongate oval to nearly roundish, and when ripe is {{convert|14|-|28|mm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} by {{convert|10|-|15|mm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}}. The fruit skin (exocarp) is thin and the bitter-sweet pulp (mesocarp) is yellowish-white and very fibrous. The mesocarp is {{convert|3|-|5|mm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} thick. The white, hard inner shell (endocarp) of the fruit encloses one, rarely two, or three, elongated [[seed]]s (kernels) having a brown seed coat.
[[File:Azadirachta-indica-2019-5-3 14-14-55-01.jpg|thumb|Pollen grains]]
[[File:Azadirachta-indica-2019-5-3 14-14-55-01.jpg|thumb|Pollen grains]]
The margosa tree<ref>{{Cite web |last=saikia |first=Curtingle |date=2023-01-02 |title=How to Use Neem- Uses and benefits - prakasti.com |url=https://prakasti.com/how-to-use-neem-uses-and-benefits/ |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=Prakasti |language=en-US}}</ref> is similar in appearance to its relative, the chinaberry or bakain, ''[[Melia azedarach]]'',<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234651/ |title = The Tree|publisher = National Academies Press (US)|year = 1992}}</ref> with which it may be confused. ''Melia azedarach'' also has toothed leaflets and similar looking fruit. One difference is that margosa leaves are [[Pinnation|pinnate]] but chinaberry leaves are [[Pinnation#Iteration of divisions|twice- and thrice-pinnate]].
The neem tree<ref>{{Cite web |last=saikia |first=Curtingle |date=2023-01-02 |title=How to Use Neem- Uses and benefits - prakasti.com |url=https://prakasti.com/how-to-use-neem-uses-and-benefits/ |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=Prakasti |language=en-US}}</ref> is similar in appearance to its relative, the chinaberry or bakain, ''[[Melia azedarach]]'',<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234651/ |title = The Tree|publisher = National Academies Press (US)|year = 1992}}</ref> with which it may be confused. ''Melia azedarach'' also has toothed leaflets and similar looking fruit. One difference is that neem leaves are [[Pinnation|pinnate]] but chinaberry leaves are [[Pinnation#Iteration of divisions|twice- and thrice-pinnate]].


==Taxonomy==
==Taxonomy==
The name ''Azadirachta indica'' was first published by [[Adrien-Henri de Jussieu]] in 1830.<ref name="IPNI_1213180-2">{{cite web |title=''Azadirachta indica'' A.Juss.. |work=[[International Plant Names Index|The International Plant Names Index]] |url=https://www.ipni.org/n/1213180-2 |access-date=2023-03-26 }}</ref> In 1753, [[Carl Linnaeus]] had described two species, ''[[Melia azedarach]]'' and ''Melia azadirachta''.<ref name=Linn53>{{Citation |last1=Linnaeus |first1=C. |date=1753 |contribution=Melia |title=Species Plantarum |volume=1 |pages=384–385 |publication-place=Stockholm |publisher=Laurentius Salvius |contribution-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/358403 |access-date=2023-03-26  }}</ref> De Jussieu considered ''Melia azadirachta'' to be sufficiently different from ''Melia azedarach'' to be placed in a new genus.<ref name=DeJu30>{{Cite journal |last1=de Jussieu |first1=A. |date=1830 |title=Mémoire sur le groupe des Méliacées |journal=Mémoires du Muséum d'histoire naturelle |volume=19 |pages=153–304 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/26229796 |access-date=2023-03-26 }} [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/26229866 p. 221]</ref> For both his species, Linnaeus referred to the name 'azedarach',<ref name=Linn53/> which is derived from the French 'azédarac', which in turn is from the Persian 'āzād dirakht' (ازادرخت), meaning 'free or noble tree'.<ref>{{cite web |title=azedarach |work=Merriam-Webster Dictionary |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/azedarach |access-date=2023-03-26}}</ref> The Persian name of the tree, ''azad darakhat-e-hind'', meaning 'the free tree of India'', implies that it is free from disease and insect problems.<ref name="IndianNameReference">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PyYRUCoIDk4C|title=Neem A Treatise|publisher= I.K. International Publishing House, India|editor=K. K. Singh|year=2009|page=3|isbn=9788189866006}}</ref>
The name ''Azadirachta indica'' was first published by [[Adrien-Henri de Jussieu]] in 1830.<ref name="IPNI_1213180-2">{{cite web |title=''Azadirachta indica'' A.Juss.. |work=[[International Plant Names Index|The International Plant Names Index]] |url=https://www.ipni.org/n/1213180-2 |access-date=2023-03-26 }}</ref> In 1753, [[Carl Linnaeus]] had described two species, ''[[Melia azedarach]]'' and ''Melia azadirachta''.<ref name=Linn53>{{Citation |last1=Linnaeus |first1=C. |date=1753 |contribution=Melia |title=Species Plantarum |volume=1 |pages=384–385 |publication-place=Stockholm |publisher=Laurentius Salvius |contribution-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/358403 |access-date=2023-03-26  }}</ref> De Jussieu considered ''Melia azadirachta'' to be sufficiently different from ''Melia azedarach'' to be placed in a new genus.<ref name=DeJu30>{{Cite journal |last1=de Jussieu |first1=A. |date=1830 |title=Mémoire sur le groupe des Méliacées |journal=Mémoires du Muséum d'histoire naturelle |volume=19 |pages=153–304 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/26229796 |access-date=2023-03-26 }} [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/26229866 p. 221]</ref> For both his species, Linnaeus referred to the name 'azedarach',<ref name=Linn53/> which is derived from the French 'azédarac', which in turn is from the Persian 'āzād dirakht' (ازادرخت), meaning 'free or noble tree'.<ref>{{cite web |title=azedarach |work=Merriam-Webster Dictionary |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/azedarach |access-date=2023-03-26}}</ref> The Persian name of the tree, ''azad darakhat-e-hind'', meaning 'the free tree of India', implies that it is free from disease and insect problems.<ref name="IndianNameReference">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PyYRUCoIDk4C|title=Neem A Treatise|publisher= I.K. International Publishing House, India|editor=K. K. Singh|year=2009|page=3|isbn=978-81-89866-00-6}}</ref>


==Distribution==
==Distribution==
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==Ecology==
==Ecology==
The margosa tree is noted for its [[drought resistance]]. Normally, it thrives in areas with sub-arid to sub-humid conditions, with an annual rainfall of {{convert|400|-|1200|mm|in|0|abbr=on}}. It can grow in regions with an annual rainfall below 400&nbsp;mm, but in such cases it depends largely on [[ground water]] levels. Margosa can grow in many different types of [[soil]], but it thrives best on well-drained deep and sandy soils. It is a typical tropical to subtropical tree and exists at annual mean temperatures of {{convert|21|-|32|C|F}}. It can tolerate high to very high temperatures and does not tolerate temperature below {{convert|5|C|F}}. Margosa is one of very few shade-giving trees that thrive in drought-prone areas such as the dry coastal, southern districts of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. The trees are not at all delicate about water quality and thrive on the merest trickle of water, whatever the quality. In India and tropical countries where the [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian diaspora]] has reached, it is very common to see margosa trees used for shade lining streets, around temples, schools and other such public buildings or in most people's backyards. In very dry areas, the trees are planted on large tracts of land.
The neem tree is noted for its [[drought resistance]]. Normally, it thrives in areas with sub-arid to sub-humid conditions, with an annual rainfall of {{convert|400|-|1200|mm|in|0|abbr=on}}. It can grow in regions with an annual rainfall below 400&nbsp;mm, but in such cases it depends largely on [[ground water]] levels. Margosa can grow in many different types of [[soil]], but it thrives best on well-drained deep and sandy soils. It is a typical tropical to subtropical tree and exists at annual mean temperatures of {{convert|21|-|32|C|F}}. It can tolerate high to very high temperatures and does not tolerate temperature below {{convert|5|C|F}}. Neem is one of very few shade-giving trees that thrive in drought-prone areas such as the dry coastal, southern districts of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. The trees are not at all delicate about water quality and thrive on the merest trickle of water, whatever the quality. In India and tropical countries where the [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian diaspora]] has reached, it is very common to see neem trees used for shade lining streets, around temples, schools and other such public buildings or in most people's backyards. In very dry areas, the trees are planted on large tracts of land.


