Sugar: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 17:39, 7 November 2025

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File:Sucre blanc cassonade complet rapadura.jpg

Sugars (clockwise from top-left): white refined, unrefined, brown, unprocessed cane sugar

Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or double sugars, are molecules made of two bonded monosaccharides; common examples are sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose (two molecules of glucose). White sugar is almost pure sucrose. During digestion, compound sugars are hydrolysed into simple sugars.

Longer chains of saccharides are not regarded as sugars, and are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Starch is a glucose polymer found in plants – the most abundant source of energy in human food. Some other chemical substances, such as ethylene glycol, glycerol and sugar alcohols, may have a sweet taste, but are not classified as sugar.

Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants. Honey and fruits are abundant natural sources of simple sugars. Sucrose is especially concentrated in sugarcane and sugar beet, making them efficient for commercial extraction to make refined sugar. In 2016, the combined world production of those two crops was about two billion tonnes. Maltose may be produced by malting grain. Lactose is the only sugar that cannot be extracted from plants, as it occurs only in milk, including human breast milk, and in some dairy products. A cheap source of sugar is corn syrup, industrially produced by converting corn starch into sugars, such as maltose, fructose and glucose.

Sucrose is used in prepared foods (e.g., cookies and cakes), is sometimes added to commercially available ultra-processed food and beverages, and is sometimes used as a sweetener for foods (e.g., toast and cereal) and beverages (e.g., coffee and tea). Globally on average a person consumes about Template:Convert of sugar each year. North and South Americans consume up to Template:Convert, and Africans consume under Template:Convert.^[1]

The use of added sugar in food and beverage manufacturing is a concern for elevated calorie intake, which is associated with an increased risk of several diseases, such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disorders.^[2] In 2015, the World Health Organization recommended that adults and children reduce their intake of free sugars to less than 10% of their total energy intake, encouraging a reduction to below 5%.^[3]

Etymology

The etymology of sugar reflects the commodity's spread. From Sanskrit Script error: No such module "Lang"., meaning "ground or candied sugar", came Persian Script error: No such module "Lang". and Arabic sukkar. The Arabic word was borrowed in Medieval Latin as succarum, whence came the 12th century French sucre and the English sugar. Sugar was introduced into Europe by the Arabs in Sicily and Spain.^[4]

The English word jaggery, a coarse brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin: Portuguese Script error: No such module "Lang". from the Malayalam Script error: No such module "Lang"., which is from the Sanskrit Script error: No such module "Lang"..^[5]

History

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File:Canaviais Sao Paulo 01 2008 06.jpg

Sugar cane plantation

Sugar was first produced from sugar cane in the Indian subcontinent.^[6] Diverse species of sugar cane seem to have originated from India (Saccharum barberi and S. edule) and New Guinea (S. officinarum).^[7]^[8] Sugarcane is described in Chinese manuscripts dating to the 8th century BCE, which state that the use of sugarcane originated in India.^[9]

Nearchus, admiral of Alexander the Great, the Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides and the Roman Pliny the Elder also described sugar.^[10] In the mid-15th century, sugar was introduced into Madeira and the Canary Islands, where it was mass produced. Christopher Columbus introduced it to the New World leading to sugar industries in Cuba and Jamaica by the 1520s.^[11] The Portuguese took sugar cane to Brazil.

Beet sugar, the starting point for the modern sugar industry,^[12] was a German invention.^[13]^[14] Beet sugar was first produced industrially in 1801 in Cunern, Prussia.^[14]

Sugar became a household item by the 19th century, and this evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient resulted in major economic and social changes.^[15]Script error: No such module "Unsubst". Demand drove, in part, the colonisation and industrialisation of previously under-developed lands. It was also intimately associated with slavery.^[15]Script error: No such module "Unsubst". World consumption increased more than 100 times from 1850 to 2000, led by the United Kingdom, where it increased from about 2 pounds per head per year in 1650 to 90 pounds by the early 20th century.

Chemistry

File:Saccharose2.svg

Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose (left) and fructose (right)

Scientifically, sugar loosely refers to a number of compounds typically with the formula (CH₂O)_n. Some large classes of sugars, ranked in increasing order of molecular weight are monosaccharides, disaccharides, or oligosaccharides.

