Tertiary education: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 01:22, 18 November 2025

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File:Mathematics lecture at the Helsinki University of Technology.jpg

Students attend a linear algebra lecture at a tertiary institution: Helsinki University of Technology in Finland.

File:Auto mechanics class at Chawama Youth Resource Centre (5348624275).jpg

A student learning about automotive repair at the Chawama Youth Resource Centre in Lusaka, Zambia

Tertiary education (also called higher education or post-secondary education) is the educational level following the completion of secondary education. The World Bank defines tertiary education as including universities, colleges, and vocational schools.^[1] Higher education is taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, while vocational education beyond secondary education is known as further education in the United Kingdom, or included under the category of continuing education in the United States.

Tertiary education generally culminates in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees. Higher education represents levels 5, 6, 7, and 8 of the 2011 version of the International Standard Classification of Education structure. Tertiary education at a nondegree level is sometimes referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education.

UNESCO stated that tertiary education focuses on learning endeavors in specialized fields. It includes academic and higher vocational education.^[2] The World Bank's 2019 World Development Report on the future of work^[3] argues that given the future of work and the increasing role of technology in value chains, tertiary education is becoming even more relevant for workers to compete in the labor market.

Definition

File:20160512 GCC Graduation (26887523562).jpg

A post-secondary graduate receives a diploma during a graduation ceremony at Germanna Community College in Virginia.

Higher education, also called post-secondary education, third-level or tertiary education, is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completion of secondary education. This consists of universities, colleges and polytechnics that offer formal degrees beyond high school or secondary school education.

The International Standard Classification of Education in 1997 initially classified all tertiary education together in the 1997 version of its schema. They were referred to as level 5 and doctoral studies at level 6. In 2011, this was refined and expanded in the 2011 version of the structure. Higher education at undergraduate level, masters and doctoral level became levels 6, 7, and 8. Nondegree level tertiary education, sometimes referred to as further education or continuing education was reordered as level 4, with level 5 for some higher courses.^[4]

In the days when few pupils progressed beyond primary education or basic education, the term "higher education" was often used to refer to secondary education, which can create some confusion.Template:NoteTag This is the origin of the term high school for various schools for children between the ages of 14 and 18 (United States) or 11 and 18 (United Kingdom and Australia).^[5]

History

House of Life 'library' in hieroglyphs
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Template:Hiero/era \| Era: Template:Hiero/era

File:Archiginnasio ora blu Bologna.jpg

Bologna University in Italy, established in 1088 A.D., is the world's oldest university in continuous operation.

File:ChiostroPietroMartireNapoli.jpg

Established in 1224 by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, University of Naples Federico II in Italy is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.^[6]^[7]

The oldest known institutions of higher education are credited to Dynastic Egypt, with Pr-Anx (houses of life) built as libraries and scriptoriums, containing works on law, architecture, mathematics, and medicine, and involved in the training of "swnw" and "swnwt" (male and female doctors); extant Egyptian papyri from the 3rd millennia BC are in several collections.^[8]

In the Greek world, Plato's Academy (Template:Circa), Aristotle's Lyceum (Template:Circa) and other philosophical-mathematical schools became models for other establishments, particularly in Alexandria of Egypt, under the Ptolemies.

In South Asia, the city of Taxila Template:When, later the great Buddhist monastery of Nalanda (Template:Circa), attracted students and professors even from distant regions.^[9]

In China, the Han dynasty established chairs to teach the Five Confucean Classics, in the Grand School, Taixue (Template:If empty CE), to train cadres for the imperial administration.^[10]^[11] All these higher-learning institutions became models for other schools within their sphere of cultural influence.^[12]

In 425 CE, the Byzantine emperor Theodosius II innovated as he established the Pandidakterion, with a faculty of 31 professors, to train public servants. In the 7th and 8th centuries, "cathedral schools" were created in Western Europe. Meanwhile, the first Madrasahs were founded in the Muslim empire – initially mere primary schools in the premises of major mosques, which gradually evolved toward secondary, later higher education. However high the intellectual level of these schools could be, it would be anachronistic to call them "universities". Their organization and purposes were markedly different from the corporations of students and teachers, independent from both the Church and the State, which established themselves from the 12th century in Western Europe as Universitas Studiorum.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

According to UNESCO and Guinness World Records, the University of al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, Morocco is the oldest existing continually operating higher educational institution in the world.^[13]^[14] and is occasionally referred to as the oldest university by scholars.^[15] Undoubtedly, there are older institutions of higher education, for example, the University of Ez-Zitouna in Montfleury, Tunis, was first established in 737. The University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088, is the world's oldest university in continuous operation,^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]^[20] and the first university in the sense of a higher-learning and degree-awarding institute, as the word universitas was coined at its foundation.^[19]^[16]^[17]^[18]

20th century

Since World War II, developed and many developing countries have increased the participation of the age group who mostly studies higher education from the elite rate, of up to 15 per cent, to the mass rate of 16 to 50 per cent.^[21]^[22] In many developed countries, participation in higher education has continued to increase towards universal or, what Trow later called, open access, where over half of the relevant age group participate in higher education.^[23] Higher education is important to national economies, both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. College educated workers have commanded a measurable wage premium and are much less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers.^[24]^[25]

21st century

In recent years, universities have been criticized for permitting or actively encouraging grade inflation.^[26]^[27] Widening participation can increase the supply of graduates in individual fields of study over the demand for their skills, aggravating graduate unemployment, underemployment, overqualification and educational inflation.^[28]^[29] Some commentators have suggested that the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education is rapidly making certain aspects of the traditional higher education system obsolete.^[30] The Israeli-funded Institute for the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy and some Israeli media have claimed that involvement and funding by Qatar in higher education in the US has resulted in what they regard as growing anti-Semitism on campuses, in particular in connection with Gaza war protests.^[31]Template:Better source needed^[32]

Enrollment

File:Percentage of 25-29-year-olds who have completed at least four years of tertiary education, by wealth, selected countries, 2008-2014.svg

Percentage of 25–29-year-olds who have completed at least four years of tertiary education, by wealth, selected countries, 2008–2014

Globally, the gross enrollment ratio in tertiary education increased from 19% in 2000 to 38% in 2017, with the female enrollment ratio exceeding the male ratio by 4 percentage points.^[33]

The tertiary gross enrollment ratio ranges from 9% in low-income countries to 77% in high-income countries, where, after rapid growth in the 2000s, reached a plateau in the 2010s.^[33]

Between now and 2030, the biggest increase in tertiary enrollment ratios is expected in middle-income countries, where it will reach 52%. Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) commits countries to providing lifelong learning opportunities for all, including tertiary education.^[33]

This commitment is monitored through the global indicator for target 4.3 in the sustainable development goal 4 (SDG 4), which measures the participation rate of youth and adults in formal and non-formal education and training in the previous 12 months, whether for work or non-work purposes.^[33]

The right of access to higher education is mentioned in a number of international human rights instruments. The UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 declares, in Article 13, that "higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education".^[34] In Europe, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education.^[35]

University completion rates for students with disabilities are much lower compared to completion rates of students without disabilities.^[36]

Grade and educational inflation

Some tertiary schools have been criticized as having permitted or actively encouraged grade inflation.^[26]^[37] In addition, certain scholars contend that the supply of graduates in some fields of study is exceeding the demand for their skills, aggravating graduate unemployment, underemployment and educational inflation.^[38]^[39]

Effects

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Tertiary education has been linked to increases in human capital and economic growth, as well as reductions in poverty.^[41]^[42] A 2025 study found evidence suggesting that those who attend college are less prone to indoctrination.^[43]

Providers

File:Columbia University, NYC (June 2014) - 09.JPG

Alma Mater by Daniel Chester French, Columbia University. The alma mater, meaning "nourishing mother" in Latin, is one of the most enduring symbols of the university. The phrase was first used to describe the University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088.

In the U.S., higher education is provided by universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, conservatories, and institutes of technology, and certain college-level institutions, including vocational schools, universities of applied sciences, trade schools, and other career-based colleges that award degrees. Tertiary education at a nondegree level is sometimes referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education.^[44]^[45]

Higher education includes teaching, research, exacting applied work, as exists in medical schools and dental schools, and social services activities of universities.^[46]

Within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level, and beyond that, graduate-level (or postgraduate level). The latter level of education is often referred to as graduate school, especially in North America. In addition to the skills that are specific to any particular degree, potential employers in any profession are looking for evidence of critical thinking and analytical reasoning skills, teamworking skills, information literacy, ethical judgment, decision-making skills, fluency in speaking and writing, problem solving skills, and a wide knowledge of liberal arts and sciences.^[47]

Credential evaluation

Foreign tertiary degrees can be validated after credential evaluation, for example according to the Lisbon Recognition Convention.^[48]

Statistics

The total expenditure on tertiary education (ISCED levels 5 to 8) as a percentage of GDP for individual countries is shown in the following table

Country	Tertiary Education expenditure as % of GDP 2020^[49]
Template:Flaglist	1.9
Template:Flaglist	1.8
Template:Flaglist	1.6
Template:Flaglist	1.2
Template:Flaglist	2.4
Template:Flaglist	2.7
Template:Flaglist	1.5
Template:Flaglist	1.6
Template:Flaglist	1.2
Template:Flaglist	1.1
Template:Flaglist	1.9
Template:Flaglist	1.5
Template:Flaglist	1.6
Template:Flaglist	1.6
Template:Flaglist	1.3
Template:Flaglist	0.9
Template:Flaglist	0.9
Template:Flaglist	1.4
Template:Flaglist	0.8
Template:Flaglist	1.4
Template:Flaglist	1.0
Template:Flaglist	1.4
Template:Flaglist	1.4
Template:Flaglist	1.2
Template:Flaglist	0.5
Template:Flaglist	1.2
Template:Flaglist	1.8
Template:Flaglist	1.6
Template:Flaglist	2.0
Template:Flaglist	1.3
Template:Flaglist	1.3
Template:Flaglist	0.8
Template:Flaglist	1.1
Template:Flaglist	1.2
Template:Flaglist	1.5
Template:Flaglist	1.5
Template:Flaglist	1.6
Template:Flaglist	1.5
Template:Flaglist	1.5
Template:Flaglist	2.5

The percentage of adults who have attained individual tertiary education levels by country is shown in the following table.

Country	Ages 25–64: % attaining a tertiary degree course equivalent to at least:^[50]
Country	Any tertiary	Bachelor's	Master's	Doctoral
Template:Flaglist	24.8			1.4
Template:Flaglist	51.5	39.4	10.9	1.9
Template:Flaglist	35.6	20.4	14.8	1.2
Template:Flaglist	45.8	45.0	20.1	1.1
Template:Flaglist	21.0	21.0	1.0	0.3
Template:Flaglist	29.8	29.8	20.4	0.3
Template:Flaglist	62.7
Template:Flaglist	31.4
Template:Flaglist	18.5
Template:Flaglist	28.3
Template:Flaglist	25.3
Template:Flaglist	26.7	26.5	19.7	0.7
Template:Flaglist	42.1	37.0	16.3	1.5
Template:Flaglist	42.1	36.5	21.8	0.8
Template:Flaglist	42.6	35.1	17.3	1.3
Template:Flaglist	41.6	27.2	15.2	1.0
Template:Flaglist	32.5	31.9	13.6	1.9
Template:Flaglist	35.1	34.7	9.3	0.9
Template:Flaglist	29.4	28.5	13.9	0.5
Template:Flaglist	12.9	12.9	3.4	3.4
Template:Flaglist	13.1	10.3	0.8	0.0
Template:Flaglist	43.6	39.4	18.1	1.2
Template:Flaglist	54.4	44.3	16.6	1.7
Template:Flaglist	50.6	39.6	15.2	1.2
Template:Flaglist	20.3	20.2	14.6	0.6
Template:Flaglist	56.1
Template:Flaglist	39.5	35.1	18.4	0.4
Template:Flaglist	46.5	46.5	16.5	0.8
Template:Flaglist	51.5	46.6	31.4	2.9
Template:Flaglist	20.6	20.1	1.9	0.1
Template:Flaglist	44.7	42.4	18.2	1.2
Template:Flaglist	39.8	35.8	6.3	1.1
Template:Flaglist	48.1	36.5	15.4	1.5
Template:Flaglist	33.9	33.8	26.2	0.8
Template:Flaglist	31.5	31.2	21.7	0.9
Template:Flaglist	19.7
Template:Flaglist	29.2	29.1	25.3	0.9
Template:Flaglist	40.1	31.7	20.1	3.7
Template:Flaglist	52.8
Template:Flaglist	13.9
Template:Flaglist	41.1	28.5	17.2	0.8
Template:Flaglist	48.5	38.7	18.7	2.0
Template:Flaglist	44.7	44.7	20.0	3.2
Template:Flaglist	25.0	18.3	2.3	0.4
Template:Flaglist	51.3	42.3	15.8	1.7
Template:Flaglist	50.0	39.4	14.4	2.1

A 2014 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development states that by 2014, 84 percent of young people were completing upper secondary education over their lifetimes, in high-income countries. Tertiary-educated individuals were earning twice as much as median workers. In contrast to historical trends in education, young women were more likely to complete upper secondary education than young men. Additionally, access to education was expanding and growth in the number of people receiving university education was rising sharply. By 2014, close to 40 percent of people aged 25–34 (and around 25 percent of those aged 55–64), were being educated at university.^[51]

By region

Australia

File:Deakin University Burwood Campus.jpg

Deakin University, one of Australia's 43 universities

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Within Australia, "tertiary education" refers to continuing studies after a student completes secondary school. Tertiary education options include universities, technical and further education (TAFE) and private universities.^[52]

Europe

Although tertiary education in the EU includes university, it can differ from country to country.