===Weed status===
===Weed status===
Margosa is considered as a [[weed]] in many areas, including some parts of the [[Middle East]], most of Sub-[[Sahara]]n [[Africa]] including [[West Africa]] and [[Indian Ocean]] states, and some parts of [[Australia]]. Ecologically, it survives well in similar environments to its own, but its weed potential has not been fully assessed.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/63168/IPA-Neem-Tree-Risk-Assessment.pdf |title=Plant Risk Assessment, Neem Tree, ''Azadirachta indica'' | year=2008 |access-date=24 January 2014 |publisher=Biosecurity Queensland}}</ref>
Neem is considered a [[weed]] in many areas, including some parts of the [[Middle East]], most of Sub-[[Sahara]]n [[Africa]] including [[West Africa]] and [[Indian Ocean]] states, and some parts of [[Australia]]. Its weed potential has not been fully assessed.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/63168/IPA-Neem-Tree-Risk-Assessment.pdf |title=Plant Risk Assessment, Neem Tree, ''Azadirachta indica'' | year=2008 |access-date=24 January 2014 |publisher=Biosecurity Queensland}}</ref>


In April 2015, ''A. indica'' was declared a class B and C weed in the [[Northern Territory]], [[Australia]], meaning its growth and spread must be controlled and plants or propagules are not allowed to be brought into the territory. It is illegal to buy, sell, or transport the plants or seeds. Its declaration as a weed came in response to its invasion of waterways in the "[[Top End]]" of the territory.<ref>{{citation|url=http://lrm.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/353104/Neem-declaration_Q-and-A_page-1.pdf |title=Neem has been declared: what you need to know |year=2015 |access-date=17 March 2015 |publisher=Department of Land Resource Management |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324041536/http://lrm.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/353104/Neem-declaration_Q-and-A_page-1.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2015 }}</ref>
In April 2015, ''A. indica'' was declared a class B and C weed in the [[Northern Territory]], [[Australia]], meaning its growth and spread must be controlled and plants or propagules are not allowed to be brought into the territory. It is illegal to buy, sell, or transport the plants or seeds. Its declaration as a weed came in response to its invasion of waterways in the "[[Top End]]" of the territory.<ref>{{citation|url=http://lrm.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/353104/Neem-declaration_Q-and-A_page-1.pdf |title=Neem has been declared: what you need to know |year=2015 |access-date=17 March 2015 |publisher=Department of Land Resource Management |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324041536/http://lrm.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/353104/Neem-declaration_Q-and-A_page-1.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2015 }}</ref>


After being introduced into Australia, possibly in the 1940s, ''A. indica'' was originally planted in the [[Northern Territory]] to provide shade for cattle. Trial plantations were established between the 1960s and 1980s in [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], [[Queensland]], and [[Western Australia]], but the Australian margosa industry did not prove viable. The tree has now spread into the savanna, particularly around waterways, and naturalised populations exist in several areas.<ref>{{citation|url=http://lrm.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/353108/Weed-Note-Neem-2014.pdf |title=''Neem'' Azadirachta indica |year=2015 |access-date=17 March 2015 |publisher=Department of Land Resource Management |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324041528/http://lrm.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/353108/Weed-Note-Neem-2014.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2015 }}</ref>
After being introduced into Australia, possibly in the 1940s, ''A. indica'' was originally planted in the [[Northern Territory]] to provide shade for cattle. Trial plantations were established between the 1960s and 1980s in [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], [[Queensland]], and [[Western Australia]], but the Australian neem industry did not prove viable. The tree has now spread into the savanna, particularly around waterways, and naturalised populations exist in several areas.<ref>{{citation|url=http://lrm.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/353108/Weed-Note-Neem-2014.pdf |title=''Neem'' Azadirachta indica |year=2015 |access-date=17 March 2015 |publisher=Department of Land Resource Management |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324041528/http://lrm.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/353108/Weed-Note-Neem-2014.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2015 }}</ref>


==Phytochemicals==
==Phytochemicals==
Margosa fruit, seeds, leaves, stems, and [[bark (botany)|bark]] contain diverse [[phytochemical]]s, some of which were first discovered in azadirachta seed [[extract]]s, such as [[azadirachtin]] established in the 1960s as an insect [[antifeedant]], growth disruptor, and [[insecticide]].<ref name=drugs/><ref name=bbc.co.uk/> The yield of azadirachtin from crushing 2&nbsp;kg of seeds is about 5 g.<ref name=drugs/>
Neem fruit, seeds, leaves, stems, and [[bark (botany)|bark]] contain diverse [[phytochemical]]s, some of which were first discovered in azadirachta seed [[extract]]s, such as [[azadirachtin]] established in the 1960s as an insect [[antifeedant]], growth disruptor, and [[insecticide]].<ref name=drugs/><ref name=bbc.co.uk/> The yield of azadirachtin from crushing 2&nbsp;kg of seeds is about 5 g.<ref name=drugs/>


In addition to azadirachtin and related [[limonoid]]s, the seed oil contains [[glyceride]]s, diverse [[polyphenol]]s, nimbolide, [[triterpene]]s, and [[beta-sitosterol]].<ref name=drugs/><ref name="pubchem">{{cite web |title=Nimbolide |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/12313376 |publisher=PubChem, US National Library of Medicine |access-date=10 March 2021 |date=6 March 2021}}</ref> The yellow, bitter oil has a [[garlic]]-like odor and contains about 2% of limonoid compounds.<ref name=drugs/> The leaves contain [[quercetin]], [[catechin]]s, [[carotene]]s, and [[vitamin C]].<ref name=drugs/>
In addition to azadirachtin and related [[limonoid]]s, the seed oil contains [[glyceride]]s, diverse [[polyphenol]]s, nimbolide, [[triterpene]]s, and [[beta-sitosterol]].<ref name=drugs/><ref name="pubchem">{{cite web |title=Nimbolide |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/12313376 |publisher=PubChem, US National Library of Medicine |access-date=10 March 2021 |date=6 March 2021}}</ref> The yellow, bitter oil has a [[garlic]]-like odor and contains about 2% of limonoid compounds.<ref name=drugs/> The leaves contain [[quercetin]], [[catechin]]s, [[carotene]]s, and [[vitamin C]].<ref name=drugs/>


== Uses ==
== Uses ==
[[File:Neem tree farm in south india.jpg|thumb|Neem tree farm from south India]]
[[File:Neem.jpg|thumb|Trunk of a large tree]]
[[File:Neem.jpg|thumb|A large tree]]
[[File:Neem tree leaves.JPG|thumb|Leaves]]
[[File:Neem tree leaves.JPG|thumb|Leaves]]
[[File:Bark (5059231711).jpg|thumb|Bark]]
[[File:Bark (5059231711).jpg|thumb|Bark]]
[[File:Ineem seeds .jpg|thumb|Neem seeds]]
[[File:Ineem seeds .jpg|thumb|Neem seeds]]
Margosa leaves are dried in India and placed in cupboards to prevent insects from eating clothes, and in containers in which [[rice]] and [[wheat]] are stored.<ref name="bbc.co.uk">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4916044.stm|title=Neem: India's tree of life|author=Anna Horsbrugh Porter|date=17 April 2006|work=BBC News}}</ref> The flowers are also used in many [[Indian festivals]] like [[Ugadi]]. ''See below: [[#Association with Hindu festivals in India]].''
Neem leaves are dried in India and placed in cupboards to prevent insects from eating clothes, and in containers in which [[rice]] and [[wheat]] are stored.<ref name="bbc.co.uk">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4916044.stm|title=Neem: India's tree of life|author=Anna Horsbrugh Porter|date=17 April 2006|work=BBC News}}</ref> The flowers are also used in many [[Indian festivals]] like [[Ugadi]]. ''See below: [[#Association with Hindu festivals in India]].''