Monosaccharides

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Monosaccharides are also called "simple sugars", the most important being glucose. Most monosaccharides have a formula that conforms to Template:Chem with n between 3 and 7 (deoxyribose being an exception). Glucose has the molecular formula Template:Chem. The names of typical sugars end with -ose, as in "glucose" and "fructose". Such labels may also refer to any types of these compounds. Fructose, galactose, and glucose are all simple sugars, monosaccharides, with the general formula Template:Chem2. They have five hydroxyl groups (−OH) and a carbonyl group (C=O) and are cyclic when dissolved in water. They each exist as several isomers with dextro- and laevo-rotatory forms that cause polarized light to diverge to the right or the left.^[16]

Fructose, or fruit sugar, occurs naturally in fruits, some root vegetables, cane sugar and honey and is the sweetest of the sugars. It is one of the components of sucrose or table sugar. It is used as a high-fructose syrup, which is manufactured from hydrolyzed corn starch that has been processed to yield corn syrup, with enzymes then added to convert part of the glucose into fructose.^[17]
Galactose generally does not occur in the free state but is a constituent with glucose of the disaccharide lactose or milk sugar. It is less sweet than glucose. It is a component of the antigens found on the surface of red blood cells that determine blood groups.^[18]
Glucose occurs naturally in fruits and plant juices and is the primary product of photosynthesis. Starch is converted into glucose during digestion, and glucose is the form of sugar that is transported around the bodies of animals in the bloodstream. Although in principle there are two enantiomers of glucose (mirror images one of the other), naturally occurring glucose is D-glucose. This is also called dextrose, or grape sugar because drying grape juice produces crystals of dextrose that can be sieved from the other components.^[19]

The acyclic monosaccharides (and disaccharides) contain either aldehyde groups or ketone groups. These carbon-oxygen double bonds (C=O) are the reactive centers. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a molecule of water (Template:Chem) per bond.^[20]

Disaccharides

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Lactose, maltose, and sucrose are disaccharides, also called "compound sugars". The share the formula Template:Chem2. They are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide molecules with the expulsion of a molecule of water.^[16]

Lactose is the naturally occurring sugar found in milk. A molecule of lactose is formed by the combination of a molecule of galactose with a molecule of glucose. It is broken down when consumed into its constituent parts by the enzyme lactase during digestion. Children have this enzyme but some adults no longer form it and they are unable to digest lactose.^[21]
Maltose is formed during the germination of certain grains, the most notable being barley, which is converted into malt, the source of the sugar's name. A molecule of maltose is formed by the combination of two molecules of glucose. It is less sweet than glucose, fructose or sucrose.^[16] It is formed in the body during the digestion of starch by the enzyme amylase and is itself broken down during digestion by the enzyme maltase.^[22]
Sucrose is found in the stems of sugarcane and roots of sugar beet. It also occurs naturally alongside fructose and glucose in other plants, in particular fruits and some roots such as carrots. The different proportions of sugars found in these foods determines the range of sweetness experienced when eating them.^[16] A molecule of sucrose is formed by the combination of a molecule of glucose with a molecule of fructose. After being eaten, sucrose is split into its constituent parts during digestion by a number of enzymes known as sucrases.^[23]

Polysaccharides

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Longer than disaccharides are oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Cellulose and chitin are polymers, often crystalline, found in diverse plants and insects, respectively. Cellulose cannot be digested directly by animals. Starch is an amorphous polymer of glucose that is found in many plants and is widely used in the sugar industry.

