Standard electrode potential (data page): Difference between revisions
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imported>HalurTest1 →Table of standard electrode potentials: i think its supposed to have 6 transferred electrons and not 8 |
imported>AzideIon m copyedit |
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The '''data below''' tabulates [[standard electrode potential]]s (''E''°), in [[volt]]s relative to the [[standard hydrogen electrode]] (SHE), at: | The '''data below''' tabulates [[standard electrode potential]]s (''E''°), in [[volt]]s relative to the [[standard hydrogen electrode]] (SHE), at: | ||
* [[Temperature]] {{cvt|298.15|K}}; | * [[Temperature]] {{cvt|298.15|K}}; | ||
* [[Activity (chemistry)|Effective concentration]] (activity) 1 | * [[Activity (chemistry)|Effective concentration]] (activity) 1 (dimensionless) for each aqueous or [[Amalgam (chemistry)|amalgamated]] (mercury-alloyed) species; | ||
* Unit [[activity (chemistry)|activity]] for each solvent and pure solid or liquid species; and | * Unit [[activity (chemistry)|activity]] for each solvent and pure solid or liquid species; and | ||
* [[Fugacity|Absolute partial pressure]] {{cvt|101.325|kPa|atm bar}} for each gaseous reagent — the convention in most literature data but not the current [[standard state]] (100 kPa). | * [[Fugacity|Absolute partial pressure]] {{cvt|101.325|kPa|atm bar}} for each gaseous reagent — the convention in most literature data but not the current [[standard state]] (100 kPa). | ||
Variations from these ideal conditions affect measured voltage via the [[Nernst equation]]. | Variations from these ideal conditions affect measured voltage via the [[Nernst equation]]. | ||
Electrode potentials of successive elementary half-reactions cannot be directly added. However, the corresponding [[Gibbs free energy]] changes (∆''G''°) | Electrode potentials of successive elementary half-reactions cannot be directly added. However, the corresponding [[Gibbs free energy]] changes (∆''G''°) can be added. Those free energy changes satisfy | ||
:{{Nowrap|∆''G''° {{=}} –{{mvar|z}}''FE''°}}, | :{{Nowrap|∆''G''° {{=}} –{{mvar|z}}''FE''°}}, | ||
where {{mvar|z}} electrons are transferred, and the [[Faraday constant]] {{mvar|F}} is the [[conversion factor]] describing [[Coulomb]]s transferred per mole electrons. | where {{mvar|z}} electrons are transferred, and the [[Faraday constant]] {{mvar|F}} is the [[conversion factor]] describing [[Coulomb]]s transferred per mole electrons. For example, from | ||
:{{Nowrap|Fe{{2+}} + 2{{e-}} {{eqm}} Fe(''s'') (−0.44 V)}}, | |||
For example, from {{Nowrap|Fe{{2+}} + 2{{e-}} {{eqm}} Fe(''s'') (−0.44 V)}}, the energy to form one neutral atom of Fe(''s'') from one Fe{{2+}} ion and two electrons is {{Nowrap|2 × 0.44 eV {{=}} 0.88 eV,}} or 84 907 J/(mol {{e-}}). That value is also the [[standard Gibbs free energy of formation|standard formation energy]] (∆''G''<sub>f</sub>°) for an Fe{{2+}} ion, since {{e-}} and Fe(''s'') both have zero formation energy. | the energy to form one neutral atom of Fe(''s'') from one Fe{{2+}} ion and two electrons is {{Nowrap|2 × 0.44 eV {{=}} 0.88 eV,}} or 84 907 J/(mol {{e-}}). That value is also the [[standard Gibbs free energy of formation|standard formation energy]] (∆''G''<sub>f</sub>°) for an Fe{{2+}} ion, since {{e-}} and Fe(''s'') both have zero formation energy. | ||
Data from different sources may cause table inconsistencies. For example: <math chem display=block>\begin{alignat}{4} | Data from different sources may cause table inconsistencies. For example: <math chem display=block>\begin{alignat}{4} | ||
| Line 20: | Line 20: | ||
&\ce{Cu^2+ + 2e-}&{}\rightleftharpoons{}&\ce{Cu(s)} &\quad\quad E_2=+0.337\text{ V} \\ | &\ce{Cu^2+ + 2e-}&{}\rightleftharpoons{}&\ce{Cu(s)} &\quad\quad E_2=+0.337\text{ V} \\ | ||
&\ce{Cu^2+ + e-}&{}\rightleftharpoons{}&\ce{Cu+} &\quad\quad E_3=+0.159\text{ V} | &\ce{Cu^2+ + e-}&{}\rightleftharpoons{}&\ce{Cu+} &\quad\quad E_3=+0.159\text{ V} | ||