=== Culinary ===
=== Culinary ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2021}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2021}}
The tender shoots and flowers of the margosa tree are eaten as a vegetable in India. A soup-like dish called ''{{Transliteration|ta|vēppam pū cāṟu}}'' ({{lang|ta|வேப்பம் பூ சாறு}}) in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] (translated as "margosa flower [[Rasam (dish)|rasam]]") made of the flower of neem is prepared in [[Tamil Nadu]]. In [[Bengal]], young margosa leaves are fried in oil with tiny pieces of [[aubergine]] (brinjal). The dish is called ''nim bēgun bhājā'' ({{Lang|bn|নিম বেগুন ভাজা}}) and is the first item during a Bengali meal, which acts as an appetizer. It is eaten with rice.
The tender shoots and flowers of the neem tree are eaten as a vegetable in India. A soup-like dish called ''{{Transliteration|ta|vēppam pū cāṟu}}'' ({{lang|ta|வேப்பம் பூ சாறு}}) in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] (translated as "margosa flower [[Rasam (dish)|rasam]]") made of the flower of neem is prepared in [[Tamil Nadu]]. In [[Bengal]], young neem leaves are fried in oil with tiny pieces of [[aubergine]] (brinjal). The dish is called ''nim bēgun bhājā'' ({{Lang|bn|নিম বেগুন ভাজা}}) and is the first item during a Bengali meal, which acts as an appetizer. It is eaten with rice.
[[File:Azadirachta indica July 2025.jpg|thumb|Neem leaves and fruits ]]
Neem is used in parts of mainland [[Southeast Asia]], particularly in [[Cambodia]], Laos (where it is called ''kadao'' [{{Lang|lo|ກະເດົາ}}]), [[Thailand]] (where it is known as ''sadao'' [{{Lang|th|สะเดา}} {{IPA|th|sàʔ daw|}} or ''satao'' {{Lang|th|สะเตา}} {{IPA|th|sàʔ taw|}}]), [[Myanmar]] (where it is known as ''ta.ma'' [{{Lang|my|တမာ}}]) and Vietnam (where it is known as {{Lang|vi|sầu đâu}} and is used to cook the salad {{Lang|vi|gỏi sầu đâu}}). Even if lightly cooked, the flavour is quite bitter, and the food is not consumed by all inhabitants of these countries. In Myanmar, young neem [[Leaf|leaves]] and flower buds are boiled with [[tamarind]] fruit to soften its bitterness and eaten as a vegetable. Pickled neem leaves are also eaten with tomato and fish paste sauce in Myanmar.


Margosa is used in parts of mainland [[Southeast Asia]], particularly in [[Cambodia]], Laos (where it is called ''kadao'' [{{Lang|lo|ກະເດົາ}}]), [[Thailand]] (where it is known as ''sadao'' [{{Lang|th|สะเดา}} {{IPA|th|sàʔ daw|}} or ''satao'' {{Lang|th|สะเตา}} {{IPA|th|sàʔ taw|}}]), [[Myanmar]] (where it is known as ''ta.ma'' [{{Lang|my|တမာ}}]) and Vietnam (where it is known as {{Lang|vi|sầu đâu}} and is used to cook the salad {{Lang|vi|gỏi sầu đâu}}). Even if lightly cooked, the flavour is quite bitter, and the food is not consumed by all inhabitants of these nations. In Myanmar, young [[Leaves|margosa leaves]] and flower buds are boiled with [[tamarind]] fruit to soften its bitterness and eaten as a vegetable. Pickled margosa leaves are also eaten with tomato and fish paste sauce in Myanmar.
=== Traditional medicine ===
Products made from neem trees have been used in the [[traditional medicine]] of India for centuries,<ref name="drugs">{{cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/neem.html |title=Neem |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=21 September 2020 |date=13 August 2020}}</ref> but there is [[evidence-based medicine|insufficient clinical evidence]] to indicate any benefits of using neem for medicinal purposes.<ref name=drugs/>


=== Traditional medicine ===
In small children, neem oil is toxic and can lead to death.<ref name=drugs/> Neem may also cause [[miscarriage]]s, [[infertility]], and [[Hypoglycemia|low blood sugar]].<ref name=drugs/>
Products made from margosa trees have been used in the [[traditional medicine]] of India for centuries,<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/><ref name="drugs">{{cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/neem.html |title=Neem |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=21 September 2020 |date=13 August 2020}}</ref> for treating skin troubles and [[rheumatism]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tejesvi |first1=M.V. |last2=Tamhankar |first2=S.A. |last3=Kini |first3=K.R |last4=Rao |first4=V.S. |last5=Prakash |first5=H.S. |title=Phylogenetic analysis of endophytic ''Pestalotiopsis'' species from ethnopharmaceutically important medicinal trees. |journal=Fungal Diversity |date=2009 |volume=38 |pages=167–183}}</ref> but there is [[evidence-based medicine|insufficient clinical evidence]] to indicate any benefits of using margosa for medicinal purposes.<ref name=drugs/> In adults, no specific doses have been established, and short-term use of margosa appears to be safe, while long-term use may harm the [[kidney]]s or [[liver]]; in small children, margosa oil is toxic and can lead to death.<ref name=drugs/> Margosa may also cause [[miscarriage]]s, [[infertility]], and [[Hypoglycemia|low blood sugar]].<ref name=drugs/>


In Southern India and the Middle-East, neem twigs are often used as a [[teeth-cleaning twig]].<ref name="dentalmuseum.pacific.edu">{{Cite web|title=Different Strokes for Different Folks: A History of the Toothbrush – Page 4 – Virtual Dental Museum|url=https://dentalmuseum.pacific.edu/different-strokes-different-folks-history-toothbrush/4/|access-date=2021-07-08|website=dentalmuseum.pacific.edu}}</ref>
In Southern India and the Middle-East, neem twigs are often used as a [[teeth-cleaning twig]].<ref name="dentalmuseum.pacific.edu">{{Cite web|title=Different Strokes for Different Folks: A History of the Toothbrush – Page 4 – Virtual Dental Museum|url=https://dentalmuseum.pacific.edu/different-strokes-different-folks-history-toothbrush/4/|access-date=2021-07-08|website=dentalmuseum.pacific.edu}}</ref>