Sources

The sugar contents of common fruits and vegetables are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Sugar content of selected common plant foods (g/100g)^[24]
Food item	Total carbohydrate^A including dietary fiber	Total sugars	Free fructose	Free glucose	Sucrose	Fructose/ (Fructose+Glucose) ratio^B	Sucrose as a % of total sugars
Fruits
Apple	13.8	10.4	5.9	2.4	2.1	0.67	20
Apricot	11.1	9.2	0.9	2.4	5.9	0.42	64
Banana	22.8	12.2	4.9	5.0	2.4	0.5	20
Fig, dried	63.9	47.9	22.9	24.8	0.9	0.48	1.9
Grapes	18.1	15.5	8.1	7.2	0.2	0.53	1
Navel orange	12.5	8.5	2.25	2.0	4.3	0.51	51
Peach	9.5	8.4	1.5	2.0	4.8	0.47	57
Pear	15.5	9.8	6.2	2.8	0.8	0.67	8
Pineapple	13.1	9.9	2.1	1.7	6.0	0.52	61
Plum	11.4	9.9	3.1	5.1	1.6	0.40	16
Strawberry	7.68	4.89	2.441	1.99	0.47	0.55	10
Vegetables
Beet, red	9.6	6.8	0.1	0.1	6.5	0.50	96
Carrot	9.6	4.7	0.6	0.6	3.6	0.50	77
Corn, sweet	19.0	6.2	1.9	3.4	0.9	0.38	15
Red pepper, sweet	6.0	4.2	2.3	1.9	0.0	0.55	0
Onion, sweet	7.6	5.0	2.0	2.3	0.7	0.47	14
Sweet potato	20.1	4.2	0.7	1.0	2.5	0.47	60
Yam	27.9	0.5	tr	tr	tr	na	tr
Sugar cane		13–18	0.2–1.0	0.2–1.0	11–16	0.50	high
Sugar beet		17–18	0.1–0.5	0.1–0.5	16–17	0.50	high

<templatestyles src="Citation/styles.css"/>^A The carbohydrate figure is calculated in the USDA database and does not always correspond to the sum of the sugars, the starch, and the dietary fiber.Template:Why

<templatestyles src="Citation/styles.css"/>^B The fructose to fructose plus glucose ratio is calculated by including the fructose and glucose coming from the sucrose.

Production

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Due to rising demand, sugar production in general increased some 14% over the period 2009 to 2018.^[25] The largest importers were China, Indonesia, and the United States.^[25]

Sugar

In 2022–2023 world production of sugar was 186 million tonnes, and in 2023–2024 an estimated 194 million tonnes — a surplus of 5 million tonnes, according to Ragus.^[26]

Sugarcane

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Sugarcane production – 2022 (millions of tonnes)
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World	1,922.1
Source: FAO^[27]

Sugar cane accounted for around 21% of the global crop production over the 2000–2021 period. The Americas was the leading region in the production of sugar cane (52% of the world total).^[28] Global production of sugarcane in 2022 was 1.9 billion tonnes, with Brazil producing 38% of the world total and India 23% (table).

Sugarcane is any of several species, or their hybrids, of giant grasses in the genus Saccharum in the family Poaceae. They have been cultivated in tropical climates in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia over centuries for the sucrose found in their stems.^[6]

File:World production of raw sugar by main producers.svg

World production of raw sugar, main producers^[29]

Sugar cane requires a frost-free climate with sufficient rainfall during the growing season to make full use of the plant's substantial growth potential. The crop is harvested mechanically or by hand, chopped into lengths and conveyed rapidly to the processing plant (commonly known as a sugar mill) where it is either milled and the juice extracted with water or extracted by diffusion.^[30] The juice is clarified with lime and heated to destroy enzymes. The resulting thin syrup is concentrated in a series of evaporators, after which further water is removed. The resulting supersaturated solution is seeded with sugar crystals, facilitating crystal formation and drying.^[30] Molasses is a by-product of the process and the fiber from the stems, known as bagasse,^[30] is burned to provide energy for the sugar extraction process. The crystals of raw sugar have a sticky brown coating and either can be used as they are, can be bleached by sulfur dioxide, or can be treated in a carbonatation process to produce a whiter product.^[30] About Template:Convert of irrigation water is needed for every Template:Convert of sugar produced.^[31]

Sugar beet

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Sugar beet production – 2022 (millions of tonnes)
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World	260
Source: FAO^[27]

In 2022, global production of sugar beets was 260 million tonnes, led by Russia with 18.8% of the world total (table).