\end{alignat}</math> From additivity of Gibbs energies, one must have <math display=block>2\cdot E_2=1\cdot E_1+1\cdot E_3</math> But that equation does not hold exactly with the cited values. | \end{alignat}</math> From additivity of Gibbs energies and canceling common factors, one must have <math display=block>2\cdot E_2=1\cdot E_1+1\cdot E_3</math> But that equation does not hold exactly with the cited values. | ||
__TOC__ | __TOC__ | ||
| Line 500: | Line 500: | ||
|class="noprint"|<ref name="CRC" /> | |class="noprint"|<ref name="CRC" /> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| H | | '''H''' | ||
| {{Chem|link=Hydrogen|H|2}}(''g'') + 2{{e-}} | | '''{{Chem|link=Hydrogen|H|2}}(''g'') + 2{{e-}}''' | ||
|⇌ | |⇌ | ||
| 2{{chem|H|−}} | | '''2{{chem|H|−}}''' | ||
| −2.23 | | '''−2.23''' | ||
|2 | |'''2''' | ||
|class="noprint"|<ref name="CRC" /> | |class="noprint"|<ref name="CRC" /> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 823: | Line 823: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| B || B(OH){{su|b=4|p=−}} + 4{{H2O-nl}}(''l'') + 8{{e-}} || ⇌ || BH{{su|b=4|p=−}} + 8{{OH-|nolink=y}} || −1.24 || 8 || class=noprint | <ref name=AS5/>{{rp|788}} | | B || B(OH){{su|b=4|p=−}} + 4{{H2O-nl}}(''l'') + 8{{e-}} || ⇌ || BH{{su|b=4|p=−}} + 8{{OH-|nolink=y}} || −1.24 || 8 || class=noprint | <ref name=AS5/>{{rp|788}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Ti | | Ti | ||
| Line 833: | Line 831: | ||
|2 | |2 | ||
|class="noprint"|<ref name=AS5/>{{rp|792}} | |class="noprint"|<ref name=AS5/>{{rp|792}} | ||
|- | |||
| Ga || GaO(OH){{su|b=2|p=−}} + {{H2O-nl}}(''l'') + 3{{e-}} || ⇌ || Ga(''s'') + 3{{OH-|nolink=y}} || −1.22 || 3 || class=noprint | <ref name=AS5/>{{rp|788}} | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Zn | | Zn | ||
| Line 950: | Line 950: | ||
|class="noprint"|<ref name=webelements_fe/> | |class="noprint"|<ref name=webelements_fe/> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| H | | '''H''' | ||
| '''2{{H2O-nl}} + 2{{e-}}''' | | '''2{{H2O-nl}} + 2{{e-}}''' | ||
|⇌ | |⇌ | ||
| '''{{chem|H|2}}(''g'') + 2{{OH-|nolink=y}}''' | | '''{{chem|H|2}}(''g'') + 2{{OH-|nolink=y}}''' | ||
| −0.8277 | | '''−0.8277''' | ||
|2 | |'''2''' | ||
|class="noprint"|<ref name=van/> | |class="noprint"|<ref name=van/> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 989: | Line 989: | ||
|10 | |10 | ||
|class="noprint"| | |class="noprint"| | ||
|- | |||
| Cr | |||
| {{chem|[[Chromium|Cr]]|3+}} + 3{{e-}} | |||
|⇌ | |||
| Cr(''s'') | |||
| −0.74 | |||
|3 | |||
|class="noprint"|<ref name=Atk/> | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Te || 2Te(''s'') + 2{{e-}} || ⇌ || Te{{su|b=2|p=2−}} || −0.74 || 2 || class=noprint | <ref name=AS5/>{{rp|790}} | | Te || 2Te(''s'') + 2{{e-}} || ⇌ || Te{{su|b=2|p=2−}} || −0.74 || 2 || class=noprint | <ref name=AS5/>{{rp|790}} | ||
| Line 1,141: | Line 1,149: | ||
|2 | |2 | ||
|class="noprint"|<ref name="van??"/> | |class="noprint"|<ref name="van??"/> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Ti || {{chem|Ti|3+}} + {{e-}} || ⇌ || {{chem|Ti|2+}} || −0.37 || 1 || class=noprint | <ref name=AS5/>{{rp|792}} | | Ti || {{chem|Ti|3+}} + {{e-}} || ⇌ || {{chem|Ti|2+}} || −0.37 || 1 || class=noprint | <ref name=AS5/>{{rp|792}} | ||
| Line 1,718: | Line 1,718: | ||
| S || 2SO<sub>2</sub>(''aq'') + 2{{H+|nolink=y}} + 2{{e-}} || ⇌ || S<sub>2</sub>O{{su|b=3|p=2−}} + H<sub>2</sub>O(''l'') || 0.4 || 2 || class=noprint | <ref name=AS5 />{{rp|790}} | | S || 2SO<sub>2</sub>(''aq'') + 2{{H+|nolink=y}} + 2{{e-}} || ⇌ || S<sub>2</sub>O{{su|b=3|p=2−}} + H<sub>2</sub>O(''l'') || 0.4 || 2 || class=noprint | <ref name=AS5 />{{rp|790}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| O | | '''O''' | ||
| '''{{chem|O|2}}(''g'') + 2{{H2O-nl}} + 4{{e-}}''' | | '''{{chem|O|2}}(''g'') + 2{{H2O-nl}} + 4{{e-}}''' | ||
|⇌ | |⇌ | ||
| '''4{{OH-|nolink=y}}(''aq'')''' | | '''4{{OH-|nolink=y}}(''aq'')''' | ||
| 0.401 | | '''0.401''' | ||
|4 | |'''4''' | ||
|class="noprint"|<ref name=Atk/> | |class="noprint"|<ref name=Atk/> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 1,918: | Line 1,918: | ||