=== Pest and disease control ===
=== Pest and disease control ===
Margosa is a key ingredient in [[non-pesticidal management]] (NPM), providing a natural alternative to synthetic pesticides. Margosa seeds are ground into powder that is soaked overnight in water and sprayed on the crop. To be effective, it must be applied repeatedly, at least every ten days. Margosa does not directly kill [[insect]]s. It acts as an anti-feedant, repellent, and egg-laying deterrent and thus protects the crop from damage. The insects starve and die within a few days. Margosa also suppresses the subsequent hatching of their eggs. Margosa-based fertilizers have been effective against [[Spodoptera eridania|southern armyworm]]. Margosa cake may be used as a fertilizer.<ref>{{cite web |title=Neem Cake Fertilizer, Uses, Application, Benefits {{!}} Agri Farming |url=https://www.agrifarming.in/neem-cake-fertilizer-uses-application-benefits |website=www.agrifarming.in |date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
Neem is used as an [[insecticide]], providing a natural alternative to synthetic pesticides. The active ingredient is [[azadirachtin]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kilani-Morakchi |first1=Samira |last2=Morakchi-Goudjil |first2=Houda |last3=Sifi |first3=Karima |date=20 July 2021 |title=Azadirachtin-Based Insecticide: Overview, Risk Assessments, and Future Directions |journal=Frontiers in Agronomy |volume=3 |article-number=676208 |doi=10.3389/fagro.2021.676208 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Neem seeds are ground into powder that is soaked overnight in water and sprayed on the crop. To be effective, it must be applied repeatedly, at least every ten days. In addition to directly killing insects, neem acts as an anti-feedant, repellent, and egg-laying deterrent and thus protects the crop from damage. The insects starve and die within a few days. Neem also suppresses the subsequent hatching of their eggs. Neem-based fertilizers have been effective against [[Spodoptera eridania|southern armyworm]]. Neem cake may be used as a fertilizer.<ref>{{cite web |title=Neem Cake Fertilizer, Uses, Application, Benefits {{!}} Agri Farming |url=https://www.agrifarming.in/neem-cake-fertilizer-uses-application-benefits |website=www.agrifarming.in |date=9 August 2020}}</ref> Silver nanoparticles made from the bark and leaves of ''A. indica'' were also highly effective at killing first- and fourth-stage ''Culex quinquefasciatus'' mosquito larvae, but they worked less well against the pupae and adult mosquitoes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Minwuyelet |first=Awoke |last2=Yewhalaw |first2=Delenasaw |last3=Aschale |first3=Yibeltal |last4=Sciarretta |first4=Andrea |last5=Atenafu |first5=Getnet |editor-last=Gusain |editor-first=Priya |title=A Global Systematic Review on the Potential of Metal‐Based Nanoparticles in the Fight Against Mosquito Vectors |journal=Journal of Tropical Medicine |language=en |date=9 June 2025 |issue=1 |doi=10.1155/jotm/2420073|doi-access=free |issn=1687-9686 |pmc=12170094 |pmid=40524903}}</ref>
 
'''Margosa oil''' has been shown to avert [[termite]] attack as an ecofriendly and economical agent.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = YashRoy | first1 = R.C. | last2 = Gupta | first2 = P.K. | year = 2000 | title = Neem-seed oil inhibits growth of termite surface-tunnels | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230822367 | journal = Indian Journal of Toxicology | volume = 7 | issue = 1| pages = 49–50 }}</ref>


=== Other uses ===
=== Other uses ===
* Tree: the margosa tree is of great importance for its [[anti-desertification]] properties and possibly as a good [[carbon dioxide sink]]. It is also used for maintaining soil fertility.<ref name=Schroeder>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1016/0378-1127(92)90312-W| title=Carbon storage potential of short rotation tropical tree plantations| year=1992| last1=Schroeder| first1=Paul| journal=Forest Ecology and Management| volume=50| issue=1–2| pages=31–41| bibcode=1992ForEM..50...31S}}</ref><ref name=puhansynmadhuca>Puhan, Sukumar, et al. "Mahua (Madhuca indica) seed oil: a source of renewable energy in India." (2005).</ref>
* Tree: the neem tree is of great importance for its [[anti-desertification]] properties and possibly as a good [[carbon dioxide sink]]. It is also used for maintaining soil fertility.<ref name=Schroeder>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1016/0378-1127(92)90312-W| title=Carbon storage potential of short rotation tropical tree plantations| year=1992| last1=Schroeder| first1=Paul| journal=Forest Ecology and Management| volume=50| issue=1–2| pages=31–41| bibcode=1992ForEM..50...31S}}</ref><ref name=puhansynmadhuca>Puhan, Sukumar, et al. "Mahua (Madhuca indica) seed oil: a source of renewable energy in India." (2005).</ref>
*Fertilizer: neem extract is [[Neem-coated urea|added to fertilizers]] ([[urea]]) as a [[nitrification]] inhibitor.<ref>{{citation | author1=Heinrich W. Scherer | author2=Konrad Mengel | author3=Heinrich Dittmar | author4=Manfred Drach | author5=Ralf Vosskamp | author6=Martin E. Trenkel | author7=Reinhold Gutser | author8=Günter Steffens | author9=Vilmos Czikkely | author10=Titus Niedermaier | author11=Reinhardt Hähndel | author12=Hans Prün | author13=Karl-Heinz Ullrich | author14=Hermann Mühlfeld | author15=Wilfried Werner | author16=Günter Kluge | author17=Friedrich Kuhlmann | author18=Hugo Steinhauser | author19=Walter Brändlein | author20=Karl-Friedrich Kummer | contribution=Fertilizers | title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry | edition=7th | publisher=Wiley | year=2007 | doi=10.1002/14356007.a10_323.pub2| isbn=978-3527306732 }}</ref>
*Fertilizer: neem extract is [[Neem-coated urea|added to fertilizers]] ([[urea]]) as a [[nitrification]] inhibitor.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ramappa |first=K. B. |last2=Jadhav |first2=Vilas |last3=Manjunatha |first3=A. V. |date=31 May 2022 |title=A benchmark study on economic impact of Neem Coated Urea on Indian agriculture |url=https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-12708-1 |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=12 |issue=9082}}</ref>
*Animal feed: margosa leaves can be occasionally used as forage for ruminants and rabbits.<ref>Heuzé V., Tran G., Archimède H., Bastianelli D., Lebas F., 2015. [https://www.feedipedia.org/node/182 Neem (Azadirachta indica)]. ''Feedipedia'', a programme by Institut national de la recherche agronomique, [[CIRAD]], AFZ and [[FAO]]. Last updated on 2 October 2015</ref>
*Animal feed: Neem leaves can be occasionally used as forage for ruminants and rabbits.<ref>Heuzé V., Tran G., Archimède H., Bastianelli D., Lebas F., 2015. [https://www.feedipedia.org/node/182 Neem (Azadirachta indica)]. ''Feedipedia'', a programme by Institut national de la recherche agronomique, [[CIRAD]], AFZ and [[FAO]]. Last updated on 2 October 2015</ref>
*Teeth cleaning: margosa has traditionally been used as a type of [[teeth-cleaning twig]].<ref name="dentalmuseum.pacific.edu"/>
*Teeth cleaning: neem has traditionally been used as a type of [[teeth-cleaning twig]].<ref name="dentalmuseum.pacific.edu"/>
 
=== Toxicity ===
According to the [[American Journal of Neuroradiology]], margosa oil has the ability to cause some forms of toxic [[encephalopathy]] and [[ophthalmopathy]] if consumed in quantities exceeding 150ml (5.07 us fluid ounces).<ref name=NeemOilPoisoning>{{cite journal|author1=M.V. Bhaskara |author2=S.J. Pramoda |author3=M.U. Jeevikaa |author4=P.K. Chandana |author5=G. Shetteppa|date=6 May 2010|title=Letters: MR Imaging Findings of Neem Oil Poisoning|journal=American Journal of Neuroradiology|volume=31|pages=E60–E61| pmc=7965469 |  doi=10.3174/ajnr.A2146|pmid=20448012 |issue=7|doi-access=free}}</ref>