Sugar beet became a major source of sugar in the 19th century when methods for extracting the sugar became available. It is a biennial plant,^[32] a cultivated variety of Beta vulgaris in the family Amaranthaceae, the tuberous root of which contains a high proportion of sucrose. It is cultivated as a root crop in temperate regions with adequate rainfall and requires a fertile soil. The crop is harvested mechanically in the autumn and the crown of leaves and excess soil removed. The roots do not deteriorate rapidly and may be left in the field for some weeks before being transported to the processing plant where the crop is washed and sliced, and the sugar extracted by diffusion.^[33] Milk of lime is added to the raw juice with calcium carbonate. After water is evaporated by boiling the syrup under a vacuum, the syrup is cooled and seeded with sugar crystals. The white sugar that crystallizes can be separated in a centrifuge and dried, requiring no further refining.^[33]

Refining

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Refined sugar is made from raw sugar that has undergone a refining process to remove the molasses.^[34]^[35] Raw sugar is sucrose which is extracted from sugarcane or sugar beet. While raw sugar can be consumed, the refining process removes unwanted tastes and results in refined sugar or white sugar.^[36]^[37]

The sugar may be transported in bulk to the country where it will be used and the refining process often takes place there. The first stage is known as affination and involves immersing the sugar crystals in a concentrated syrup that softens and removes the sticky brown coating without dissolving them. The crystals are then separated from the liquor and dissolved in water. The resulting syrup is treated either by a carbonatation or by a phosphatation process. Both involve the precipitation of a fine solid in the syrup and when this is filtered out, many of the impurities are removed at the same time. Removal of color is achieved by using either a granular activated carbon or an ion-exchange resin. The sugar syrup is concentrated by boiling and then cooled and seeded with sugar crystals, causing the sugar to crystallize out. The liquor is spun off in a centrifuge and the white crystals are dried in hot air and ready to be packaged or used. The surplus liquor is made into refiners' molasses.^[38]

The International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis sets standards for the measurement of the purity of refined sugar, known as ICUMSA numbers; lower numbers indicate a higher level of purity in the refined sugar.^[39]

Refined sugar is widely used for industrial needs for higher quality. Refined sugar is purer (ICUMSA below 300) than raw sugar (ICUMSA over 1,500).^[40] The level of purity associated with the colors of sugar, expressed by standard number ICUMSA, the smaller ICUMSA numbers indicate the higher purity of sugar.^[40]

Forms and uses

Crystal size

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Coarse-grain sugar, also known as sanding sugar, composed of reflective crystals with grain size of about 1 to 3 mm, similar to kitchen salt. Used atop baked products and candies, it will not dissolve when subjected to heat and moisture.^[41]
Granulated sugar (about 0.6 mm crystals), also known as table sugar or regular sugar, is used at the table, to sprinkle on foods and to sweeten hot drinks (coffee and tea), and in home baking to add sweetness and texture to baked products (cookies and cakes) and desserts (pudding and ice cream). It is also used as a preservative to prevent micro-organisms from growing and perishable food from spoiling, as in candied fruits, jams, and marmalades.^[42]
Milled sugars such as powdered sugar (icing sugar) are ground to a fine powder. They are used for dusting foods and in baking and confectionery.^[43]^[41]
Screened sugars such as caster sugar are crystalline products separated according to the size of the grains. They are used for decorative table sugars, for blending in dry mixes and in baking and confectionery.^[43]

Densities

The densities of culinary sugars varies owing to differences in particle size and inclusion of moisture:^[44]

Beet sugar 0.80 g/mL
Dextrose sugar 0.62 g/mL ( = 620 kg/m^3)
Granulated sugar 0.70 g/mL
Powdered sugar 0.56 g/mL

Shapes

File:Würfelzucker -- 2018 -- 3564.jpg

Sugar cubes

Cube sugar (sometimes called sugar lumps) are white or brown granulated sugars lightly steamed and pressed together in block shape. They are used to sweeten drinks.^[43]
Sugarloaf was the usual cone-form in which refined sugar was produced and sold until the late 19th century.^[45]

Brown sugars

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File:Brown sugar examples.JPG

Brown sugar examples: Muscovado (top), dark brown (left), light brown (right)