| 0.75 | | 0.75 | ||
|1 | |1 | ||
|class="noprint"|<ref>{{#invoke:cite|journal|last1=Toyoshima |first1=A. |last2=Kasamatsu |first2=Y. |first3=K. |last3=Tsukada |first4=M. |last4=Asai |first5=Y. |last5=Kitatsuji |first6=Y. |last6=Ishii |first7=H. |last7=Toume |first8=I. |last8=Nishinaka |first9=H. |last9=Haba |first10=K. |last10=Ooe |first11=W. |last11=Sato |first12=A. |last12=Shinohara |first13=K. |last13=Akiyama |first14=Y. |last14=Nagame |date=8 July 2009 |title=Oxidation of element 102, nobelium, with flow electrolytic column chromatography on an atom-at-a-time scale |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=131 |issue=26 |pages=9180–1 |doi=10.1021/ja9030038 |pmid=19514720 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/Oxidation_of_Element_102_Nobelium_with_Flow_Electrolytic_Column_Chromatography_on_an_Atom_at_a_Time_Scale/2844817 }}</ref> | |class="noprint"|<ref>{{#invoke:cite|journal|last1=Toyoshima |first1=A. |last2=Kasamatsu |first2=Y. |first3=K. |last3=Tsukada |first4=M. |last4=Asai |first5=Y. |last5=Kitatsuji |first6=Y. |last6=Ishii |first7=H. |last7=Toume |first8=I. |last8=Nishinaka |first9=H. |last9=Haba |first10=K. |last10=Ooe |first11=W. |last11=Sato |first12=A. |last12=Shinohara |first13=K. |last13=Akiyama |first14=Y. |last14=Nagame |date=8 July 2009 |title=Oxidation of element 102, nobelium, with flow electrolytic column chromatography on an atom-at-a-time scale |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=131 |issue=26 |pages=9180–1 |doi=10.1021/ja9030038 |pmid=19514720 |bibcode=2009JAChS.131.9180T |url=https://figshare.com/articles/Oxidation_of_Element_102_Nobelium_with_Flow_Electrolytic_Column_Chromatography_on_an_Atom_at_a_Time_Scale/2844817 }}</ref> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Pt | | Pt | ||
| Line 2,242: | Line 2,242: | ||
|class="noprint"|<ref name=van/> | |class="noprint"|<ref name=van/> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| O | | '''O''' | ||
| '''{{chem|O|2}}(''g'') + 4{{H+|nolink=y}} + 4{{e-}}''' | | '''{{chem|O|2}}(''g'') + 4{{H+|nolink=y}} + 4{{e-}}''' | ||
|⇌ | |⇌ | ||
| '''2{{H2O-nl}}''' | | '''2{{H2O-nl}}''' | ||
| 1.229 | | '''1.229''' | ||
|4 | |'''4''' | ||
|class="noprint"|<ref name=Atk/> | |class="noprint"|<ref name=Atk/> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 2,666: | Line 2,666: | ||
<ref name=van92>{{#invoke:cite|book|last=Vanýsek |first=Petr |chapter=Electrochemical Series |editor-first=William M. |editor-last=Haynes |title=CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYPRBQAAQBAJ&pg=SA5-PA80 |date=2011 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-5512-6 |pages=5–80–9 |edition=92nd}}</ref> | <ref name=van92>{{#invoke:cite|book|last=Vanýsek |first=Petr |chapter=Electrochemical Series |editor-first=William M. |editor-last=Haynes |title=CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYPRBQAAQBAJ&pg=SA5-PA80 |date=2011 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-5512-6 |pages=5–80–9 |edition=92nd}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="van??">{{#invoke:cite|web|author=Petr Vanysek|title=Electrochemical series|website=depa.fquim.unam.mx |url=http://depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/TablasdepotencialesREDOX_26700.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210916165426/http://depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/TablasdepotencialesREDOX_26700.pdf|archive-date=2021-09-16 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | <ref name="van??">{{#invoke:cite|web|author=Petr Vanysek|title=Electrochemical series|website=depa.fquim.unam.mx |url=http://depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/TablasdepotencialesREDOX_26700.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210916165426/http://depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/TablasdepotencialesREDOX_26700.pdf|archive-date=2021-09-16 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | ||