France

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Italy

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File:Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza -Rome.jpg

Sapienza University of Rome. It was founded in 1303 and is as such one of the world's oldest universities,^[53] and with 122,000 students, it is the largest university in Europe.^[54]

Education in Italy is compulsory from 6 to 16 years of age,^[55] and is divided into five stages: kindergarten (scuola dell'infanzia), primary school (scuola primaria or scuola elementare), lower secondary school (scuola secondaria di primo grado or scuola media inferiore), upper secondary school (scuola secondaria di secondo grado or scuola media superiore) and university (università).^[56] Education is free in Italy and free education is available to children of all nationalities who are residents in Italy. Italy has both a private and public education system.^[57]

File:POLIMI Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32 - on the right the building 3.jpg

The Polytechnic University of Milan is the city's oldest university, founded in 1863. It is the best university in Italy.^[58]

File:Chiostro Unicatt.jpg

Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, an Italian private research university founded in 1921. Its main campus is located in Milan, Italy, with satellite campuses in Brescia, Piacenza, Cremona and Rome. Degrees are offered both in Italian and in English.^[59]

Italy has a large and international network of public or state-affiliated universities and schools offering degrees in higher education. State-run universities of Italy constitute the main percentage of tertiary education in Italy and are managed under the supervision of Italian's Ministry of Education.

Italian universities are among the oldest universities in the world; the University of Bologna (founded in 1088) notably, is the oldest one ever; also, University of Naples Federico II is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.^[60]^[7] Most universities in Italy are state-supported. 33 Italian universities were ranked among the world's top 500 in 2019, the third-largest number in Europe after the United Kingdom and Germany.^[61]

There are also a number of Superior Graduate Schools (Grandes écoles)^[62] or Scuola Superiore Universitaria, which offer officially recognized titles, including the Diploma di Perfezionamento equivalent to a Doctorate, Dottorato di Ricerca i.e. Research Doctorate or Doctor Philosophiae i.e. PhD.^[63] Some of them also organize master's degree courses. There are three Superior Graduate Schools with "university status", three institutes with the status of Doctoral Colleges, which function at graduate and post-graduate level. Nine further schools are direct offshoots of the universities (i.e. do not have their own 'university status'). The first one is the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa (founded in 1810 by Napoleon as a branch of École Normale Supérieure), taking the model of organization from the famous École Normale Supérieure. These institutions are commonly referred to as "Schools of Excellence" (i.e. "Scuole di Eccellenza").^[62]^[64]

Italy hosts a broad variety of universities, colleges and academies. Founded in 1088, the University of Bologna is likely the oldest in the world.^[65] In 2009, the University of Bologna is, according to The Times, the only Italian college in the top 200 World Universities. Milan's Bocconi University has been ranked among the top 20 best business schools in the world by The Wall Street Journal international rankings, especially thanks to its M.B.A. program, which in 2007 placed it no. 17 in the world in terms of graduate recruitment preference by major multinational companies.^[66] Bocconi was also ranked by Forbes as the best worldwide in the specific category Value for Money.^[67] In May 2008, Bocconi overtook several traditionally top global business schools in the Financial Times Executive education ranking, reaching no. 5 in Europe and no. 15 in the world.^[68]

Other top universities and polytechnics are the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore in Milan, the LUISS in Rome, the Polytechnic University of Turin, the Politecnico di Milano (which in 2011 was ranked as the 48th best technical university in the world by QS World University Rankings^[69]), the University of Rome La Sapienza (which in 2005 was Europe's 33rd best university,^[70] and ranks among Europe's 50 and the world's 150 best colleges^[71] and in 2013, the Center for World University Rankings ranked the Sapienza University of Rome 62nd in the world and the top in Italy in its World University Rankings.^[72]) and the University of Milan (whose research and teaching activities have developed over the years and have received important international recognition). This university is the only Italian member of the League of European Research Universities (LERU), a prestigious group of twenty research-intensive European Universities. It has also been awarded ranking positions such as 1st in Italy and 7th in Europe (The Leiden Ranking – Universiteit Leiden).

Portugal

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Ukraine

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United Kingdom

Under devolution in the United Kingdom, education is administered separately in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland. In England, the term "tertiary education" aligns with the global term "higher education" (i.e. post-18 study).^[73] In 2018 the Welsh Government adopted the term "tertiary education" to refer to post-16 education and training in Wales.^[74] Since the 1970s, however, specialized further education colleges in England and Wales have called themselves "tertiary colleges" although being part of the secondary education process. These institutions cater for both school leavers and adults, thus combining the main functions of an FE college and a sixth form college.^[75] Generally, district councils with such colleges have adopted a tertiary system or structure where a single local institution provides all the 16–19 and adult education, and where schools do not universally offer sixth forms (i.e. schools only serve ages 11–16). However the Further and Higher Education Act 1992 has effectively prevented the creation of new tertiary colleges.^[76]

North America

Canada

File:Educationincanada-eng.png

Canada by province and territory, showing the percentage of the population aged 25 to 64 who had a bachelor's degree or higher, and the percentage point change from 2016 to 2021^[77]

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United States

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File:Upper Quad Gate in the fall.jpg

The University of Pennsylvania, an American research university

The higher education system in the United States is decentralized and regulated independently by each state^[78] with accreditors playing a key role in ensuring institutions meet minimum standards. It is large and diverse with institutions that are privately governed and institutions that are owned and operated by state and local governments. Some private institutions are affiliated with religious organizations whereas others are secular with enrollment ranging from a few dozen to tens of thousands of students. The United States Department of Education presents a broad-spectrum view of tertiary education and detailed information on the nation's educational structure, accreditation procedures, and connections to state as well as federal agencies and entities.^[79]

The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education provides one framework for classifying U.S. colleges and universities in several different ways.^[80] US tertiary education also includes various non-profit organizations promoting professional development of individuals in the field of higher education and helping expand awareness of related issues like international student services and complete campus internationalization.^[81]^[82]

Africa

Nigeria

File:FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NEKEDE OWERRI front gate.jpg

Federal Polytechnic, Nekede in Owerri, Nigeria

In Nigeria, tertiary education refers to post-secondary education received at universities (government or privately funded), monotechnics, polytechnics and colleges of education. After completing a secondary education, students may enroll in a tertiary institution or acquire a vocational education. Students are required to sit for the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board Entrance Examination (JAMB) as well as the Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE) or General Certificate Examination (GCE) and meet varying cut-off marks to gain admission into a tertiary institution.^[83]

Asia

Japan

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File:Yasuda Hall, Tokyo Daigaku.jpg

University of Tokyo, a research university in Tokyo

According to MEXT (Ministry of Education) and UNESCO, following types of education are classified as tertiary education: University education (undergraduate, postgraduate and professional degrees), two-year colleges (Tanki Daigaku), colleges of technology and specialised colleges.^[84]

Hong Kong

File:Chinese University of Hong Kong 香港中文大學.JPG

Chinese University of Hong Kong, one of Hong Kong's universities

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". In Hong Kong "tertiary education" or "higher education" refers to any education higher than secondary education. Tertiary education includes universities, post secondary colleges, statutory universities, and publicly funded institutions.

Philippines

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Singapore

File:University Hall, National University of Singapore, February 2020.jpg

National University of Singapore, one of Singapore's universities

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". In Singapore, "tertiary education" or "Post-secondary Education" refers to any education higher than secondary education. Tertiary education includes, Junior Colleges, Centralised institutes, Polytechnics, the Institute of Technical Education and Universities.

Notes

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References

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Tertiary education: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 01:22, 18 November 2025