Brown sugars are granulated sugars, either containing residual molasses, or with the grains deliberately coated with molasses to produce a light- or dark-colored sugar such as muscovado and turbinado. They are used in baked goods, confectionery, and toffees.^[43] Their darkness is due to the amount of molasses they contain. They may be classified based on their darkness or country of origin.^[41]

Liquid sugars

File:Runny hunny.jpg

A jar of honey with a dipper and a biscuit

Glucose syrup and corn syrup are widely used in the manufacture of foodstuffs. They manufactured from starch by enzymatic hydrolysis.^[46] For example, corn syrup, which is produced commercially by breaking down maize starch, is one common source of purified dextrose.^[47] Such syrups are use in producing beverages, hard candy, ice cream, and jams.^[43]
Inverted sugar syrup, commonly known as invert syrup or invert sugar, is a mixture of two simple sugars—glucose and fructose—that is made by heating granulated sugar in water. It is used in breads, cakes, and beverages for adjusting sweetness, aiding moisture retention and avoiding crystallization of sugars.^[43]
Molasses and treacle are obtained by removing sugar from sugarcane or sugar beet juice, as a byproduct of sugar production. They may be blended with the above-mentioned syrups to enhance sweetness and used in a range of baked goods and confectionery including toffees and licorice.^[43]
In winemaking, fruit sugars are converted into alcohol by a fermentation process. If the must formed by pressing the fruit has a low sugar content, additional sugar may be added to raise the alcohol content of the wine in a process called chaptalization. In the production of sweet wines, fermentation may be halted before it has run its full course, leaving behind some residual sugar that gives the wine its sweet taste.^[48]

Burnt sugars and caramels

Heating sugar to near 200 °C for several minutes yields a product called burnt sugar. Often additives are used to modify the resulting caramels, e.g. alkali or sulfites. Several volatile products evolve in the heating process including butanone, several furans (2-acetofuran, furanone, hydroxymethyl furfural), and levoglucosan and more.^[49]

Because sugars burn easily when exposed to flame, the handling of sugar powders risks dust explosion.^[50] The 2008 Georgia sugar refinery explosion, which killed 14 people and injured 36, and destroyed most of the refinery, was caused by the ignition of sugar dust.^[51]

Other sweeteners

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Low-calorie sweeteners are often made of maltodextrin with added sweeteners. Maltodextrin is an easily digestible synthetic polysaccharide consisting of short chains of three or more glucose molecules and is made by the partial hydrolysis of starch.^[52] Strictly, maltodextrin is not classified as sugar as it contains more than two glucose molecules, although its structure is similar to maltose, a molecule composed of two joined glucose molecules.
Polyols are sugar alcohols and are used in chewing gums where a sweet flavor is required that lasts for a prolonged time in the mouth.^[53]

Consumption

Worldwide sugar provides 10% of the daily calories (based on a 2000 kcal diet).^[54] In 1750, the average Briton got 72 calories a day from sugar. In 1913, this had risen to 395. In 2015, sugar still provided around 14% of the calories in British diets.^[55] According to one source, per capita consumption of sugar in 2016 was highest in the United States, followed by Germany and the Netherlands.^[56]

Nutrition and flavor

Template:Nutritionalvalue Template:Nutritionalvalue

Brown and white granulated sugar are 97% to nearly 100% carbohydrates, respectively, with less than 2% water, and no dietary fiber, protein or fat (table).^[57] Because brown sugar contains 5–10% molasses reintroduced during processing, its value to some consumers is a richer flavor than white sugar.^[58]

Health effects

The World Health Organization and other clinical associations recommend that reducing the consumption of free sugar (sugar sources added during manufacturing) to less than 10% of total energy needs can help to lower disease risk.^[2]^[3] This amount of sugar consumption is equivalent to about Template:Cvt or 12 teaspoons of added sugar per day.^[59] Template:As of, the American Heart Association recommends that free sugar intake be limited to 6% of total daily energy needs, or Template:Cvt (9 teaspoons) for adult males, and Template:Cvt (6 teaspoons) for women.^[60] In many countries, the source and amount of added sugars can be viewed among ingredients on the labels of packaged foods.^[60] Added sugars provide no nutritional benefit, but are a source of excess calories that can lead to overweight and increased disease risk.^[2]^[3]^[59]^[60]