==Genome and transcriptomes==
==Genome and transcriptomes==
Margosa genome and [[transcriptomes]] from various organs have been sequenced.<ref name="Neem Fruit Transcriptome">{{cite journal|last=Krishnan|first=N |author2=Swetansu Pattnaik |author3=S. A. Deepak |author4=Arun K. Hariharan |author5=Prakhar Gaur |author6=Rakshit Chaudhary |author7=Prachi Jain |author8=Srividya Vaidyanathan |author9=P. G. Bharath Krishna |author10=Binay Panda|display-authors=3 |title=De novo sequencing and assembly of ''Azadirachta indica'' fruit transcriptome|journal=[[Current Science]]|date=25 December 2011|volume=101|issue=12|pages=1553–1561|url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/101/12/1553.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Neem Genome and Four Transcriptomes">{{cite journal|last=Krishnan|first=N |author2=Swetansu Pattnaik |author3=Prachi Jain |author4=Prakhar Gaur |author5=Rakshit Choudhary |author6=Srividya Vaidyanathan |author7=Sa Deepak |author8=Arun K Hariharan |author9=PG Bharath Krishna |author10=Jayalakshmi Nair |author11=Linu Varghese |author12=Naveen K Valivarthi |author13=Kunal Dhas |author14=Krishna Ramaswamy |author15=Binay Panda|display-authors=3 |title=A Draft of the Genome and Four Transcriptomes of a Medicinal and Pesticidal Angiosperm ''Azadirachta indica''|journal=[[BMC Genomics]]|date=9 September 2012|volume=13|doi=10.1186/1471-2164-13-464|pmid=22958331 |pmc=3507787 |issue=464|pages=464 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="An Improved Genome Assembly of Azadirachta">{{cite journal|last=Krishnan|first=N |author2=Prachi Jain |author3=Prachi Jain |author4=Arun K Hariharan |author5=Binay Panda |title=An Improved Genome Assembly of ''Azadirachta indica'' A. Juss|journal=[[G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics|G3]]|date=20 April 2016|doi=10.1534/g3.116.030056|pmid=27172223 |pmc=4938638 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=1835–1840}}</ref> [[Expressed sequence tag]]s were identified by generation of subtractive hybridization libraries of margosa fruit, leaf, fruit mesocarp, and fruit endocarp.<ref>{{cite journal| title = Comparative transcripts profiling of fruit mesocarp and endocarp relevant to secondary metabolism by suppression subtractive hybridization in ''Azadirachta indica'' (neem)| year = 2014| last1 = Narnoliya| first1 = Lokesh K.| last2 = Rajakani| first2 = Raja| last3 = Sangwan| first3 = Neelam S.| last4 = Gupta| first4 = Vikrant| last5 = Sangwan| first5 = Rajender S.| journal = Molecular Biology Reports| volume = 41| issue = 5| pages = 3147–3162| pmid = 24477588| s2cid = 16605633| doi = 10.1007/s11033-014-3174-x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title = Subtractive transcriptomes of fruit and leaf reveal differential representation of transcripts in ''Azadirachta indica''| year = 2014| last1 = Rajakani| first1 = Raja| last2 = Narnoliya| first2 = Lokesh| last3 = Sangwan| first3 = Neelam S.| last4 = Sangwan| first4 = Rajender S.| last5 = Gupta| first5 = Vikrant| journal = Tree Genetics & Genomes| volume = 10| issue = 5| pages = 1331–1351| s2cid = 11857916| doi = 10.1007/s11295-014-0764-7}}</ref>
The neem genome and [[transcriptomes]] from various organs have been sequenced.<ref name="Neem Fruit Transcriptome">{{cite journal|last=Krishnan|first=N |author2=Swetansu Pattnaik |author3=S. A. Deepak |author4=Arun K. Hariharan |author5=Prakhar Gaur |author6=Rakshit Chaudhary |author7=Prachi Jain |author8=Srividya Vaidyanathan |author9=P. G. Bharath Krishna |author10=Binay Panda |title=De novo sequencing and assembly of ''Azadirachta indica'' fruit transcriptome|journal=[[Current Science]]|date=25 December 2011|volume=101|issue=12|pages=1553–1561|url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/101/12/1553.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Neem Genome and Four Transcriptomes">{{cite journal|last=Krishnan|first=N |author2=Swetansu Pattnaik |author3=Prachi Jain |author4=Prakhar Gaur |author5=Rakshit Choudhary |author6=Srividya Vaidyanathan |author7=Sa Deepak |author8=Arun K Hariharan |author9=PG Bharath Krishna |author10=Jayalakshmi Nair |author11=Linu Varghese |author12=Naveen K Valivarthi |author13=Kunal Dhas |author14=Krishna Ramaswamy |author15=Binay Panda|title=A Draft of the Genome and Four Transcriptomes of a Medicinal and Pesticidal Angiosperm ''Azadirachta indica''|journal=[[BMC Genomics]]|date=9 September 2012|volume=13|doi=10.1186/1471-2164-13-464|pmid=22958331 |pmc=3507787 |issue=464|page=464 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="An Improved Genome Assembly of Azadirachta">{{cite journal|last=Krishnan|first=N |author2=Prachi Jain |author3=Prachi Jain |author4=Arun K Hariharan |author5=Binay Panda |title=An Improved Genome Assembly of ''Azadirachta indica'' A. Juss|journal=G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics|date=20 April 2016|doi=10.1534/g3.116.030056|pmid=27172223 |pmc=4938638 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=1835–1840}}</ref> [[Expressed sequence tag]]s were identified by generation of subtractive hybridization libraries of neem fruit, leaf, fruit mesocarp, and fruit endocarp.<ref>{{cite journal| title = Comparative transcripts profiling of fruit mesocarp and endocarp relevant to secondary metabolism by suppression subtractive hybridization in ''Azadirachta indica'' (neem)| year = 2014| last1 = Narnoliya| first1 = Lokesh K.| last2 = Rajakani| first2 = Raja| last3 = Sangwan| first3 = Neelam S.| last4 = Gupta| first4 = Vikrant| last5 = Sangwan| first5 = Rajender S.| journal = Molecular Biology Reports| volume = 41| issue = 5| pages = 3147–3162| pmid = 24477588| s2cid = 16605633| doi = 10.1007/s11033-014-3174-x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title = Subtractive transcriptomes of fruit and leaf reveal differential representation of transcripts in ''Azadirachta indica''| year = 2014| last1 = Rajakani| first1 = Raja| last2 = Narnoliya| first2 = Lokesh| last3 = Sangwan| first3 = Neelam S.| last4 = Sangwan| first4 = Rajender S.| last5 = Gupta| first5 = Vikrant| journal = Tree Genetics & Genomes| volume = 10| issue = 5| pages = 1331–1351| s2cid = 11857916| doi = 10.1007/s11295-014-0764-7}}</ref>


==Cultural and social impact==
==Cultural and social impact==
[[File:Tree in Sant Nenuram ashram.jpg|thumb|Neem tree at [[Sant Nenuram Ashram]], Pakistan]]
[[File:Tree in Sant Nenuram ashram.jpg|thumb|Neem tree at [[Sant Nenuram Ashram]], Pakistan]]


The name [[Nimai]] ('born under a neem tree'), of the [[Bhakti movement]] [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] saint and [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (believed to be an incarnation of [[Radha Krishna]] in [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]] and [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|ISKCON]]) is due to his birth under a neem tree.
The name [[Nimai]] ('born under a neem tree'), of the [[Bhakti movement]] [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] saint [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (believed to be an incarnation of [[Radha Krishna]] in [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]] and [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|ISKCON]]) is due to his birth under a neem tree.