Contents

Definition

History

20th century

21st century

Enrollment

Grade and educational inflation

Effects

Providers

Credential evaluation

Statistics

By region

Australia

Europe

France

Italy

Portugal

Ukraine

United Kingdom

North America

Canada

United States

Africa

Nigeria

Asia

Japan

Hong Kong

Philippines

Singapore

See also

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

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-{{pp|small=yes}}
 {{short description|Third stage of education for adults}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
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 [[File:Auto mechanics class at Chawama Youth Resource Centre (5348624275).jpg|thumb|A student learning about automotive repair at the Chawama Youth Resource Centre in [[Lusaka]], [[Zambia]]]]
-'''Tertiary education''' ('''higher education''', or '''post-secondary education''') is the [[educational level]] following the completion of [[secondary education]].
+'''Tertiary education''' (also called '''higher education''' or '''post-secondary education''') is the [[educational level]] following the completion of [[secondary education]]. The [[World Bank]] defines tertiary education as including [[universities]], [[colleges]], and [[vocational schools]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/tertiaryeducation#what_why|title=Tertiary Education|publisher=World Bank|access-date=2017-12-09|archive-date=10 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210021931/http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/tertiaryeducation#what_why|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Higher education'' is taken to include [[undergraduate]] and [[postgraduate education]], while [[vocational education]] beyond secondary education is known as ''[[further education]]'' in the [[United Kingdom]], or included under the category of ''[[continuing education]]'' in the [[United States]].
-The [[World Bank]] defines tertiary education as including [[universities]], [[colleges]], and [[vocational schools]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/tertiaryeducation#what_why|title=Tertiary Education|publisher=World Bank|access-date=2017-12-09|archive-date=10 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210021931/http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/tertiaryeducation#what_why|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Higher education'' is taken to include [[undergraduate]] and [[postgraduate education]], while [[vocational education]] beyond secondary education is known as ''[[further education]]'' in the [[United Kingdom]], or included under the category of ''[[continuing education]]'' in the [[United States]].
 Tertiary education generally culminates in the receipt of [[Academic certificate|certificate]]s, [[diploma]]s, or [[academic degree]]s. Higher education represents levels 5, 6, 7, and 8 of the [[ISCED#2011 version|2011 version]] of the [[International Standard Classification of Education]] structure. Tertiary education at a nondegree level is sometimes referred to as [[further education]] or [[continuing education]] as distinct from higher education.
-[[UNESCO]] stated that tertiary education focuses on learning endeavors in specialized fields. It includes academic and higher vocational education.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://uis.unesco.org/node/334812|title=Tertiary education (ISCED levels 5 to 8)|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=2018-07-02|archive-date=8 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208231934/http://uis.unesco.org/node/334812|url-status=dead}}</ref>
+[[UNESCO]] stated that tertiary education focuses on learning endeavors in specialized fields. It includes academic and higher vocational education.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://uis.unesco.org/node/334812|title=Tertiary education (ISCED levels 5 to 8)|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=2018-07-02|archive-date=8 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208231934/http://uis.unesco.org/node/334812}}</ref> The [[World Bank]]'s 2019 [[World Development Report]] on the future of work<ref>{{cite web| url = http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/816281518818814423/pdf/2019-WDR-Report.pdf| title = World Bank World Development Report 2019: The Changing Nature of Work.| access-date = 12 October 2018| archive-date = 6 September 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190906212558/http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/816281518818814423/pdf/2019-WDR-Report.pdf| url-status = live}}</ref> argues that given the future of work and the increasing role of technology in value chains, tertiary education is becoming even more relevant for workers to compete in the labor market.
-The [[World Bank]]'s 2019 [[World Development Report]] on the future of work<ref>{{cite web| url = http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/816281518818814423/pdf/2019-WDR-Report.pdf| title = World Bank World Development Report 2019: The Changing Nature of Work.| access-date = 12 October 2018| archive-date = 6 September 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190906212558/http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/816281518818814423/pdf/2019-WDR-Report.pdf| url-status = live}}</ref> argues that given the future of work and the increasing role of technology in value chains, tertiary education is becoming even more relevant for workers to compete in the labor market.
 ==Definition==
 [[File:20160512_GCC_Graduation_(26887523562).jpg|thumb|A post-secondary graduate receives a diploma during a graduation ceremony at [[Germanna Community College]] in Virginia.]]
-Higher education, also called post-secondary education, third-level or tertiary education, is an optional final stage of [[formal learning]] that occurs after completion of [[secondary education]]. This consists of [[universities]], [[colleges]] and [[Polytechnic (disambiguation)|polytechnics]] that offer formal degrees beyond high school or secondary school education.
+Higher education, also called post-secondary education, third-level or tertiary education, is an optional final stage of [[formal learning]] that occurs after completion of [[secondary education]]. This consists of [[universities]], [[colleges]] and [[Polytechnic|polytechnics]] that offer formal degrees beyond high school or secondary school education.
 The [[International Standard Classification of Education]] in 1997 initially classified all tertiary education together in the [[International Standard Classification of Education#1997 version|1997 version]] of its schema. They were referred to as level 5 and doctoral studies at level 6. In 2011, this was refined and expanded in the [[ISCED#2011 version|2011 version]] of the structure. Higher education at undergraduate level, masters and doctoral level became levels 6, 7, and 8. Nondegree level tertiary education, sometimes referred to as [[further education]] or [[continuing education]] was reordered as level 4, with level 5 for some higher courses.<ref>[http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Documents/isced-2011-en.pdf Revision of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525154803/http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Documents/isced-2011-en.pdf |date=2017-05-25 }}. Retrieved 5 April 2012.</ref>
 In the days when few pupils progressed beyond [[primary education]] or [[basic education]], the term "higher education" was often used to refer to secondary education, which can create some confusion.{{NoteTag|For example, ''Higher Education: General and Technical'', a 1933 [[National Union of Teachers]] pamphlet by [[Lord Eustace Percy]], which is actually about secondary education and uses the two terms interchangeably.}} This is the origin of the term ''[[High school (North America)|high school]]'' for various schools for children between the ages of 14 and 18 (United States) or 11 and 18 (United Kingdom and Australia).<ref>{{Cite web |title=high school |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/high-school |website=Cambridge Dictionary |access-date=2021-06-24 |archive-date=2021-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227115551/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/high-school |url-status=live }}</ref>
+== History ==
+{{Hiero|House of Life <br /> 'library' |<hiero>pr-anx-pr</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}
+[[File:Archiginnasio ora blu Bologna.jpg|thumb|[[Bologna University]] in Italy, established in 1088 A.D., is the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|world's oldest university in continuous operation]].]]
+[[File:ChiostroPietroMartireNapoli.jpg|thumb|Established in 1224 by [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]], [[University of Naples Federico II]] in Italy is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Storia d'Italia |date=7 August 1981 |publisher=UTET |isbn=88-02-03568-7 |volume=4 |location=Torino |page=122}}</ref><ref name="Delle Donne">{{cite book |last=Delle Donne |first=Fulvio |title=Storia dello Studium di Napoli in età sveva |publisher=Mario Adda Editore |year=2010 |isbn=978-88-8082-841-9 |pages=9–10 |language=it}}</ref>]]
+The oldest known institutions of higher education are credited to Dynastic Egypt, with Pr-Anx (houses of life) built as libraries and scriptoriums, containing works on law, architecture, mathematics, and medicine, and involved in the training of "swnw" and "swnwt" (male and female [[Doctor (title)|doctors]]); extant [[List of ancient Egyptian papyri|Egyptian papyri]] from the 3rd millennia BC are in several collections.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gordan |first1=Andrew H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA154 |title=The Quick and the Dead: Biomedical Theory in Ancient Egypt |last2=Shwabe |first2=Calvin W. |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-04-12391-5 |series=Egyptological Memoirs |location=[[Leiden]] |page=154}}</ref>
+In the Greek world, [[Plato's Academy]] ({{Circa|387–86&nbsp;BCE}}), [[Lyceum (classical)|Aristotle's Lyceum]] ({{Circa|334–86&nbsp;BCE}}) and other philosophical-mathematical schools became models for other establishments, particularly in [[Alexandria]] of Egypt, under the [[Ptolemies]].
+In [[South Asia]], the city of [[Taxila]]{{when|date=December 2020}}, later the great Buddhist monastery of [[Nalanda]] ({{Circa|427–1197&nbsp;CE}}), attracted students and professors even from distant regions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mookerji |first=Radha Kumud |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjFfqpq7HhkC |title=Ancient Indian education: Brahmanical and Buddhist |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |year=1989 |isbn=978-81-208-0423-4 |edition=2nd |series=History and Culture Series |publication-place=Delhi |orig-date=1947}}</ref>
+In [[China]], the [[Han dynasty]] established chairs to teach the [[Four Books and Five Classics|Five Confucean Classics]], in the Grand School, [[Taixue]] ({{CE|{{Circa|3–1905}}}}), to train cadres for the imperial administration.<ref>{{cite book |last=Balazs |first=Étienne |title=La Bureaucratie céleste: recherches sur l'économie et la société de la Chine traditionnelle |publisher=Gallimard |year=1968 |series=Bibliothèque des sciences humaines |publication-place=Paris |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{citation |author=Peter Tze Ming Ng |title=Paradigm shift and the state of the field in the study of Christian higher education in China |work=Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie |issue=12 |pages=127–140 |year=2001}}</ref> All these higher-learning institutions became models for other schools within their sphere of cultural influence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=Rui |date=2019-09-02 |title=Emulating or integrating? Modern transformations of Chinese higher education |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17516234.2018.1448213 |journal=Journal of Asian Public Policy |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=294–311 |doi=10.1080/17516234.2018.1448213 |issn=1751-6234 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
+In 425 CE, the Byzantine emperor [[Theodosius II]] innovated as he established the [[Pandidakterion]], with a faculty of 31 professors, to train public servants. In the 7th and 8th centuries, "cathedral schools" were created in Western Europe. Meanwhile, the first Madrasahs were founded in the Muslim empire – initially mere primary schools in the premises of major mosques, which gradually evolved toward secondary, later higher education. However high the intellectual level of these schools could be, it would be anachronistic to call them "universities". Their organization and purposes were markedly different from the corporations of students and teachers, independent from both the Church and the State, which established themselves from the 12th century in Western Europe as ''Universitas Studiorum''.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}
+<!-- Istanbul [what university??] has a better claim to being the oldest university, though it suffered name change- see comments in GBR site.-->
+According to [[UNESCO]] and ''[[Guinness World Records]]'', the [[University of al-Qarawiyyin]] in [[Fez, Morocco]] is the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|oldest existing continually operating]] higher educational institution in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oldest higher-learning institution, oldest university |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/oldest-university |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007183911/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/3000/oldest-university |archive-date=2014-10-07 |access-date=2021-06-24 |website=Guinness World Records}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Medina of Fez |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/170 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919192617/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/170 |archive-date=19 September 2017 |access-date=7 April 2016 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref> and is occasionally referred to as the oldest university by scholars.<ref>Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC&pg=PA35 A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages]'', Cambridge University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|978-0-521-54113-8}}, pp.&nbsp;35–76 (35)</ref> Undoubtedly, there are older institutions of higher education, for example, the [[University of Ez-Zitouna]] in Montfleury, [[Tunis]], was first established in 737. The [[University of Bologna]], Italy, founded in 1088, is the world's oldest university in continuous operation,<ref name="topuniversities">{{cite web |title=Times Higher Education - QS World University Rankings 2007 - World's oldest universities |url=http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/worlds_oldest_universities/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117202932/http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/worlds_oldest_universities/ |archive-date=17 January 2009 |access-date=6 January 2010 |website=QS Top Universities}}</ref><ref name=":0a">{{cite book |last=Gaston |first=Paul L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wyjnHZ1IIlgC&pg=PA18 |title=The challenge of Bologna: What United States higher education has to learn from Europe, and why it matters that we learn it |date=2010 |publisher=Stylus Publishing |isbn=978-1-57922-366-3 |publication-place=Sterling, Virginia |page=18 |oclc=320189904}}</ref><ref name="Hunt Janin 2008">{{cite book |last=Janin |first=Hunt |title=The University in Medieval Life, 1179-1499 |date=2008 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-3462-6 |publication-place=Jefferson, NC |pages=55f}}</ref><ref name="Ridder-Symoens 1992">de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde: [https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC ''A History of the University in Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221124110224/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC&printsec=frontcover|date=2022-11-24}}, Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. 47–55</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Porticoes of Bologna |url=https://whc.unesco.org/fr/listesindicatives/5010/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815212252/https://whc.unesco.org/fr/listesindicatives/5010/ |archive-date=15 August 2020 |access-date=16 August 2020 |website=UNESCO Centre du patrimoine mondial |language=fr}}</ref> and the first university in the sense of a higher-learning and degree-awarding institute, as the word ''universitas'' was coined at its foundation.<ref name="Ridder-Symoens 1992" /><ref name="topuniversities" /><ref name=":0a" /><ref name="Hunt Janin 2008" /> <!--- The article [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation]] has some excellent source material about how what we think of as a "university" comes from Europe, starting around 1088; institutions of higher learning obviously pre-date that, but aren't universities as we now consider the term - and the article also has information on them.-->