Obesity and metabolic syndrome

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A 2003 technical report by the World Health Organization provided evidence that high intake of sugary drinks (including fruit juice) increases the risk of obesity by adding to overall energy intake.^[61] By itself, sugar is not a factor causing obesity and metabolic syndrome, but rather its excessive consumption adds to caloric burden, which meta-analyses showed could increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome in adults and children.^[62]^[63]

Cancer

Sugar consumption does not directly cause cancer.^[64]^[65]^[66] Cancer Council Australia have stated that "there is no evidence that consuming sugar makes cancer cells grow faster or cause cancer".^[64] There is an indirect relationship between sugar consumption and obesity-related cancers through increased risk of excess body weight.^[66]^[64]^[67]

The American Institute for Cancer Research and World Cancer Research Fund recommend that people limit sugar consumption.^[68]^[69]

There is a popular misconception that cancer can be treated by reducing sugar and carbohydrate intake to supposedly "starve" tumours. In reality, the health of people with cancer is best served by maintaining a healthy diet.^[70]

Cognition

Despite some studies suggesting that sugar consumption causes hyperactivity, the quality of evidence is low^[71] and it is generally accepted within the scientific community that the notion of children's 'sugar rush' is a myth.^[72]^[73] A 2019 meta-analysis found that sugar consumption does not improve mood, but can lower alertness and increase fatigue within an hour of consumption.^[74] One review of low-quality studies of children consuming high amounts of energy drinks showed association with higher rates of unhealthy behaviors, including smoking and excessive alcohol use, and with hyperactivity and insomnia, although such effects could not be specifically attributed to sugar over other components of those drinks such as caffeine.^[75]

Tooth decay

The WHO, Action on Sugar and the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) state dental caries, also known as tooth decay/cavities, "can be prevented by avoiding dietary free sugars".^[3]^[76]^[77]^[78]

A review of human studies showed that the incidence of caries is lower when sugar intake is less than 10% of total energy consumed.^[79] Sugar-sweetened beverage consumption is associated with an increased risk of tooth decay.^[80]

Nutritional displacement

The "empty calories" argument states that a diet high in added (or 'free') sugars will reduce consumption of foods that contain essential nutrients.^[81] This nutrient displacement occurs if sugar makes up more than 25% of daily energy intake,^[82] a proportion associated with poor diet quality and risk of obesity.^[3] Displacement may occur at lower levels of consumption.^[82]

Recommended dietary intake

The WHO recommends that both adults and children reduce the intake of free sugars to less than 10% of total energy intake.^[3] "Free sugars" include monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods, and sugars found in fruit juice and concentrates, as well as in honey and syrups.^[3]^[60]

On 20 May 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration announced changes to the Nutrition Facts panel displayed on all foods, to be effective by July 2018. New to the panel is a requirement to list "added sugars" by weight and as a percent of Daily Value (DV). For vitamins and minerals, the intent of DVs is to indicate how much should be consumed. For added sugars, the guidance is that 100% DV should not be exceeded. 100% DV is defined as 50 grams. For a person consuming 2000 calories a day, 50 grams is equal to 200 calories and thus 10% of total calories—the same guidance as the WHO.^[83] To put this in context, most Template:Convert cans of soda contain 39 grams of sugar. In the United States, a government survey on food consumption in 2013–2014 reported that, for men and women aged 20 and older, the average total sugar intakes—naturally occurring in foods and added—were, respectively, 125 and 99 grams per day.^[84] The American Heart Association recommends even lower daily consumption of added sugars: 36 grams for men, and 25 grams for women.^[60]

Society and culture

Manufacturers of sugary products, such as soft drinks and candy, and the Sugar Research Foundation have been accused of trying to influence consumers and medical associations in the 1960s and 1970s by creating doubt about the potential health hazards of sucrose overconsumption, while promoting saturated fat as the main dietary risk factor in cardiovascular diseases.^[85] In 2016, the criticism led to recommendations that diet policymakers emphasize the need for high-quality research that accounts for multiple biomarkers on development of cardiovascular diseases.^[85]