In 1995, the [[European Patent Office]] (EPO) granted a patent on an anti-fungal product derived from margosa to the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] and [[W. R. Grace and Company]].<ref name="N000123"/> The Indian government challenged the patent when it was granted, claiming that the process for which the patent had been granted had been in use in India for more than 2,000 years. In 2000, the EPO ruled in India's favour, but W. R. Grace appealed, claiming that [[prior art]] about the product had never been published. On 8 March 2005, that appeal was lost and the EPO revoked the Neem patent.<ref name="N000123">{{cite news | title=India wins landmark patent battle | date=9 March 2005 | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4333627.stm | work =[[BBC News]] | access-date = 2 October 2009}}</ref>
In 1995, the [[European Patent Office]] (EPO) granted a patent on an anti-fungal product derived from neem to the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] and [[W. R. Grace and Company]].<ref name="N000123"/> The Indian government challenged the patent when it was granted, claiming that the process for which the patent had been granted had been in use in India for more than 2,000 years. In 2000, the EPO ruled in India's favour, but W. R. Grace appealed, claiming that [[prior art]] about the product had never been published. On 8 March 2005, that appeal was lost and the EPO revoked the Neem patent.<ref name="N000123">{{cite news | title=India wins landmark patent battle | date=9 March 2005 | url =https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4333627.stm | work =[[BBC News]] | access-date = 2 October 2009}}</ref>


==Biotechnology==
==Biotechnology==
The biopesticide produced by extraction from the tree seeds contains [[limonoid]] [[triterpene]]s.<ref name=drugs/> Currently, the extraction process has disadvantages such as contamination with fungi and heterogeneity in the content of limonoids due to genetic, climatic, and geographical variations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sidhu|first1=O. P.|last2=Kumar|first2=Vishal|last3=Behl|first3=Hari M.|date=15 January 2003|title=Variability in Neem (''Azadirachta indica'') with Respect to Azadirachtin Content|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|language=en|volume=51|issue=4|pages=910–915|doi=10.1021/jf025994m|pmid=12568548|bibcode=2003JAFC...51..910S }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Prakash|first1=Gunjan|last2=Bhojwani|first2=Sant S.|last3=Srivastava|first3=Ashok K.|s2cid=85845199|date=1 August 2002|title=Production of azadirachtin from plant tissue culture: State of the art and future prospects|journal=Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering|language=en|volume=7|issue=4|pages=185–193|doi=10.1007/BF02932968|issn=1226-8372}}</ref> To overcome these problems, production of limonoids from plant [[cell suspension]] and hairy root cultures in bioreactors has been studied,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Srivastava|first1=Smita|last2=Srivastava|first2=Ashok K.|s2cid=36781838|date=17 August 2013|title=Production of the Biopesticide Azadirachtin by Hairy Root Cultivation of Azadirachta indica in Liquid-Phase Bioreactors|journal=Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology|language=en|volume=171|issue=6|pages=1351–1361|doi=10.1007/s12010-013-0432-7|pmid=23955295|issn=0273-2289}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Prakash|first1=Gunjan|last2=Srivastava|first2=Ashok K.|s2cid=35506559|date=5 April 2008|title=Production of Biopesticides in an in Situ Cell Retention Bioreactor|journal=Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology|language=en|volume=151|issue=2–3|pages=307–318|doi=10.1007/s12010-008-8191-6|pmid=18392561|issn=0273-2289}}</ref> including the development of a two-stage bioreactor process that enhances growth and production of limonoids with cell suspension cultures of ''A. indica''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vásquez-Rivera|first1=Andrés|last2=Chicaiza-Finley|first2=Diego|last3=Hoyos|first3=Rodrigo A.|last4=Orozco-Sánchez|first4=Fernando|s2cid=207357717|date=1 September 2015|title=Production of Limonoids with Insect Antifeedant Activity in a Two-Stage Bioreactor Process with Cell Suspension Culture of Azadirachta indica|journal=Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology|volume=177|issue=2|pages=334–345|doi=10.1007/s12010-015-1745-5|issn=1559-0291|pmid=26234433}}</ref>
The biopesticide produced by extraction from the tree seeds contains [[limonoid]] [[triterpene]]s.<ref name=drugs/> Currently, the extraction process has disadvantages, such as contamination with fungi and heterogeneity in the content of limonoids due to genetic, climatic, and geographical variations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sidhu|first1=O. P.|last2=Kumar|first2=Vishal|last3=Behl|first3=Hari M.|date=15 January 2003|title=Variability in Neem (''Azadirachta indica'') with Respect to Azadirachtin Content|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|language=en|volume=51|issue=4|pages=910–915|doi=10.1021/jf025994m|pmid=12568548|bibcode=2003JAFC...51..910S }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Prakash|first1=Gunjan|last2=Bhojwani|first2=Sant S.|last3=Srivastava|first3=Ashok K.|s2cid=85845199|date=1 August 2002|title=Production of azadirachtin from plant tissue culture: State of the art and future prospects|journal=Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering|language=en|volume=7|issue=4|pages=185–193|doi=10.1007/BF02932968|issn=1226-8372}}</ref> To overcome these problems, production of limonoids from plant [[cell suspension]] and hairy root cultures in bioreactors has been studied,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Srivastava|first1=Smita|last2=Srivastava|first2=Ashok K.|s2cid=36781838|date=17 August 2013|title=Production of the Biopesticide Azadirachtin by Hairy Root Cultivation of Azadirachta indica in Liquid-Phase Bioreactors|journal=Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology|language=en|volume=171|issue=6|pages=1351–1361|doi=10.1007/s12010-013-0432-7|pmid=23955295|issn=0273-2289}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Prakash|first1=Gunjan|last2=Srivastava|first2=Ashok K.|s2cid=35506559|date=5 April 2008|title=Production of Biopesticides in an in Situ Cell Retention Bioreactor|journal=Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology|language=en|volume=151|issue=2–3|pages=307–318|doi=10.1007/s12010-008-8191-6|pmid=18392561|issn=0273-2289}}</ref> including the development of a two-stage bioreactor process that enhances growth and production of limonoids with cell suspension cultures of ''A. indica''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vásquez-Rivera|first1=Andrés|last2=Chicaiza-Finley|first2=Diego|last3=Hoyos|first3=Rodrigo A.|last4=Orozco-Sánchez|first4=Fernando|s2cid=207357717|date=1 September 2015|title=Production of Limonoids with Insect Antifeedant Activity in a Two-Stage Bioreactor Process with Cell Suspension Culture of Azadirachta indica|journal=Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology|volume=177|issue=2|pages=334–345|doi=10.1007/s12010-015-1745-5|issn=1559-0291|pmid=26234433}}</ref>