+===20th century===
+Since [[World War II]], developed and many developing countries have increased the participation of the age group who mostly studies higher education from the elite rate, of up to 15 per cent, to the mass rate of 16 to 50 per cent.<ref>{{cite report |url=http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED091983.pdf |title=Problems in the transition from elite to mass higher education |last=Trow |first=Martin |year=1973 |publisher=Carnegie Commission on Higher Education |access-date=1 August 2013 |publication-place=Berkeley}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Brennan |first=John |title=Ten years on: Changing higher education in a changing world |publisher=Centre for Higher Education Research and Information, Open University |year=2002 |publication-place=Buckingham |pages=22–26 |chapter=The social role of the contemporary university: contradictions, boundaries and change |access-date=9 February 2014 |chapter-url=https://www.open.ac.uk/cheri/documents/ten-years-on.pdf#page=22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525155320/https://www.open.ac.uk/cheri/documents/ten-years-on.pdf#page=22 |archive-date=25 May 2017 }}</ref> In many developed countries, participation in higher education has continued to increase towards universal or, what Trow later called, open access, where over half of the relevant age group participate in higher education.<ref>{{citation |last=Trow |first=Martin |title=Reflections on the transition from elite to mass to universal access: forms and phases of higher education in modern societies since WWII |date=2005-08-05 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/96p3s213}} Republished in {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u3rtCh-EUIIC&pg=PA243 |title=International Handbook of Higher Education: Part One: Global Themes and Contemporary Challenges |date=2006-04-20 <!-- 2006-04-20 --> |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-4011-5 |editor-last=Forest |editor-first=James J. F. |series=Springer International Handbooks of Education |volume=18 |publication-place=Dordrecht, Netherlands |pages=243–280 |oclc=65166668 |editor-last2=Altbach |editor-first2=Philip G.}}</ref> Higher education is important to national [[economy|economies]], both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. College educated workers have commanded a measurable wage premium and are much less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers.<ref name="Simkovic">{{cite journal |last1=Simkovic |first1=Michael |date=5 September 2011 |title=Risk-Based Student Loans |journal=Washington and Lee Law Review |ssrn=1941070}}</ref><ref name="OECD">{{citation |author=OECD |title=Education at a Glance |year=2011}}</ref>
+===21st century===
+In recent years, universities have been criticized for permitting or actively encouraging [[grade inflation]].<ref name="gunn" /><ref>{{Citation |last=Baker |first=Simon |title=Is grade inflation a worldwide trend? |date=28 June 2018 |website=The World University Rankings |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/grade-inflation-worldwide-trend |access-date=23 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025154342/https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/grade-inflation-worldwide-trend |archive-date=25 October 2019 |url-status=live |publisher=Times Higher Education |quote=Departments where enrollments were falling felt under pressure to relax their grading practices to make their courses more attractive, leading to an "arms race" in grade inflation.}}</ref> [[Widening participation]] can increase the supply of graduates in individual fields of study over the demand for their skills, aggravating [[graduate unemployment]], [[underemployment]], [[overqualification]] and [[educational inflation]].<ref>{{Citation |last1=Coates |first1=Ken |title=Dream Factories: Why Universities Won't Solve the Youth Jobs Crisis |page=232 |year=2016 |url=https://www.dundurn.com/books_/t22117/a9781459733770-dream-factories |access-date=2021-09-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921081833/https://www.dundurn.com/books_/t22117/a9781459733770-dream-factories |archive-date=2021-09-21 |url-status=live |place=Toronto |publisher=Dundurn Books |isbn=978-1-4597-3377-0 |last2=Morrison |first2=Bill}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Brown |first1=Phillip |title=The Global Auction: The Broken Promises of Education, Jobs, and Incomes |page=208 |year=2012 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-global-auction-9780199926442?cc=us&lang=en& |access-date=2020-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310171126/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-global-auction-9780199926442?cc=us&lang=en& |archive-date=2021-03-10 |url-status=live |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-992644-2 |last2=Lauder |first2=Hugh |last3=Ashton |first3=David}}</ref> Some commentators have suggested that the [[Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education#Higher education|impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education]] is rapidly making certain aspects of the traditional higher education system obsolete.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaplan |first=Andreas |url=https://books.emeraldinsight.com/page/detail/Higher-Education-at-the-Crossroads-of-Disruption/?k=9781800715042 |title=Higher education at the crossroads of disruption: The university of the 21st century |date=2021-04-06 |publisher=Emerald |isbn=978-1-80071-504-2 |doi=10.1108/9781800715011 |s2cid=233594353}}</ref> The Israeli-funded [[Institute for the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy]] and some Israeli media have claimed that [[Qatari involvement in higher education in the United States|involvement and funding by Qatar in higher education in the US]] has resulted in what they regard as growing anti-Semitism on campuses, in particular in connection with [[Gaza war protests]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Follow the Money: Qatar Funding of Higher Education |url=https://isgap.org/follow-the-money/ |access-date=2023-12-24 |website=Institute for the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=April 2024 |reason=This is a web page which changes frequently. Cite one of their reports instead.}}<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Shulman |first=Sophie |date=30 October 2023 |title=Tuition of terror: Qatari money flowed into U.S. universities - and now it's fueling violence |url=https://www.calcalistech.com/ctechnews/article/jwhsqhrat |access-date=30 April 2024 |magazine=CTech |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth Group |publication-place=Rishon LeZion, Israel}}</ref>
 == Enrollment ==
-[[File:Percentage of 25-29-year-olds who have completed at least four years of tertiary education, by wealth, selected countries, 2008-2014.svg|thumb|Percentage of 25–29-year-olds who have completed at least four years of tertiary education, by wealth, selected countries, 2008-2014]]
+[[File:Percentage of 25-29-year-olds who have completed at least four years of tertiary education, by wealth, selected countries, 2008-2014.svg|thumb|Percentage of 25–29-year-olds who have completed at least four years of tertiary education, by wealth, selected countries, 2008–2014]]
 Globally, the gross [[Matriculation|enrollment]] ratio in tertiary [[education]] increased from 19% in 2000 to 38% in 2017, with the [[Female education|female]] enrollment ratio exceeding the male ratio by 4 percentage points.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000370738|title=#CommitToEducation|publisher=UNESCO|year=2019|isbn=978-92-3-100336-3|access-date=7 February 2020|archive-date=11 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211003256/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark%3A/48223/pf0000370738|url-status=live}}</ref>
@@ Line 66: / Line 85: @@
   | page =232
   | url =https://www.dundurn.com/books/Dream-Factories
-  | isbn =9781459733770
+  | isbn =978-1-4597-3377-0
   | access-date =18 July 2020
   | archive-date =1 June 2016
   | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20160601084152/https://www.dundurn.com/books/Dream-Factories
- | url-status =dead
   }}</ref><ref>{{Citation
   | last1 =Brown
@@ Line 88: / Line 106: @@
   | bibcode =2011IREdu..57..785A
   | url =https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-global-auction-9780199926442
-  | isbn =9780199926442 | s2cid =153328528
+  | isbn =978-0-19-992644-2 | s2cid =153328528
   | url-access =subscription
   }}</ref>
@@ Line 96: / Line 114: @@
 Graduates of tertiary education are likely to have different worldviews and moral values than non-graduates. Graduates are also more likely to embrace cultural and ethnic diversity and express more positive views towards minority groups. For international relationships, graduates are more likely to favor openness, supporting policies like [[free trade]], [[open border]]s, and more liberal policies regarding [[international migration]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-052217-104957 |doi-access=free |title=The Changing Cleavage Politics of Western Europe |year=2020 |last1=Ford |first1=Robert |last2=Jennings |first2=Will |journal=Annual Review of Political Science |volume=23 |pages=295–314}}</ref>
-Tertiary education can increase [[human capital]] and [[economic growth]].<ref name="t951">{{cite journal | last=Valero | first=Anna | last2=Van Reenen | first2=John | title=The economic impact of universities: Evidence from across the globe | journal=Economics of Education Review | volume=68 | date=2019 | doi=10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.09.001 | doi-access=free | pages=53–67}}</ref>
+Tertiary education has been linked to increases in [[human capital]] and [[economic growth]], as well as [[Poverty reduction|reductions in poverty]].<ref name="t951">{{cite journal | last=Valero | first=Anna | last2=Van Reenen | first2=John | title=The economic impact of universities: Evidence from across the globe | journal=Economics of Education Review | volume=68 | date=2019 | doi=10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.09.001 | doi-access=free | pages=53–67}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gethin |first=Amory |date=2025-10-11 |title=Distributional Growth Accounting: Education and the Reduction of Global Poverty, 1980–2019 |url=https://academic.oup.com/qje/article/140/4/2571/8210388 |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |language=en |volume=140 |issue=4 |pages=2571–2618 |doi=10.1093/qje/qjaf033 |issn=0033-5533|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A 2025 study found evidence suggesting that those who attend college are less prone to [[indoctrination]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Argote |first=Pablo |last2=Voytas |first2=Elsa |date=2025 |title=The Anti-Left Legacy of the Pinochet Dictatorship |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/action/showAbstract |journal=Comparative Political Studies |language=EN |article-number=00104140251381768 |doi=10.1177/00104140251381768 |issn=0010-4140|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
 ==Providers==
 [[File:Columbia University, NYC (June 2014) - 09.JPG|thumb|[[Alma Mater (New York sculpture)|''Alma Mater'']] by [[Daniel Chester French]], [[Columbia University]]. The [[alma mater]], meaning "nourishing mother" in Latin, is one of the most enduring symbols of the university. The phrase was first used to describe the [[University of Bologna]], [[Italy]], founded in 1088.]]
 <!-- In effect what we have here is a link farm put together with no real structure-->
-In the U.S., higher education is provided by [[University|universities]], [[Academy|academies]], [[college]]s, [[seminary|seminaries]], [[school of music|conservatories]], and [[institute of technology|institutes of technology]], and certain college-level institutions, including [[vocational school]]s, universities of applied sciences, trade schools, and other career-based colleges that award degrees. Tertiary education at a nondegree level is sometimes referred to as [[further education]] or [[continuing education]] as distinct from higher education.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 April 2021 |title=The Difference Between Continuing Education and Professional Development |url=https://www.columbiasouthern.edu/blog/april-2021/continuing-education-and-professional-development/ |access-date=17 October 2021 |website=[[Columbia Southern University]] |archive-date=17 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017101746/https://www.columbiasouthern.edu/blog/april-2021/continuing-education-and-professional-development/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=26 April 2019 |title=6 Reasons Why Continuing Education Is Important |url=https://www.wgu.edu/blog/6-reasons-continuing-education-important1904.html |access-date=17 October 2021 |publisher=Western Governors University |language=en |archive-date=17 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017101745/https://www.wgu.edu/blog/6-reasons-continuing-education-important1904.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
+In the U.S., higher education is provided by [[University|universities]], [[Academy|academies]], [[college]]s, [[seminary|seminaries]], [[school of music|conservatories]], and [[institute of technology|institutes of technology]], and certain college-level institutions, including [[vocational school]]s, universities of applied sciences, trade schools, and other career-based colleges that award degrees. Tertiary education at a nondegree level is sometimes referred to as [[further education]] or [[continuing education]] as distinct from higher education.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 April 2021 |title=The Difference Between Continuing Education and Professional Development |url=https://www.columbiasouthern.edu/blog/april-2021/continuing-education-and-professional-development/ |access-date=17 October 2021 |website=[[Columbia Southern University]] |archive-date=17 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017101746/https://www.columbiasouthern.edu/blog/april-2021/continuing-education-and-professional-development/ }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=26 April 2019 |title=6 Reasons Why Continuing Education Is Important |url=https://www.wgu.edu/blog/6-reasons-continuing-education-important1904.html |access-date=17 October 2021 |publisher=Western Governors University |language=en |archive-date=17 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017101745/https://www.wgu.edu/blog/6-reasons-continuing-education-important1904.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