Originally, no sugar was white; anthropologist Sidney Mintz writes that white likely became understood as the ideal after groups who associated the color white with purity transferred their value to sugar.^[86] In India, sugar frequently appears in religious observances. For ritual purity, such sugar cannot be white.^[86]

Gallery

Brown sugar crystals

Brown sugar crystals
Whole date sugar

Whole date sugar
Whole cane sugar (grey), vacuum-dried

Whole cane sugar (grey), vacuum-dried
Whole cane sugar (brown), vacuum-dried

Whole cane sugar (brown), vacuum-dried
raw sugar closeup

Raw crystals of unrefined, unbleached sugar

References

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Sources

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External links

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Sugar at the National Health Service

Template:Sugar Template:Carbohydrates Template:Commodity Template:Food science Template:Orexigenics Template:Authority control

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Sugar: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 17:39, 7 November 2025

Contents

Etymology

History

Chemistry

Monosaccharides

Disaccharides

Polysaccharides

Sources

Production

Sugar

Sugarcane

Sugar beet

Refining

Forms and uses

Crystal size

Densities

Shapes

Brown sugars

Liquid sugars

Burnt sugars and caramels

Other sweeteners

Consumption

Nutrition and flavor

Health effects

Obesity and metabolic syndrome

Cancer

Cognition

Tooth decay

Nutritional displacement

Recommended dietary intake

Society and culture

Gallery

See also

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|Sweet-tasting, water-soluble carbohydrates}}
 {{About|the class of sweet-flavored substances used as food|common table sugar|Sucrose||Sugar (disambiguation)}}
+{{Good article}}
 {{Pp-pc|reason=COI, SPA sanitation and other disruptive and POV issues. Feel free to reduce, but I don't see an end, thus the long term protection.|small=yes}}
-{{Good article}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
 {{Use British English|date=September 2024}}
-[[File:Sucre blanc cassonade complet rapadura.jpg|thumb|Sugars (clockwise from top-left): [[white sugar|white refined]], unrefined, [[brown sugar|brown]], unprocessed [[sugarcane|cane]] ]]
+{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=3}}
+[[File:Sucre blanc cassonade complet rapadura.jpg|thumb|Sugars (clockwise from top-left): white refined, unrefined, [[brown sugar|brown]], unprocessed cane sugar ]]
 <!--Definition-->
-'''Sugar''' is the generic name for [[Sweetness|sweet-tasting]], soluble [[carbohydrate]]s, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called [[monosaccharide]]s, include [[glucose]], [[fructose]], and [[galactose]]. Compound sugars, also called [[disaccharide]]s or double sugars, are molecules made of two [[Glycosidic bond|bonded]] monosaccharides; common examples are [[sucrose]] (glucose + fructose), [[lactose]] (glucose + galactose), and [[maltose]] (two molecules of glucose). [[White sugar]] is almost pure sucrose. In the body, compound sugars are [[hydrolysed]] into simple sugars.
+'''Sugar''' is the generic name for [[Sweetness|sweet-tasting]], soluble [[carbohydrate]]s, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called [[monosaccharide]]s, include [[glucose]], [[fructose]], and [[galactose]]. Compound sugars, also called [[disaccharide]]s or double sugars, are molecules made of two [[Glycosidic bond|bonded]] monosaccharides; common examples are [[sucrose]] (glucose + fructose), [[lactose]] (glucose + galactose), and [[maltose]] (two molecules of glucose). [[White sugar]] is almost pure sucrose. During digestion, compound sugars are [[hydrolysed]] into simple sugars.
-Longer chains of monosaccharides (>2) are not regarded as sugars and are called [[oligosaccharide]]s or [[polysaccharide]]s. [[Starch]] is a glucose polymer found in plants, the most abundant source of energy in [[human food]]. Some other chemical substances, such as [[ethylene glycol]], [[glycerol]] and [[sugar alcohol]]s, may have a sweet taste but are not classified as sugar.