==Gallery==
==Gallery==
<gallery>
<gallery>
File:Neem (Azadirachta indica) in Hyderabad W IMG 7006.jpg|Flowers
File:Neem (Azadirachta indica) in Hyderabad W IMG 7006.jpg|Flowers
File:Neem (Azadirachta indica) in Hyderabad W IMG 6976.jpg|Leaves and flowers
File:Unripe Neem fruits.jpg|Unripe fruit
File:Unripe Neem fruits.jpg|Unripe fruit
File:Neem-Tree.jpg|Neem tree in a banana farm in India
File:Ineem farm in virudhunagar.jpg|Neem tree farm
File:Neem Twig sellers.JPG|Twigs for sale
File:Ineem Fruit Drying process for cold pressed extraction.jpg|Fruit drying for oil extraction
File:Ineem Fruit Drying process for cold pressed extraction.jpg|Fruit drying for oil extraction
File:Jagnath Ineem Toothstick in tamilnadu.jpg|Cleaning teeth by chewing stick
File:Jagnath Ineem Toothstick in tamilnadu.jpg|Cleaning teeth by chewing stick
File:Hareli Festival.jpg|Native of Chhattisgarh with Neem branches and leaves for Hareli Festival
File:Azadirachta indica 0001.jpg|A tree in [[Gambia]]
File:Neem tree.JPG|A tree in Bangladesh
File:Neem (Azadirachta indica) in Hyderabad W IMG 6976.jpg|Leaves and flowers
</gallery>
</gallery>


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==External links==
==External links==
{{Commons category|Azadirachta indica}}
{{Commons category|Azadirachta indica}}
* {{cite book |title=Neem: A Tree For Solving Global Problems |date=1992 |publisher=National Research Council (US) Panel on Neem |doi=10.17226/1924 |pmid=25121266 |isbn=978-0-309-04686-2 |url=https://doi.org/10.17226/1924|author1=National Research Council (US) Panel on Neem }} [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234646/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK234646.pdf PDF Copy]
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{cite book |title=Neem: A Tree For Solving Global Problems |date=1992 |publisher=National Research Council (US) Panel on Neem |doi=10.17226/1924 |pmid=25121266 |isbn=978-0-309-04686-2 |author1=National Research Council (US) Panel on Neem }} [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234646/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK234646.pdf PDF Copy]
* [http://www.hear.org/pier/species/azadirachta_indica.htm Invasiveness information from Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)]
* [http://www.hear.org/pier/species/azadirachta_indica.htm Invasiveness information from Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)]
* [http://www.hear.org/species/azadirachta_indica/ Neem information] from the [[Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project]] (HEAR)
* [http://www.hear.org/species/azadirachta_indica/ Neem information] from the [[Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project]] (HEAR)
*{{cite book |last=Caldecott |first=Todd |author-link=Todd Caldecott |year=2006 |title=Ayurveda: The Divine Science of Life |publisher=[[Elsevier]]/[[Mosby (publisher)|Mosby]] |url=http://www.toddcaldecott.com/index.php/herbs/learning-herbs/314-neem |isbn=978-0-7234-3410-8 |access-date=15 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229014401/http://www.toddcaldecott.com/index.php/herbs/learning-herbs/314-neem |archive-date=29 December 2010 |url-status = dead }} Contains a detailed monograph on ''Azadirachta indica'' (Neem; Nimba) as well as a discussion of health benefits and usage in clinical practice.
*{{cite book |last=Caldecott |first=Todd |author-link=Todd Caldecott |year=2006 |title=Ayurveda: The Divine Science of Life |publisher=[[Elsevier]]/[[Mosby (publisher)|Mosby]] |url=http://www.toddcaldecott.com/index.php/herbs/learning-herbs/314-neem |isbn=978-0-7234-3410-8 |access-date=15 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229014401/http://www.toddcaldecott.com/index.php/herbs/learning-herbs/314-neem |archive-date=29 December 2010 }} Contains a detailed monograph on ''Azadirachta indica'' (Neem; Nimba) as well as a discussion of health benefits and usage in clinical practice.


{{WestAfricanPlants|Azadirachta indica}}
{{WestAfricanPlants|Azadirachta indica}}
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{{Taxonbar|from=Q170461}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q170461}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2021}}


[[Category:Azadirachta|indica]]
[[Category:Azadirachta|indica]]

Latest revision as of 02:39, 9 November 2025

Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Use American English Template:Cs1 config Template:Speciesbox Azadirachta indica, commonly known as neem, margosa, nimtree or Indian lilac,[1] is a tree in the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is one of the two species in the genus Azadirachta. It is native to the Indian subcontinent and to parts of Southeast Asia, but is naturalized and grown around the world in tropical and subtropical areas. Its fruits and seeds are the source of neem oil. Nim is a Hindustani noun derived from Sanskrit nimba (Script error: No such module "Lang".).[2][3][4]

Description

Template:More citations needed The neem tree is a fast-growing tree that can reach a height of Template:Convert, and rarely Template:Convert. It is evergreen, shedding many of its leaves during the dry winter months. The branches are wide and spreading. The fairly dense crown is roundish and may reach a diameter of Template:Convert. The opposite, pinnate leaves are Template:Convert long, with 20 to 30 medium to dark green leaflets about Template:Convert long.[5] The terminal leaflet often is missing. The petioles are short.[6]

White and fragrant flowers are arranged in more-or-less drooping axillary panicles which are up to Template:Convert long. The inflorescences, which branch up to the third degree, bear from 250 to 300 flowers. An individual flower is Template:Convert long and Template:Convert wide. Protandrous, bisexual flowers and male flowers exist on the same individual tree.

The fruit is a smooth (glabrous), olive-like drupe which varies in shape from elongate oval to nearly roundish, and when ripe is Template:Convert by Template:Convert. The fruit skin (exocarp) is thin and the bitter-sweet pulp (mesocarp) is yellowish-white and very fibrous. The mesocarp is Template:Convert thick. The white, hard inner shell (endocarp) of the fruit encloses one, rarely two, or three, elongated seeds (kernels) having a brown seed coat.

File:Azadirachta-indica-2019-5-3 14-14-55-01.jpg
Pollen grains

The neem tree[7] is similar in appearance to its relative, the chinaberry or bakain, Melia azedarach,[8] with which it may be confused. Melia azedarach also has toothed leaflets and similar looking fruit. One difference is that neem leaves are pinnate but chinaberry leaves are twice- and thrice-pinnate.

Taxonomy

The name Azadirachta indica was first published by Adrien-Henri de Jussieu in 1830.[9] In 1753, Carl Linnaeus had described two species, Melia azedarach and Melia azadirachta.[10] De Jussieu considered Melia azadirachta to be sufficiently different from Melia azedarach to be placed in a new genus.[11] For both his species, Linnaeus referred to the name 'azedarach',[10] which is derived from the French 'azédarac', which in turn is from the Persian 'āzād dirakht' (ازادرخت), meaning 'free or noble tree'.[12] The Persian name of the tree, azad darakhat-e-hind, meaning 'the free tree of India', implies that it is free from disease and insect problems.[13]

Distribution

Azadirachta indica is considered to be native to the Assam region, Pakistan and Bangladesh in the Indian subcontinent and to Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam in Indochina. It has been widely introduced elsewhere in tropical and subtropical regions, from South America to Indonesia.[14]

Ecology

The neem tree is noted for its drought resistance. Normally, it thrives in areas with sub-arid to sub-humid conditions, with an annual rainfall of Template:Convert. It can grow in regions with an annual rainfall below 400 mm, but in such cases it depends largely on ground water levels. Margosa can grow in many different types of soil, but it thrives best on well-drained deep and sandy soils. It is a typical tropical to subtropical tree and exists at annual mean temperatures of Template:Convert. It can tolerate high to very high temperatures and does not tolerate temperature below Template:Convert. Neem is one of very few shade-giving trees that thrive in drought-prone areas such as the dry coastal, southern districts of India and Pakistan. The trees are not at all delicate about water quality and thrive on the merest trickle of water, whatever the quality. In India and tropical countries where the Indian diaspora has reached, it is very common to see neem trees used for shade lining streets, around temples, schools and other such public buildings or in most people's backyards. In very dry areas, the trees are planted on large tracts of land.