<ref name=VanSrc>{{#invoke:cite|journal|last=Bratsch |first=Stephen G. |date=July 29, 1988 |orig-date=1 March 1988 |title=Standard electrode potentials and temperature coefficients in water at 298.15 K |url=https://srd.nist.gov/jpcrdreprint/1.555839.pdf |journal=Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data |publisher=American Institute of Physics |publication-date=1989 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.1063/1.555839 |via=NIST}}</ref> | <ref name=VanSrc>{{#invoke:cite|journal|last=Bratsch |first=Stephen G. |date=July 29, 1988 |orig-date=1 March 1988 |title=Standard electrode potentials and temperature coefficients in water at 298.15 K |url=https://srd.nist.gov/jpcrdreprint/1.555839.pdf |journal=Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data |publisher=American Institute of Physics |publication-date=1989 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.1063/1.555839 |bibcode=1989JPCRD..18....1B |via=NIST}}</ref> | ||
<ref name=Gre>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw}}</ref> | <ref name=Gre>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw}}</ref> | ||
<ref name=Bar2>{{#invoke:cite|book|last1=Bard |first1=A.J. |last2=Faulkner |first2=L.R. |title=Electrochemical Methods. Fundamentals and Applications |publisher=Wiley |year=2001 |isbn=9781118312803 |edition=2nd}}</ref> | <ref name=Bar2>{{#invoke:cite|book|last1=Bard |first1=A.J. |last2=Faulkner |first2=L.R. |title=Electrochemical Methods. Fundamentals and Applications |publisher=Wiley |year=2001 |isbn=9781118312803 |edition=2nd}}</ref> | ||
| Line 2,681: | Line 2,681: | ||
* {{#invoke:cite|web|title=P1: Standard Reduction Potentials by Element |author=Chemistry LibreTexts |work=Chemistry LibreTexts |date=2021-04-26 |access-date=2021-11-30 |url= https://chem.libretexts.org/Ancillary_Materials/Reference/Reference_Tables/Electrochemistry_Tables/P1%3A_Standard_Reduction_Potentials_by_Element}} | * {{#invoke:cite|web|title=P1: Standard Reduction Potentials by Element |author=Chemistry LibreTexts |work=Chemistry LibreTexts |date=2021-04-26 |access-date=2021-11-30 |url= https://chem.libretexts.org/Ancillary_Materials/Reference/Reference_Tables/Electrochemistry_Tables/P1%3A_Standard_Reduction_Potentials_by_Element}} | ||
* {{#invoke:cite|web|title=Standard Reduction Potentials |author=California State University, Northridge (CSUN) |work=csun.edu |date= |access-date=2021-11-30 |url= https://www.csun.edu/~hcchm003/321/Ered.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215093555/http://www.csun.edu/~hcchm003/321/Ered.pdf |archive-date=2017-12-15 |url-status=live |language=English}} | * {{#invoke:cite|web|title=Standard Reduction Potentials |author=California State University, Northridge (CSUN) |work=csun.edu |date= |access-date=2021-11-30 |url= https://www.csun.edu/~hcchm003/321/Ered.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215093555/http://www.csun.edu/~hcchm003/321/Ered.pdf |archive-date=2017-12-15 |url-status=live |language=English}} | ||
* {{#invoke:cite|web|title=Reduction potentials of one-electron couples involving free radicals in aqueous solution |last1=Wardman |first1=Peter |work=srd.nist.gov |year=1989 |access-date=2021-11-30 |url= https://srd.nist.gov/JPCRD/jpcrd372.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://srd.nist.gov/JPCRD/jpcrd372.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |language=English}} | * {{#invoke:cite|web|title=Reduction potentials of one-electron couples involving free radicals in aqueous solution |last1=Wardman |first1=Peter |work=srd.nist.gov |year=1989 |volume=18 |issue=4 |page=1637 |doi=10.1063/1.555843 |bibcode=1989JPCRD..18.1637W |access-date=2021-11-30 |url= https://srd.nist.gov/JPCRD/jpcrd372.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://srd.nist.gov/JPCRD/jpcrd372.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |language=English}} | ||
* http://www.jesuitnola.org/upload/clark/Refs/red_pot.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720062116/http://www.jesuitnola.org/upload/clark/Refs/red_pot.htm |date=2008-07-20 }} | * http://www.jesuitnola.org/upload/clark/Refs/red_pot.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720062116/http://www.jesuitnola.org/upload/clark/Refs/red_pot.htm |date=2008-07-20 }} | ||