 Higher education includes teaching, research, exacting applied work, as exists in [[medical school]]s and [[dental school]]s, and social services activities of universities.<ref>Pucciarelli F., Kaplan Andreas M. (2016) [http://iranarze.ir/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/E2555.pdf Competition and Strategy in Higher Education: Managing Complexity and Uncertainty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110183417/http://iranarze.ir/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/E2555.pdf |date=2019-01-10 }}, Business Horizons, Volume 59</ref>
 <!-- US specific link farm-->
-Within the realm of teaching, it includes both the ''[[undergraduate education|undergraduate]]'' level, and beyond that, ''[[Postgraduate education|graduate-level]]'' (or ''postgraduate'' level). The latter level of education is often referred to as [[graduate school]], especially in North America. In addition to the skills that are specific to any particular degree, potential employers in any profession are looking for evidence of [[critical thinking]] and analytical reasoning skills, [[teamwork]]ing skills, [[information literacy]], [[Ethics|ethical]] judgment, [[decision-making]] skills, fluency in speaking and writing, [[problem solving]] skills, and a wide knowledge of liberal arts and sciences.<ref>{{cite press release | last=Jenkins | first=Anne | date=20 January 2015 | title=Employers Judge Recent Graduates Ill-Prepared for Today's Workplace, Endorse Broad and Project-Based Learning as Best Preparation for Career Opportunity and Long-Term Success | url=http://www.aacu.org/press/press-releases/2015employerstudentsurveys|location=Washington, DC|publisher=[[Association of American Colleges and Universities]] | access-date=11 April 2017 | archive-date=12 April 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170412064049/http://www.aacu.org/press/press-releases/2015employerstudentsurveys | url-status=dead}}</ref>
+Within the realm of teaching, it includes both the ''[[undergraduate education|undergraduate]]'' level, and beyond that, ''[[Postgraduate education|graduate-level]]'' (or ''postgraduate'' level). The latter level of education is often referred to as [[graduate school]], especially in North America. In addition to the skills that are specific to any particular degree, potential employers in any profession are looking for evidence of [[critical thinking]] and analytical reasoning skills, [[teamwork]]ing skills, [[information literacy]], [[Ethics|ethical]] judgment, [[decision-making]] skills, fluency in speaking and writing, [[problem solving]] skills, and a wide knowledge of liberal arts and sciences.<ref>{{cite press release | last=Jenkins | first=Anne | date=20 January 2015 | title=Employers Judge Recent Graduates Ill-Prepared for Today's Workplace, Endorse Broad and Project-Based Learning as Best Preparation for Career Opportunity and Long-Term Success | url=http://www.aacu.org/press/press-releases/2015employerstudentsurveys|location=Washington, DC|publisher=[[Association of American Colleges and Universities]] | access-date=11 April 2017 | archive-date=12 April 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170412064049/http://www.aacu.org/press/press-releases/2015employerstudentsurveys }}</ref>
 ===Credential evaluation===
@@ Line 125: / Line 143: @@
 </gallery>
 -->
-== History ==
-{{Hiero|House of Life <br> "library" |<hiero>pr-anx-pr</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}
-[[File:Archiginnasio ora blu Bologna.jpg|thumb|[[Bologna University]] in Italy, established in 1088 A.D., is the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|world's oldest university in continuous operation]].]]
-[[File:ChiostroPietroMartireNapoli.jpg|thumb|Established in 1224 by [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]], [[University of Naples Federico II]] in Italy is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Storia d'Italia |date=7 August 1981 |publisher=UTET |isbn=88-02-03568-7 |volume=4 |location=Torino |page=122}}</ref><ref name="Delle Donne"/>]]
-The oldest known institutions of higher education are credited to Dynastic Egypt, with Pr-Anx (houses of life) built as libraries and scriptoriums, containing works on law, architecture, mathematics, and medicine, and involved in the training of "swnw" and "swnwt" (male and female [[Doctor (title)|doctors]]); extant [[List of ancient Egyptian papyri|Egyptian papyri]] from the 3rd millennia BC are in several collections.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gordan |first1=Andrew H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LbGCVlFtA4C&pg=PA154 |title=The Quick and the Dead: Biomedical Theory in Ancient Egypt |last2=Shwabe |first2=Calvin W. |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-04-12391-5 |series=Egyptological Memoirs |location=[[Leiden]] |pages=154}}</ref>
-In the Greek world, [[Plato's Academy]] ({{Circa|387–86&nbsp;BCE}}), [[Lyceum (classical)|Aristotle's Lyceum]] ({{Circa|334–86&nbsp;BCE}}) and other philosophical-mathematical schools became models for other establishments, particularly in [[Alexandria]] of Egypt, under the [[Ptolemies]].
-In [[South Asia]], the city of [[Taxila]]{{when|date=December 2020}}, later the great Buddhist monastery of [[Nalanda]] ({{Circa|427–1197&nbsp;CE}}), attracted students and professors even from distant regions.<ref>{{cite book | last=Mookerji | first=Radha Kumud | year=1989 | orig-year=1947 | title=Ancient Indian education: Brahmanical and Buddhist | edition=2nd | publication-place=Delhi | publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] | series=History and Culture Series | isbn=978-81-208-0423-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjFfqpq7HhkC}}</ref>
-In [[China]], the [[Han dynasty]] established chairs to teach the [[Four Books and Five Classics|Five Confucean Classics]], in the Grand School, [[Taixue]] ({{CE|{{Circa|3–1905}}}}), to train cadres for the imperial administration.<ref>{{cite book | last=Balazs | first=Étienne | year=1968 | title=La Bureaucratie céleste: recherches sur l'économie et la société de la Chine traditionnelle | publication-place=Paris | publisher=Gallimard | series=Bibliothèque des sciences humaines | language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{citation | author=Peter Tze Ming Ng | title=Paradigm shift and the state of the field in the study of Christian higher education in China | work=Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie |year=2001 | issue=12 | pages=127–140}}</ref> All these higher-learning institutions became models for other schools within their sphere of cultural influence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=Rui |date=2019-09-02 |title=Emulating or integrating? Modern transformations of Chinese higher education |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17516234.2018.1448213 |journal=Journal of Asian Public Policy |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=294–311 |doi=10.1080/17516234.2018.1448213 |issn=1751-6234|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
-In 425 CE, the Byzantine emperor [[Theodosius II]] innovated as he established the [[Pandidakterion]], with a faculty of 31 professors, to train public servants. In the 7th and 8th centuries, "cathedral schools" were created in Western Europe. Meanwhile, the first Madrasahs were founded in the Muslim empire – initially mere primary schools in the premises of major mosques, which gradually evolved toward secondary, later higher education. However high the intellectual level of these schools could be, it would be anachronistic to call them "universities". Their organization and purposes were markedly different from the corporations of students and teachers, independent from both the Church and the State, which established themselves from the 12th century in Western Europe as ''Universitas Studiorum''.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}
-<!-- Istanbul [what university??] has a better claim to being the oldest university, though it suffered name change- see comments in GBR site.-->
-According to [[UNESCO]] and ''[[Guinness World Records]]'', the [[University of al-Qarawiyyin]] in [[Fez, Morocco]] is the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|oldest existing continually operating]] higher educational institution in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/oldest-university|title=Oldest higher-learning institution, oldest university|website=Guinness World Records|access-date=2021-06-24|archive-date=2014-10-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007183911/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/3000/oldest-university|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Medina of Fez|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/170|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=7 April 2016|archive-date=19 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919192617/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/170|url-status=live}}</ref> and is occasionally referred to as the oldest university by scholars.<ref>Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC&pg=PA35 A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages]'', Cambridge University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|978-0-521-54113-8}}, pp.&nbsp;35–76 (35)</ref> Undoubtedly, there are older institutions of higher education, for example, the [[University of Ez-Zitouna]] in Montfleury, [[Tunis]], was first established in 737. The [[University of Bologna]], Italy, founded in 1088, is the world's oldest university in continuous operation,<ref name="topuniversities">{{cite web |url-status=dead |url=http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/worlds_oldest_universities/  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117202932/http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/worlds_oldest_universities/ |archive-date=17 January 2009 |access-date=6 January 2010 |website=QS Top Universities |title=Times Higher Education - QS World University Rankings 2007 - World's oldest universities }}</ref><ref name=":0a">{{cite book | last=Gaston | first=Paul L. | date=2010 | title=The challenge of Bologna: What United States higher education has to learn from Europe, and why it matters that we learn it | publication-place=Sterling, Virginia | publisher=Stylus Publishing | isbn=978-1-57922-366-3 | oclc=320189904 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wyjnHZ1IIlgC&pg=PA18 | page=18}}</ref><ref name="Hunt Janin 2008">{{cite book | last=Janin | first=Hunt | date=2008 | title=The University in Medieval Life, 1179-1499 | publication-place=Jefferson, NC | publisher=McFarland | isbn=978-0-7864-3462-6 | pages=55f}}</ref><ref name="Ridder-Symoens 1992">de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde: [https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC ''A History of the University in Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221124110224/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC&printsec=frontcover |date=2022-11-24 }}, Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. 47–55</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Porticoes of Bologna |url=https://whc.unesco.org/fr/listesindicatives/5010/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815212252/https://whc.unesco.org/fr/listesindicatives/5010/ |archive-date=15 August 2020 |access-date=16 August 2020 |website=UNESCO Centre du patrimoine mondial |language=fr}}</ref> and the first university in the sense of a higher-learning and degree-awarding institute, as the word ''universitas'' was coined at its foundation.<ref name="Ridder-Symoens 1992"/><ref name="topuniversities"/><ref name=":0a" /><ref name="Hunt Janin 2008"/> <!--- The article [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation]] has some excellent source material about how what we think of as a "university" comes from Europe, starting around 1088; institutions of higher learning obviously pre-date that, but aren't universities as we now consider the term - and the article also has information on them.-->
-===20th century===
-Since [[World War II]], developed and many developing countries have increased the participation of the age group who mostly studies higher education from the elite rate, of up to 15 per cent, to the mass rate of 16 to 50 per cent.<ref>{{cite report | last=Trow | first=Martin |year=1973 | url=http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED091983.pdf | title=Problems in the transition from elite to mass higher education | publisher=Carnegie Commission on Higher Education | publication-place=Berkeley | access-date=1 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Brennan | first=John | year=2002 | chapter=The social role of the contemporary university: contradictions, boundaries and change | pages=22–26 | title=Ten years on: Changing higher education in a changing world | publication-place=Buckingham | publisher=Centre for Higher Education Research and Information, Open University | chapter-url=https://www.open.ac.uk/cheri/documents/ten-years-on.pdf#page=22 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525155320/https://www.open.ac.uk/cheri/documents/ten-years-on.pdf#page=22 | archive-date=25 May 2017 | access-date=9 February 2014}}</ref> In many developed countries, participation in higher education has continued to increase towards universal or, what Trow later called, open access, where over half of the relevant age group participate in higher education.<ref>{{citation | last=Trow | first=Martin | date=2005-08-05 | title=Reflections on the transition from elite to mass to universal access: forms and phases of higher education in modern societies since WWII | url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/96p3s213}} Republished in {{cite book | editor-last=Forest | editor-first=James J. F. | editor-last2=Altbach | editor-first2=Philip G. | date=2006-04-20 <!-- 2006-04-20 --> | title=International Handbook of Higher Education: Part One: Global Themes and Contemporary Challenges | publication-place=Dordrecht, Netherlands | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-1-4020-4011-5 | oclc=65166668 | series=Springer International Handbooks of Education |volume=18 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u3rtCh-EUIIC&pg=PA243 | pages=243–280}}</ref> Higher education is important to national [[economy|economies]], both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. College educated workers have commanded a measurable wage premium and are much less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers.<ref name="Simkovic">{{cite journal |ssrn=1941070 | title=Risk-Based Student Loans| date=5 September 2011| last1=Simkovic| first1=Michael|journal=Washington and Lee Law Review}}</ref><ref name="OECD">{{citation | author=OECD | title=Education at a Glance |year=2011}}</ref>
-===21st century===