Weed status

Neem is considered a weed in many areas, including some parts of the Middle East, most of Sub-Saharan Africa including West Africa and Indian Ocean states, and some parts of Australia. Its weed potential has not been fully assessed.[15]

In April 2015, A. indica was declared a class B and C weed in the Northern Territory, Australia, meaning its growth and spread must be controlled and plants or propagules are not allowed to be brought into the territory. It is illegal to buy, sell, or transport the plants or seeds. Its declaration as a weed came in response to its invasion of waterways in the "Top End" of the territory.[16]

After being introduced into Australia, possibly in the 1940s, A. indica was originally planted in the Northern Territory to provide shade for cattle. Trial plantations were established between the 1960s and 1980s in Darwin, Queensland, and Western Australia, but the Australian neem industry did not prove viable. The tree has now spread into the savanna, particularly around waterways, and naturalised populations exist in several areas.[17]

Phytochemicals

Neem fruit, seeds, leaves, stems, and bark contain diverse phytochemicals, some of which were first discovered in azadirachta seed extracts, such as azadirachtin established in the 1960s as an insect antifeedant, growth disruptor, and insecticide.[18][19] The yield of azadirachtin from crushing 2 kg of seeds is about 5 g.[18]

In addition to azadirachtin and related limonoids, the seed oil contains glycerides, diverse polyphenols, nimbolide, triterpenes, and beta-sitosterol.[18][20] The yellow, bitter oil has a garlic-like odor and contains about 2% of limonoid compounds.[18] The leaves contain quercetin, catechins, carotenes, and vitamin C.[18]

Uses

File:Neem.jpg
Trunk of a large tree
File:Neem tree leaves.JPG
Leaves
File:Bark (5059231711).jpg
Bark
File:Ineem seeds .jpg
Neem seeds

Neem leaves are dried in India and placed in cupboards to prevent insects from eating clothes, and in containers in which rice and wheat are stored.[19] The flowers are also used in many Indian festivals like Ugadi. See below: #Association with Hindu festivals in India.

Culinary

Script error: No such module "Unsubst". The tender shoots and flowers of the neem tree are eaten as a vegetable in India. A soup-like dish called Template:Transliteration (Script error: No such module "Lang".) in Tamil (translated as "margosa flower rasam") made of the flower of neem is prepared in Tamil Nadu. In Bengal, young neem leaves are fried in oil with tiny pieces of aubergine (brinjal). The dish is called nim bēgun bhājā (Script error: No such module "Lang".) and is the first item during a Bengali meal, which acts as an appetizer. It is eaten with rice.

File:Azadirachta indica July 2025.jpg
Neem leaves and fruits

Neem is used in parts of mainland Southeast Asia, particularly in Cambodia, Laos (where it is called kadao [Script error: No such module "Lang".]), Thailand (where it is known as sadao [Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". or satao Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA".]), Myanmar (where it is known as ta.ma [Script error: No such module "Lang".]) and Vietnam (where it is known as Script error: No such module "Lang". and is used to cook the salad Script error: No such module "Lang".). Even if lightly cooked, the flavour is quite bitter, and the food is not consumed by all inhabitants of these countries. In Myanmar, young neem leaves and flower buds are boiled with tamarind fruit to soften its bitterness and eaten as a vegetable. Pickled neem leaves are also eaten with tomato and fish paste sauce in Myanmar.

Traditional medicine

Products made from neem trees have been used in the traditional medicine of India for centuries,[18] but there is insufficient clinical evidence to indicate any benefits of using neem for medicinal purposes.[18]

In small children, neem oil is toxic and can lead to death.[18] Neem may also cause miscarriages, infertility, and low blood sugar.[18]

In Southern India and the Middle-East, neem twigs are often used as a teeth-cleaning twig.[21]

Pest and disease control

Neem is used as an insecticide, providing a natural alternative to synthetic pesticides. The active ingredient is azadirachtin.[22] Neem seeds are ground into powder that is soaked overnight in water and sprayed on the crop. To be effective, it must be applied repeatedly, at least every ten days. In addition to directly killing insects, neem acts as an anti-feedant, repellent, and egg-laying deterrent and thus protects the crop from damage. The insects starve and die within a few days. Neem also suppresses the subsequent hatching of their eggs. Neem-based fertilizers have been effective against southern armyworm. Neem cake may be used as a fertilizer.[23] Silver nanoparticles made from the bark and leaves of A. indica were also highly effective at killing first- and fourth-stage Culex quinquefasciatus mosquito larvae, but they worked less well against the pupae and adult mosquitoes.[24]

Other uses

Genome and transcriptomes

The neem genome and transcriptomes from various organs have been sequenced.[29][30][31] Expressed sequence tags were identified by generation of subtractive hybridization libraries of neem fruit, leaf, fruit mesocarp, and fruit endocarp.[32][33]

Cultural and social impact

File:Tree in Sant Nenuram ashram.jpg
Neem tree at Sant Nenuram Ashram, Pakistan

The name Nimai ('born under a neem tree'), of the Bhakti movement Vaishnava saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (believed to be an incarnation of Radha Krishna in Gaudiya Vaishnavism and ISKCON) is due to his birth under a neem tree.

In 1995, the European Patent Office (EPO) granted a patent on an anti-fungal product derived from neem to the United States Department of Agriculture and W. R. Grace and Company.[34] The Indian government challenged the patent when it was granted, claiming that the process for which the patent had been granted had been in use in India for more than 2,000 years. In 2000, the EPO ruled in India's favour, but W. R. Grace appealed, claiming that prior art about the product had never been published. On 8 March 2005, that appeal was lost and the EPO revoked the Neem patent.[34]

Biotechnology

The biopesticide produced by extraction from the tree seeds contains limonoid triterpenes.[18] Currently, the extraction process has disadvantages, such as contamination with fungi and heterogeneity in the content of limonoids due to genetic, climatic, and geographical variations.[35][36] To overcome these problems, production of limonoids from plant cell suspension and hairy root cultures in bioreactors has been studied,[37][38] including the development of a two-stage bioreactor process that enhances growth and production of limonoids with cell suspension cultures of A. indica.[39]

Gallery

See also

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References

Template:Reflist

External links

Template:Sister project Template:Sister project

Template:WestAfricanPlants Template:Medicinal herbs and fungi Template:Taxonbar Template:Authority control

  1. ↑ Template:GRIN
  2. ↑ Compact Oxford English Dictionary (2013), Neem, page 679, Third Edition 2008 reprinted with corrections 2013, Oxford University Press.
  3. ↑ Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell (1996), Hobson-Jobson, Neem, page 622, The Anglo-Indian Dictionary, Wordsworth Reference. (This work was first published in 1886)
  4. ↑ Encarta World English Dictionary (1999), Neem, page 1210, St. Martin's Press, New York.
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1". p. 221
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named 1213180-2
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ Puhan, Sukumar, et al. "Mahua (Madhuca indica) seed oil: a source of renewable energy in India." (2005).
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Heuzé V., Tran G., Archimède H., Bastianelli D., Lebas F., 2015. Neem (Azadirachta indica). Feedipedia, a programme by Institut national de la recherche agronomique, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. Last updated on 2 October 2015
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  32. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  34. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  35. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  36. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  37. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  38. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  39. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
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