* https://web.archive.org/web/20150924015049/http://www.fptl.ru/biblioteka/spravo4niki/handbook-of-Chemistry-and-Physics.pdf | * https://web.archive.org/web/20150924015049/http://www.fptl.ru/biblioteka/spravo4niki/handbook-of-Chemistry-and-Physics.pdf | ||
Latest revision as of 01:56, 14 November 2025
Template:Short description Template:Use American English Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
The data below tabulates standard electrode potentials (E°), in volts relative to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), at:
- Temperature Template:Cvt;
- Effective concentration (activity) 1 (dimensionless) for each aqueous or amalgamated (mercury-alloyed) species;
- Unit activity for each solvent and pure solid or liquid species; and
- Absolute partial pressure Template:Cvt for each gaseous reagent — the convention in most literature data but not the current standard state (100 kPa).
Variations from these ideal conditions affect measured voltage via the Nernst equation.
Electrode potentials of successive elementary half-reactions cannot be directly added. However, the corresponding Gibbs free energy changes (∆G°) can be added. Those free energy changes satisfy
- ∆G° = –Template:MvarFE°,
where Template:Mvar electrons are transferred, and the Faraday constant Template:Mvar is the conversion factor describing Coulombs transferred per mole electrons. For example, from
- FeTemplate:2+ + 2Template:E- Template:Eqm Fe(s) (−0.44 V),
the energy to form one neutral atom of Fe(s) from one FeTemplate:2+ ion and two electrons is 2 × 0.44 eV = 0.88 eV, or 84 907 J/(mol Template:E-). That value is also the standard formation energy (∆Gf°) for an FeTemplate:2+ ion, since Template:E- and Fe(s) both have zero formation energy.
Data from different sources may cause table inconsistencies. For example: From additivity of Gibbs energies and canceling common factors, one must have But that equation does not hold exactly with the cited values.
Table of standard electrode potentials
Legend: (s) – solid; (l) – liquid; (g) – gas; (aq) – aqueous (default for all charged species); (Hg) – amalgam; bold – water electrolysis equations.
See also
- Galvanic series lists electrode potentials in saltwater
- Standard apparent reduction potentials in biochemistry at pH 7
- Reactivity series#Comparison with standard electrode potentials
Notes
<templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />
References
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv Template:RubberBible87th
- ↑ Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1263
- ↑ a b c d e Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ a b c d e Template:Greenwood&Earnshaw
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ David R. Lide, ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, Internet Version 2005, http://www.hbcpnetbase.com Template:Webarchive, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2005.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ a b c d e Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ a b c d e f Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1077
- ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "cite".
- ↑ a b c d e f g Script error: No such module "cite".
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- ↑ a b c d e Script error: No such module "cite".
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- ↑ Script error: No such module "cite".
External links
- Script error: No such module "cite".
- Script error: No such module "cite".
- Script error: No such module "cite".
- http://www.jesuitnola.org/upload/clark/Refs/red_pot.htm Template:Webarchive
- https://web.archive.org/web/20150924015049/http://www.fptl.ru/biblioteka/spravo4niki/handbook-of-Chemistry-and-Physics.pdf
- http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/tables/electpot.html#c1