-In recent years, universities have been criticized for permitting or actively encouraging [[grade inflation]].<ref name="gunn" /><ref>{{Citation |last=Baker|first=Simon|date= 28 June 2018|title=Is grade inflation a worldwide trend?|website=The World University Rankings |publisher=Times Higher Education|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/grade-inflation-worldwide-trend |access-date= 23 June 2019|quote=Departments where enrollments were falling felt under pressure to relax their grading practices to make their courses more attractive, leading to an "arms race" in grade inflation.|archive-date=25 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025154342/https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/grade-inflation-worldwide-trend |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Widening participation]] can increase the supply of graduates in individual fields of study over the demand for their skills, aggravating [[graduate unemployment]], [[underemployment]], [[overqualification]] and [[educational inflation]].<ref>{{Citation|last1=Coates|first1=Ken|last2=Morrison|first2=Bill|year=2016|title=Dream Factories: Why Universities Won't Solve the Youth Jobs Crisis|place=Toronto|publisher=Dundurn Books|pages=232|url=https://www.dundurn.com/books_/t22117/a9781459733770-dream-factories |isbn=9781459733770|access-date=2021-09-21|archive-date=2021-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921081833/https://www.dundurn.com/books_/t22117/a9781459733770-dream-factories |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Brown|first1=Phillip|last2=Lauder|first2=Hugh|last3=Ashton|first3=David|year=2012|title=The Global Auction: The Broken Promises of Education, Jobs, and Incomes|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=208|url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-global-auction-9780199926442?cc=us&lang=en&|isbn=9780199926442|access-date=2020-12-11|archive-date=2021-03-10|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210310171126/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-global-auction-9780199926442?cc=us&lang=en& |url-status=live}}</ref> Some commentators have suggested that the [[Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education#Higher education|impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education]] is rapidly making certain aspects of the traditional higher education system obsolete.<ref>{{cite book | last=Kaplan | first=Andreas | date=2021-04-06 | title=Higher education at the crossroads of disruption: The university of the 21st century | publisher=Emerald | isbn=978-1-80071-504-2 | doi= 10.1108/9781800715011 | s2cid=233594353 | url=https://books.emeraldinsight.com/page/detail/Higher-Education-at-the-Crossroads-of-Disruption/?k=9781800715042}}</ref> The Israeli-funded [[Institute for the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy]] and some Israeli media have claimed that [[Qatari involvement in higher education in the United States|involvement and funding by Qatar in higher education in the US]] has resulted in what they regard as growing anti-Semitism on campuses, in particular in connection with [[Gaza war protests]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Follow the Money: Qatar Funding of Higher Education | url=https://isgap.org/follow-the-money/ |access-date= 2023-12-24 |website=Institute for the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=April 2024 |reason=This is a web page which changes frequently. Cite one of their reports instead.}}<ref>{{cite magazine | last=Shulman | first= Sophie | date=30 October 2023 | title=Tuition of terror: Qatari money flowed into U.S. universities - and now it's fueling violence | magazine=CTech | publication-place=Rishon LeZion, Israel | publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth Group | url=https://www.calcalistech.com/ctechnews/article/jwhsqhrat | access-date=30 April 2024}}</ref>
 ==Statistics==
@@ Line 340: / Line 334: @@
 |}
-A 2014 report by the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] states that by 2014, 84 percent of young people were completing upper secondary education over their lifetimes, in high-income countries. Tertiary-educated individuals were earning twice as much as median workers. In contrast to historical trends in education, young women were more likely to complete upper secondary education than young men.  Additionally, access to education was expanding and growth in the number of people receiving university education was rising sharply. By 2014, close to 40 percent of people aged 25–34 (and around 25 percent of those aged 55–64), were being educated at university.<ref name="ReportOECD">{{cite news|author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|author-link=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|date=September 2014|title=Higher levels of education paying off for young, says OECD|url=http://www.oecd.org/edu/eag.htm|url-status=dead|access-date=11 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628230324/http://www.oecd.org/edu/eag.htm|archive-date=28 June 2013}}</ref>
+A 2014 report by the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] states that by 2014, 84 percent of young people were completing upper secondary education over their lifetimes, in high-income countries. Tertiary-educated individuals were earning twice as much as median workers. In contrast to historical trends in education, young women were more likely to complete upper secondary education than young men.  Additionally, access to education was expanding and growth in the number of people receiving university education was rising sharply. By 2014, close to 40 percent of people aged 25–34 (and around 25 percent of those aged 55–64), were being educated at university.<ref name="ReportOECD">{{cite news|author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|author-link=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|date=September 2014|title=Higher levels of education paying off for young, says OECD|url=http://www.oecd.org/edu/eag.htm|access-date=11 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628230324/http://www.oecd.org/edu/eag.htm|archive-date=28 June 2013}}</ref>
-== United Kingdom ==
-Under [[devolution in the United Kingdom]], education is administered separately in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland. In England, the term "tertiary education" aligns with the global term "[[higher education]]" (i.e. post-18 study).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/805127/Review_of_post_18_education_and_funding.pdf |title=Independent panel report to the Review of Post-18 Education and Funding |date=May 2019 |accessdate=2022-03-03 |archive-date=10 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210053039/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/805127/Review_of_post_18_education_and_funding.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2018 the Welsh Government adopted the term "tertiary education" to refer to post-16 education and training in Wales.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://gov.wales/about/cabinet/cabinetstatements/2018/Nextsteps/?lang=en |title= Welsh Government {{!}} Written Statement - Public Good and a Prosperous Wales – Next steps |website= gov.wales |access-date= 2018-06-07 |archive-date= 12 June 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140200/https://gov.wales/about/cabinet/cabinetstatements/2018/Nextsteps/?lang=en |url-status= live }}</ref> Since the 1970s, however, specialized [[further education|further education colleges]] in England and Wales have called themselves "[[tertiary college]]s" although being part of the [[secondary education]] process. These institutions cater for both school leavers and adults, thus combining the main functions of an FE college and a [[sixth form college]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmeduski/479/479.pdf |title=Public Expenditure on Education and Skills: Second Report of Session 2005–06 |publisher=House of Commons Education and Skills Committee |year=2006 |access-date=22 April 2022 |archive-date=4 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204065239/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmeduski/479/479.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Generally, district councils with such colleges have adopted a tertiary system or structure where a single local institution provides all the 16–19 and adult education, and where schools do not universally offer sixth forms (i.e. schools only serve ages 11–16). However the [[Further and Higher Education Act 1992]] has effectively prevented the creation of new tertiary colleges.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/wp1991a/index.html|title=White Paper: Education and Training for the 21st century (1991)|access-date=2 October 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002134958/http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/wp1991a/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
-==Canada==
+== By region ==
-[[File:Educationincanada-eng.png|thumb|upright=1.2| Canada by province and territory, showing the percentage of the population aged 25 to 64 who had a bachelor's degree or higher, and the percentage point change from 2016 to 2021<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022 i032">{{cite web | title=British Columbia and Ontario saw the largest percentage point increases in degree holders from 2016 to 2021 | website=Statistics Canada | date=30 November 2022 | url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221130/mc-a002-eng.htm | access-date=8 March 2024}}</ref>]]
-{{main|Higher education in Canada }}
-{{Excerpt|Higher education in Canada|only=paragraph|hat=no|paragraph=1,2}}
-== Australia ==
+=== Australia ===
 [[File:Deakin University Burwood Campus.jpg|thumb|right|[[Deakin University]], one of Australia's 43 universities]]
 {{Main|Tertiary education in Australia}}
-Within Australia "tertiary education" refers to continuing studies after a student completes secondary school. Tertiary education options include universities, [[technical and further education]] (TAFE) and private universities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-11 |title=Education and Work, Australia, May 2022 {{!}} Australian Bureau of Statistics |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/education/education-and-work-australia/latest-release |access-date=2023-05-23 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics |language=en |archive-date=31 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331215530/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/education/education-and-work-australia/latest-release |url-status=live }}</ref>
-== United States ==
+Within Australia, "tertiary education" refers to continuing studies after a student completes secondary school. Tertiary education options include universities, [[technical and further education]] (TAFE) and private universities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-11 |title=Education and Work, Australia, May 2022 {{!}} Australian Bureau of Statistics |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/education/education-and-work-australia/latest-release |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331215530/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/education/education-and-work-australia/latest-release |archive-date=31 March 2023 |access-date=2023-05-23 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics |language=en}}</ref>
-{{Main|Higher education in the United States}}
-[[File:Upper Quad Gate in the fall.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The [[University of Pennsylvania]], an American research university]]
-The [[Higher education in the United States|higher education system in the United States]] is decentralized and regulated independently by each state<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.caichildlaw.org/Misc/Information_statebystate.pdf |title=For Profit Postsecondary Schools: Oversight and Governing Statutes & Regulations |website=caichildlaw.org |year=2014 |access-date=22 April 2022 |archive-date=15 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515055451/http://www.caichildlaw.org/Misc/Information_statebystate.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> with [[Higher education accreditation in the United States|accreditors]] playing a key role in ensuring institutions meet minimum standards. It is large and diverse with institutions that are privately governed and institutions that are owned and operated by state and local governments. Some private institutions are affiliated with religious organizations whereas others are secular with enrollment ranging from a few dozen to tens of thousands of students. The United States Department of Education presents a broad-spectrum view of tertiary education and detailed information on the nation's educational structure, accreditation procedures, and connections to state as well as federal agencies and entities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/|title=National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Home Page, part of the U.S. Department of Education|website=nces.ed.gov|access-date=2018-07-02}}</ref>
-The [[Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education]] provides one framework for classifying U.S. colleges and universities in several different ways.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.carnegiefoundation.org/newsroom/news-releases/iu-research-center-house-carnegie-classification-institutions-higher-education/|title=IU research Center to House Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education {{!}} Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching|date=2014-10-07|work=Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching|access-date=2018-07-02|archive-date=22 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222162815/https://www.carnegiefoundation.org/newsroom/news-releases/iu-research-center-house-carnegie-classification-institutions-higher-education/|url-status=live}}</ref> US tertiary education also includes various non-profit organizations promoting professional development of individuals in the field of higher education and helping expand awareness of related issues like international student services and complete campus internationalization.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://educationusa.state.gov/foreign-institutions-and-governments/understanding-us-higher-education|title=Understanding U.S. Higher Education|date=2015-01-08|work=EducationUSA|access-date=2018-07-02|archive-date=2 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702093813/https://educationusa.state.gov/foreign-institutions-and-governments/understanding-us-higher-education|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acenet.edu/Pages/default.aspx|title=The American Council on Education|website=acenet.edu|access-date=2018-07-02|archive-date=2 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702093647/http://www.acenet.edu/Pages/default.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>
+=== Europe ===
-== European Union ==
 Although tertiary education in the [[European Union|EU]] includes university, it can differ from country to country.
-=== France ===
+==== France ====
-After going to [[nursery school]] (French: école maternelle), [[elementary school]] (French: école primaire), [[secondary education in France|middle school]] (French: collège), and [[lycee|high school]] (French: lycée), a student may go to university, but may also stop at that point.
+After going to [[nursery school]] (French: {{lang|fr|école maternelle}}), [[elementary school]] (French: {{lang|fr|école primaire}}), [[secondary education in France|middle school]] (French: {{lang|fr|collège}}), and [[lycee|high school]] (French: {{lang|fr|lycée}}), a student may go to university, but may also stop at that point.
-===Italy===
+==== Italy ====
 {{See also|Higher education in Italy|List of universities in Italy}}
 [[File:Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza -Rome.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sapienza University of Rome]]. It was founded in 1303 and is as such one of the world's oldest universities,<ref>{{Cite web |title=La Storia |url=https://www.uniroma1.it/it/pagina/la-storia}}</ref> and with 122,000 students, it is the [[List of largest universities by enrollment|largest university in Europe]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chi Siamo |url=https://www.uniroma1.it/it/pagina/chi-siamo}}</ref>]]
-[[Education in Italy]] is compulsory from 6 to 16 years of age,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.camera.it/parlam/leggi/06296l.htm |title=comma 622 |publisher=Camera.it |date=2 December 2006|access-date=10 January 2018}}</ref> and is divided into five stages: kindergarten (''scuola dell'infanzia''), primary school (''scuola primaria'' or ''scuola elementare''), [[scuola media|lower secondary school]] (''scuola secondaria di primo grado'' or ''scuola media inferiore''), [[scuola superiore|upper secondary school]] (''scuola secondaria di secondo grado'' or ''scuola media superiore'') and university (''università'').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf|title=- Human Development Reports|website=hdr.undp.org|date=January 2008 }}</ref> Education is free in Italy and free education is available to children of all nationalities who are residents in Italy. Italy has both a private and public education system.<ref>{{cite journal | url =  http://ftp.iza.org/dp3222.pdf |title = Private School Quality in Italy | language = en | first1 = Giuseppe | last1 = Bertola | first2 = Daniele | last2 = Checchi  | first3 = Veruska | last3 = Oppedisano  | journal =  Discussion Paper Series | number = IZA DP No. 3222 | publisher = [[IZA Institute of Labor Economics]] | date = December 2007 }}</ref>
+[[Education in Italy]] is compulsory from 6 to 16 years of age,<ref>{{cite web |date=2 December 2006 |title=comma 622 |url=http://www.camera.it/parlam/leggi/06296l.htm |access-date=10 January 2018 |publisher=Camera.it}}</ref> and is divided into five stages: kindergarten (''scuola dell'infanzia''), primary school (''scuola primaria'' or ''scuola elementare''), [[scuola media|lower secondary school]] (''scuola secondaria di primo grado'' or ''scuola media inferiore''), [[scuola superiore|upper secondary school]] (''scuola secondaria di secondo grado'' or ''scuola media superiore'') and university (''università'').<ref>{{cite web |date=January 2008 |title=- Human Development Reports |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf |website=hdr.undp.org}}</ref> Education is free in Italy and free education is available to children of all nationalities who are residents in Italy. Italy has both a private and public education system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bertola |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Checchi |first2=Daniele |last3=Oppedisano |first3=Veruska |date=December 2007 |title=Private School Quality in Italy |url=http://ftp.iza.org/dp3222.pdf |journal=Discussion Paper Series |language=en |publisher=[[IZA Institute of Labor Economics]] |number=IZA DP No. 3222}}</ref>
-[[File:POLIMI Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32 - on the right the building 3.jpg|thumb|The [[Polytechnic University of Milan]] is the city's oldest university, founded in 1863. It is the best university in Italy.<ref>{{cite web|title=QS World University Rankings 2018.|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/politecnico-di-milano#wurs|publisher=[[QS World University Rankings]]|accessdate=9 October 2017}}</ref>]]
+[[File:POLIMI Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32 - on the right the building 3.jpg|thumb|The [[Polytechnic University of Milan]] is the city's oldest university, founded in 1863. It is the best university in Italy.<ref>{{cite web |title=QS World University Rankings 2018. |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/politecnico-di-milano#wurs |access-date=9 October 2017 |publisher=[[QS World University Rankings]]}}</ref>]]
-[[File:Chiostro Unicatt.jpg|thumb|right|[[Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore]], an Italian [[Private university|private]] [[research university]] founded in 1921. Its main campus is located in [[Milan]], Italy, with satellite campuses in [[Brescia]], [[Piacenza]], [[Cremona]] and [[Rome]]. Degrees are offered both in [[Italian language|Italian]] and in English.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.learn4good.com/universities/search_study_abroad_university_programs.htm |title=Catholic universities in Europe, Italy study abroad, Milan semester programs |publisher=Learn4Good |date=2012-01-07 |access-date=2012-07-23}}</ref>]]
+[[File:Chiostro Unicatt.jpg|thumb|right|[[Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore]], an Italian [[Private university|private]] [[research university]] founded in 1921. Its main campus is located in [[Milan]], Italy, with satellite campuses in [[Brescia]], [[Piacenza]], [[Cremona]] and [[Rome]]. Degrees are offered both in [[Italian language|Italian]] and in English.<ref>{{cite web |date=2012-01-07 |title=Catholic universities in Europe, Italy study abroad, Milan semester programs |url=http://www.learn4good.com/universities/search_study_abroad_university_programs.htm |access-date=2012-07-23 |publisher=Learn4Good}}</ref>]]
 Italy has a large and international network of public or state-affiliated universities and schools offering degrees in higher education. State-run universities of Italy constitute the main percentage of tertiary education in Italy and are managed under the supervision of Italian's Ministry of Education.
-Italian universities are among the oldest universities in the world; the [[University of Bologna]] (founded in 1088) notably, is [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|the oldest one ever]]; also, [[University of Naples Federico II]] is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.<ref name="Storia d'Italia">{{Cite book |title=Storia d'Italia |date=7 August 1981 |publisher=UTET |isbn=88-02-03568-7 |volume=4 |location=Torino |page=122|language=it}}</ref><ref name="Delle Donne">{{cite book|first=Fulvio|last=Delle Donne|title=Storia dello Studium di Napoli in età sveva|publisher=Mario Adda Editore|year=2010|language=it|isbn=978-8880828419|pages=9–10}}</ref> Most universities in Italy are state-supported. 33 Italian universities were ranked among the world's top 500 in 2019, the third-largest number in Europe after the United Kingdom and Germany.<ref name="jakubmarian">{{cite web |url=https://jakubmarian.com/number-of-top-ranked-universities-by-country-in-europe/ |title=Number of top-ranked universities by country in Europe |publisher=jakubmarian.com |year=2019}}</ref>
+Italian universities are among the oldest universities in the world; the [[University of Bologna]] (founded in 1088) notably, is [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|the oldest one ever]]; also, [[University of Naples Federico II]] is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.<ref name="Storia d'Italia">{{Cite book |title=Storia d'Italia |date=7 August 1981 |publisher=UTET |isbn=88-02-03568-7 |volume=4 |location=Torino |page=122 |language=it}}</ref><ref name="Delle Donne" /> Most universities in Italy are state-supported. 33 Italian universities were ranked among the world's top 500 in 2019, the third-largest number in Europe after the United Kingdom and Germany.<ref name="jakubmarian">{{cite web |year=2019 |title=Number of top-ranked universities by country in Europe |url=https://jakubmarian.com/number-of-top-ranked-universities-by-country-in-europe/ |publisher=jakubmarian.com}}</ref>
-There are also a number of [[Superior Graduate Schools in Italy|Superior Graduate Schools]] (''[[Grandes écoles]]'')<ref name="ricercaitaliana.it">{{cite web|url=http://www.ricercaitaliana.it/scuole_eccellenza.htm|title=Scuole di Eccellenza|website=ricercaitaliana.it|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307083252/http://www.ricercaitaliana.it/scuole_eccellenza.htm|archive-date=7 March 2013|access-date=31 January 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> or ''Scuola Superiore Universitaria'', which offer officially recognized titles, including the ''Diploma di Perfezionamento'' equivalent to a Doctorate, [[Dottorato di ricerca|''Dottorato di Ricerca'']] i.e. [[Doctorate|Research Doctorate]] or ''Doctor Philosophiae'' i.e. PhD.<ref name="istruzione.it">{{Cite web|url=https://www.istruzione.it/avviso_agli_utenti/non_valido.html|title=SITO IN MANUTENZIONE|website= istruzione.it}}</ref> Some of them also organize master's degree courses. There are three Superior Graduate Schools with "university status", three institutes with the status of Doctoral Colleges, which function at [[Graduate school|graduate]] and post-graduate level. Nine further schools are direct offshoots of the universities (i.e. do not have their own 'university status'). The first one is the [[Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa]] (founded in 1810 by [[Napoleon]] as a branch of [[École Normale Supérieure]]), taking the model of organization from the famous [[École Normale Supérieure]]. These institutions are commonly referred to as "Schools of Excellence" (i.e. "Scuole di Eccellenza").<ref name="ricercaitaliana.it"/><ref name="Scuole di Eccellenza">{{cite web|url=http://scuoledieccellenza.it/|title=Scuole – Scuole di Eccellenza|website=scuoledieccellenza.it}}</ref>
+There are also a number of [[Superior Graduate Schools in Italy|Superior Graduate Schools]] (''[[Grandes écoles]]'')<ref name="ricercaitaliana.it">{{cite web |title=Scuole di Eccellenza |url=http://www.ricercaitaliana.it/scuole_eccellenza.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307083252/http://www.ricercaitaliana.it/scuole_eccellenza.htm |archive-date=7 March 2013 |access-date=31 January 2024 |website=ricercaitaliana.it}}</ref> or ''Scuola Superiore Universitaria'', which offer officially recognized titles, including the ''Diploma di Perfezionamento'' equivalent to a Doctorate, [[Dottorato di ricerca|''Dottorato di Ricerca'']] i.e. [[Doctorate|Research Doctorate]] or ''Doctor Philosophiae'' i.e. PhD.<ref name="istruzione.it">{{Cite web |title=SITO IN MANUTENZIONE |url=https://www.istruzione.it/avviso_agli_utenti/non_valido.html |website=istruzione.it}}</ref> Some of them also organize master's degree courses. There are three Superior Graduate Schools with "university status", three institutes with the status of Doctoral Colleges, which function at [[Graduate school|graduate]] and post-graduate level. Nine further schools are direct offshoots of the universities (i.e. do not have their own 'university status'). The first one is the [[Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa]] (founded in 1810 by [[Napoleon]] as a branch of [[École Normale Supérieure]]), taking the model of organization from the famous [[École Normale Supérieure]]. These institutions are commonly referred to as "Schools of Excellence" (i.e. "Scuole di Eccellenza").<ref name="ricercaitaliana.it" /><ref name="Scuole di Eccellenza">{{cite web |title=Scuole – Scuole di Eccellenza |url=http://scuoledieccellenza.it/ |website=scuoledieccellenza.it}}</ref>
-Italy hosts a broad variety of universities, colleges and academies. Founded in 1088, the [[University of Bologna]] is likely [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|the oldest in the world]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://virtualglobetrotting.com/map/universit-di-bologna-oldest-university-in-the-world/ |title=Università di Bologna (oldest university in the world) |publisher=Virtual Globetrotting |date=21 October 2006 |access-date=27 October 2009}}</ref> In 2009, the University of Bologna is, according to [[Times Higher Education-QS World University Rankings|The Times]], the only Italian college in the top 200 World Universities. Milan's [[Bocconi University]] has been ranked among the top 20 best business schools in the world by [[The Wall Street Journal]] international rankings, especially thanks to its [[M.B.A.]] program, which in 2007 placed it no. 17 in the world in terms of graduate recruitment preference by major multinational companies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mba.sdabocconi.it/home/main.php?id=12001&ym=2007-09 |title=Conferenze, ospiti, news ed eventi legati agli MBA della SDA Bocconi – MBA SDA Bocconi |publisher=SDA Bocconi |access-date=30 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080627040822/http://mba.sdabocconi.it/home/main.php?id=120012008&ym=2007-09|archive-date=27 June 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Bocconi was also ranked by [[Forbes]] as the best worldwide in the specific category Value for Money.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oie.gatech.edu/sa/programs/show.html?id=bocc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080508020611/http://www.oie.gatech.edu/sa/programs/show.html?id=bocc |archive-date=8 May 2008 |title=Gatech :: OIE :: GT Study Abroad Programs |access-date=30 October 2010}}</ref> In May 2008, Bocconi overtook several traditionally top global business schools in the [[Financial Times]] [[Executive education]] ranking, reaching no. 5 in Europe and no. 15 in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corriere.it/vivimilano/cronache/articoli/2008/05_Maggio/12/sda_bocconi.shtml |title=Sda Bocconi supera London Business School – ViviMilano |work=Corriere della Sera |date=12 November 2008 |access-date=30 October 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924222100/http://www.corriere.it/vivimilano/cronache/articoli/2008/05_Maggio/12/sda_bocconi.shtml |archive-date=24 September 2008 }}</ref>
+Italy hosts a broad variety of universities, colleges and academies. Founded in 1088, the [[University of Bologna]] is likely [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|the oldest in the world]].<ref>{{cite web |date=21 October 2006 |title=Università di Bologna (oldest university in the world) |url=http://virtualglobetrotting.com/map/universit-di-bologna-oldest-university-in-the-world/ |access-date=27 October 2009 |publisher=Virtual Globetrotting}}</ref> In 2009, the University of Bologna is, according to [[Times Higher Education-QS World University Rankings|The Times]], the only Italian college in the top 200 World Universities. Milan's [[Bocconi University]] has been ranked among the top 20 best business schools in the world by [[The Wall Street Journal]] international rankings, especially thanks to its [[M.B.A.]] program, which in 2007 placed it no. 17 in the world in terms of graduate recruitment preference by major multinational companies.<ref>{{cite web |title=Conferenze, ospiti, news ed eventi legati agli MBA della SDA Bocconi – MBA SDA Bocconi |url=http://mba.sdabocconi.it/home/main.php?id=12001&ym=2007-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080627040822/http://mba.sdabocconi.it/home/main.php?id=120012008&ym=2007-09 |archive-date=27 June 2008 |access-date=30 October 2010 |publisher=SDA Bocconi}}</ref> Bocconi was also ranked by [[Forbes]] as the best worldwide in the specific category Value for Money.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gatech :: OIE :: GT Study Abroad Programs |url=http://www.oie.gatech.edu/sa/programs/show.html?id=bocc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080508020611/http://www.oie.gatech.edu/sa/programs/show.html?id=bocc |archive-date=8 May 2008 |access-date=30 October 2010}}</ref> In May 2008, Bocconi overtook several traditionally top global business schools in the [[Financial Times]] [[Executive education]] ranking, reaching no. 5 in Europe and no. 15 in the world.<ref>{{cite web |date=12 November 2008 |title=Sda Bocconi supera London Business School – ViviMilano |url=http://www.corriere.it/vivimilano/cronache/articoli/2008/05_Maggio/12/sda_bocconi.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924222100/http://www.corriere.it/vivimilano/cronache/articoli/2008/05_Maggio/12/sda_bocconi.shtml |archive-date=24 September 2008 |access-date=30 October 2010 |work=Corriere della Sera}}</ref>
-Other top universities and polytechnics are the [[Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore]] in Milan, the [[LUISS]] in Rome, the [[Polytechnic University of Turin]], the [[Politecnico di Milano]] (which in 2011 was ranked as the 48th best technical university in the world by [[QS World University Rankings]]<ref name=qs1>{{cite web|title=Politecnico di Milano – QS World University Rankings|url=http://www.topuniversities.com/institution/politecnico-di-milano|publisher=topuniversities.com|access-date=8 February 2012}}</ref>), the [[Sapienza University of Rome|University of Rome La Sapienza]] (which in 2005 was Europe's 33rd best university,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arwu.org/rank/2005/ARWU2005_TopEuro.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430202044/http://www.arwu.org/rank/2005/ARWU2005_TopEuro.htm|archive-date=30 April 2008 |title=Top 100 European Universities |publisher=Arwu.org |access-date=27 October 2009}}</ref> and ranks among Europe's 50 and the world's 150 best colleges<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arwu.org/rank2008/ARWU2008_TopEuro(EN).htm |title=ARWU2008 |publisher=Arwu.org |access-date=27 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822033350/http://www.arwu.org/rank2008/ARWU2008_TopEuro(EN).htm |archive-date=22 August 2008}}</ref> and in 2013, the Center for World University Rankings ranked the [[Sapienza University of Rome]] 62nd in the world and the top in Italy in its ''World University Rankings''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwur.org/top100.html|title=World University Rankings 2013|publisher=Center for World University Rankings| year=2013 |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref>) and the [[University of Milan]] (whose research and teaching activities have developed over the years and have received important international recognition). This university is the only Italian member of the League of European Research Universities (LERU), a prestigious group of twenty research-intensive European Universities. It has also been awarded ranking positions such as 1st in Italy and 7th in Europe (The [[CWTS Leiden Ranking|Leiden Ranking]] – Universiteit Leiden).
+Other top universities and polytechnics are the [[Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore]] in Milan, the [[LUISS]] in Rome, the [[Polytechnic University of Turin]], the [[Politecnico di Milano]] (which in 2011 was ranked as the 48th best technical university in the world by [[QS World University Rankings]]<ref name="qs1">{{cite web |title=Politecnico di Milano – QS World University Rankings |url=http://www.topuniversities.com/institution/politecnico-di-milano |access-date=8 February 2012 |publisher=topuniversities.com}}</ref>), the [[Sapienza University of Rome|University of Rome La Sapienza]] (which in 2005 was Europe's 33rd best university,<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 100 European Universities |url=http://www.arwu.org/rank/2005/ARWU2005_TopEuro.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430202044/http://www.arwu.org/rank/2005/ARWU2005_TopEuro.htm |archive-date=30 April 2008 |access-date=27 October 2009 |publisher=Arwu.org}}</ref> and ranks among Europe's 50 and the world's 150 best colleges<ref>{{cite web |title=ARWU2008 |url=http://www.arwu.org/rank2008/ARWU2008_TopEuro(EN).htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822033350/http://www.arwu.org/rank2008/ARWU2008_TopEuro(EN).htm |archive-date=22 August 2008 |access-date=27 October 2009 |publisher=Arwu.org}}</ref> and in 2013, the Center for World University Rankings ranked the [[Sapienza University of Rome]] 62nd in the world and the top in Italy in its ''World University Rankings''.<ref>{{cite web |year=2013 |title=World University Rankings 2013 |url=http://www.cwur.org/top100.html |access-date=17 July 2013 |publisher=Center for World University Rankings}}</ref>) and the [[University of Milan]] (whose research and teaching activities have developed over the years and have received important international recognition). This university is the only Italian member of the League of European Research Universities (LERU), a prestigious group of twenty research-intensive European Universities. It has also been awarded ranking positions such as 1st in Italy and 7th in Europe (The [[CWTS Leiden Ranking|Leiden Ranking]] – Universiteit Leiden).
-== Africa ==
+==== Portugal ====
+{{Main|Higher education in Portugal}}
-=== Nigeria ===
+==== Ukraine ====
+{{Main|Higher education in Ukraine}}
+==== United Kingdom ====
+Under [[devolution in the United Kingdom]], education is administered separately in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland. In England, the term "tertiary education" aligns with the global term "higher education" (i.e. post-18 study).<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2019 |title=Independent panel report to the Review of Post-18 Education and Funding |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/805127/Review_of_post_18_education_and_funding.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210053039/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/805127/Review_of_post_18_education_and_funding.pdf |archive-date=10 December 2020 |access-date=2022-03-03}}</ref> In 2018 the Welsh Government adopted the term "tertiary education" to refer to post-16 education and training in Wales.<ref>{{cite web |title=Welsh Government {{!}} Written Statement - Public Good and a Prosperous Wales – Next steps |url=https://gov.wales/about/cabinet/cabinetstatements/2018/Nextsteps/?lang=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140200/https://gov.wales/about/cabinet/cabinetstatements/2018/Nextsteps/?lang=en |archive-date=12 June 2018 |access-date=2018-06-07 |website=gov.wales}}</ref> Since the 1970s, however, specialized [[further education|further education colleges]] in England and Wales have called themselves "[[tertiary college]]s" although being part of the [[secondary education]] process. These institutions cater for both school leavers and adults, thus combining the main functions of an FE college and a [[sixth form college]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2006 |title=Public Expenditure on Education and Skills: Second Report of Session 2005–06 |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmeduski/479/479.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204065239/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmeduski/479/479.pdf |archive-date=4 December 2021 |access-date=22 April 2022 |publisher=House of Commons Education and Skills Committee}}</ref> Generally, district councils with such colleges have adopted a tertiary system or structure where a single local institution provides all the 16–19 and adult education, and where schools do not universally offer sixth forms (i.e. schools only serve ages 11–16). However the [[Further and Higher Education Act 1992]] has effectively prevented the creation of new tertiary colleges.<ref>{{cite web |title=White Paper: Education and Training for the 21st century (1991) |url=http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/wp1991a/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002134958/http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/wp1991a/index.html |archive-date=2 October 2021 |access-date=2 October 2021}}</ref>
+=== North America ===
+==== Canada ====
+[[File:Educationincanada-eng.png|thumb|upright=1.2| Canada by province and territory, showing the percentage of the population aged 25 to 64 who had a bachelor's degree or higher, and the percentage point change from 2016 to 2021<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022 i032">{{cite web |date=30 November 2022 |title=British Columbia and Ontario saw the largest percentage point increases in degree holders from 2016 to 2021 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221130/mc-a002-eng.htm |access-date=8 March 2024 |website=Statistics Canada}}</ref>]]
+{{main|Higher education in Canada}}
+{{Excerpt|Higher education in Canada|only=paragraph|hat=no|paragraph=1,2}}
+==== United States ====
+{{Main|Higher education in the United States}}
+[[File:Upper Quad Gate in the fall.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The [[University of Pennsylvania]], an American research university]]
+The [[Higher education in the United States|higher education system in the United States]] is decentralized and regulated independently by each state<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.caichildlaw.org/Misc/Information_statebystate.pdf |title=For Profit Postsecondary Schools: Oversight and Governing Statutes & Regulations |website=caichildlaw.org |year=2014 |access-date=22 April 2022 |archive-date=15 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515055451/http://www.caichildlaw.org/Misc/Information_statebystate.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> with [[Higher education accreditation in the United States|accreditors]] playing a key role in ensuring institutions meet minimum standards. It is large and diverse with institutions that are privately governed and institutions that are owned and operated by state and local governments. Some private institutions are affiliated with religious organizations whereas others are secular with enrollment ranging from a few dozen to tens of thousands of students. The United States Department of Education presents a broad-spectrum view of tertiary education and detailed information on the nation's educational structure, accreditation procedures, and connections to state as well as federal agencies and entities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/|title=National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Home Page, part of the U.S. Department of Education|website=nces.ed.gov|access-date=2018-07-02}}</ref>
+The [[Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education]] provides one framework for classifying U.S. colleges and universities in several different ways.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.carnegiefoundation.org/newsroom/news-releases/iu-research-center-house-carnegie-classification-institutions-higher-education/|title=IU research Center to House Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education {{!}} Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching|date=2014-10-07|work=Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching|access-date=2018-07-02|archive-date=22 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222162815/https://www.carnegiefoundation.org/newsroom/news-releases/iu-research-center-house-carnegie-classification-institutions-higher-education/|url-status=live}}</ref> US tertiary education also includes various non-profit organizations promoting professional development of individuals in the field of higher education and helping expand awareness of related issues like international student services and complete campus internationalization.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://educationusa.state.gov/foreign-institutions-and-governments/understanding-us-higher-education|title=Understanding U.S. Higher Education|date=2015-01-08|work=EducationUSA|access-date=2018-07-02|archive-date=2 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702093813/https://educationusa.state.gov/foreign-institutions-and-governments/understanding-us-higher-education|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acenet.edu/Pages/default.aspx|title=The American Council on Education|website=acenet.edu|access-date=2018-07-02|archive-date=2 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702093647/http://www.acenet.edu/Pages/default.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>
+=== Africa ===
+==== Nigeria ====
 [[File:FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NEKEDE OWERRI front gate.jpg|thumb|[[Federal Polytechnic, Nekede|Federal Polytechnic]], Nekede in [[Owerri]], Nigeria]]
 In Nigeria, ''tertiary education'' refers to post-secondary education received at universities (government or privately funded), monotechnics, polytechnics and colleges of education. After completing a secondary education, students may enroll in a tertiary institution or acquire a [[Vocational school|vocational education]]. Students are required to sit for the [[Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board]] Entrance Examination (JAMB) as well as the [[West African Senior School Certificate Examination|Secondary School Certificate Examination]] (SSCE) or General Certificate Examination (GCE) and meet varying cut-off marks to gain admission into a tertiary institution.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pulse.ng/communities/student/pulse-list-6-requirements-you-must-meet-to-gain-admission-into-higher-institutions/zqxqmfb|title=6 requirements you MUST meet to gain admission into higher institutions|date=2018-01-17|website=Pulse Nigeria|access-date=2019-12-17|archive-date=17 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217025625/https://www.pulse.ng/communities/student/pulse-list-6-requirements-you-must-meet-to-gain-admission-into-higher-institutions/zqxqmfb|url-status=live}}</ref>
-== Asia ==
+=== Asia ===
-=== Japan ===
+==== Japan ====
 {{Main|Higher education in Japan}}
 [[File:Yasuda Hall, Tokyo Daigaku.jpg|thumb|[[University of Tokyo]], a research university in [[Tokyo]]]]
 According to MEXT (Ministry of Education) and UNESCO, following types of education are classified as tertiary education: University education (undergraduate, postgraduate and professional degrees), two-year colleges (''Tanki Daigaku''), colleges of technology and specialised colleges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=DATA MAPPING – ISCED |url=https://isced.uis.unesco.org/data-mapping/ |access-date=2024-04-11 |language=en-US}}</ref>
-=== Hong Kong ===
+==== Hong Kong ====
 [[File:Chinese University of Hong Kong 香港中文大學.JPG|thumb|right|[[Chinese University of Hong Kong]], one of Hong Kong's universities]]
 {{Main|Higher education in Hong Kong}}
 In Hong Kong "tertiary education" or "higher education" refers to any education higher than secondary education. Tertiary education includes universities, post secondary colleges, statutory universities, and publicly funded institutions.
-===Higher education by country===
+==== Philippines ====
-*[[Higher education in Canada]]
+{{Main|Higher education in the Philippines}}
-*[[Higher education in Ukraine]]
-*[[Higher education in the Philippines]]
+====Singapore====
-*[[Higher education in Portugal]]
+[[File:University Hall, National University of Singapore, February 2020.jpg|thumb|right|[[National University of Singapore]], one of Singapore's universities]]
+{{Main|Education in Singapore}}
+In Singapore, "tertiary education" or "Post-secondary Education" refers to any education higher than secondary education. Tertiary education includes, [[Junior college (Singapore)|Junior Colleges]], [[Centralised institutes (Singapore)|Centralised institutes]], [[Education in Singapore#Polytechnics|Polytechnics]], the [[Institute of Technical Education]] and [[List of universities in Singapore|Universities]].
 == See also ==
@@ Line 413: / Line 420: @@
 * [[:Category:Higher education by country]]
 * [[List of countries by tertiary education attainment]]
-* [[List of education articles by country|Education by country]]
+* [[List of education articles by country]]
 * [[List of higher education associations and alliances]]
 * [[List of universities and colleges by country]]
@@ Line 437: / Line 444: @@
 {{Reflist}}
-== Sources ==
+=== Sources ===
 {{refbegin}}
 * {{cite book|last=Brick|first=Jean|title=Academic Culture: A Student's Guide to Studying at University|year=2006|publisher=National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research|location=Sydney, NSW|isbn=978-1-74138-135-1|pages=1–10|chapter=What is academic culture?}}
@@ Line 482: / Line 489: @@
 | list =
 {{Africa topic|Higher education in}}
+{{Americas topic|Higher education in}}
 {{Asia topic|Higher education in}}
 {{Europe topic|Higher education in}}
-{{North America topic|Higher education in}}
 {{Oceania topic|Higher education in}}
-{{South America topic|Higher education in}}
 }}

Tertiary education: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 01:22, 18 November 2025

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