+Longer chains of saccharides are not regarded as sugars, and are called [[oligosaccharide]]s or [[polysaccharide]]s. [[Starch]] is a glucose polymer found in plants &ndash; the most abundant source of energy in [[human food]]. Some other chemical substances, such as [[ethylene glycol]], [[glycerol]] and [[sugar alcohol]]s, may have a sweet taste, but are not classified as sugar.
 <!--Sources-->
-Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants. [[Honey]] and fruits are abundant natural sources of simple sugars. Sucrose is especially concentrated in [[sugarcane]] and [[sugar beet]], making them ideal for efficient commercial [[extract]]ion to make refined sugar. In 2016, the combined world production of those two crops was about two billion [[tonne]]s. Maltose may be produced by [[malt]]ing grain. Lactose is the only sugar that cannot be extracted from plants. It can only be found in milk, including human breast milk, and in some [[dairy product]]s. A cheap source of sugar is [[corn syrup]], industrially produced by converting [[corn starch]] into sugars, such as maltose, fructose and glucose.
+Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants. [[Honey]] and fruits are abundant natural sources of simple sugars. Sucrose is especially concentrated in [[sugarcane]] and [[sugar beet]], making them  efficient for commercial [[extract|extraction]] to make refined sugar. In 2016, the combined world production of those two crops was about two billion [[tonne]]s. Maltose may be produced by [[malt|malting]] grain. Lactose is the only sugar that cannot be extracted from plants, as it occurs only in milk, including human breast milk, and in some [[dairy product]]s. A cheap source of sugar is [[corn syrup]], industrially produced by converting [[corn starch]] into sugars, such as maltose, fructose and glucose.
 <!--Uses-->
@@ Line 19: / Line 20: @@
 <!--Health-->
-As [[Added sugar|free sugar]] consumption grew in the latter part of the 20th&nbsp;century, researchers began to examine whether a diet high in free sugar, especially refined sugar, was damaging to [[human health]]. In 2015, the [[World Health Organization]] strongly recommended that adults and children reduce their intake of free sugars to less than 10% of their total [[Energy homeostasis|energy intake]] and encouraged a reduction to below 5%.<ref name="WHO 2015p4"/> In general, high sugar consumption damages human health more than it provides nutritional benefit and is associated with a risk of cardiometabolic and other health detriments.<ref name=huang/>
+The use of added sugar in food and beverage manufacturing is a concern for elevated [[Calorie|calorie intake]], which is associated with an increased risk of several diseases, such as [[obesity]], [[diabetes]], and [[Cardiovascular disease|cardiovascular disorders]].<ref name="huang">{{cite journal |vauthors=Huang Y, Chen Z, Chen B, Li J, Yuan X, Li J, Wang W, Dai T, Chen H, Wang Y, Wang R, Wang P, Guo J, Dong Q, Liu C, Wei Q, Cao D, Liu L |title=Dietary sugar consumption and health: umbrella review |journal=BMJ |volume=381 |issue= |article-number=e071609 |date=April 2023 |pmid=37019448 |pmc=10074550 |doi=10.1136/bmj-2022-071609}}</ref> In 2015, the [[World Health Organization]] recommended that adults and children reduce their intake of free sugars to less than 10% of their total [[Energy homeostasis|energy intake]], encouraging a reduction to below 5%.<ref name="who-nlm">{{cite web |title=Guideline: Sugars Intake for Adults and Children |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK285538/ |publisher=World Health Organization; Executive Summary by the US National Library of Medicine |access-date=3 October 2025 |date=2015}}</ref>
 ==Etymology==
 The [[etymology]] of ''sugar'' reflects the commodity's spread. From [[Sanskrit]] ''{{Lang|sa-latn|śarkarā}}'', meaning "ground or candied sugar", came [[Persian language|Persian]] ''{{Lang|fa-latn|shakar}}'' and Arabic ''sukkar''. The Arabic word was borrowed in Medieval Latin as ''succarum'', whence came the 12th century [[Old French|French]] ''sucre'' and the English ''sugar''. Sugar was introduced into Europe by the Arabs in Sicily and Spain.<ref name="oed">{{OEtymD|Sugar}}</ref>
-The English word ''[[jaggery]]'', a coarse [[brown sugar]] made from [[date palm]] sap or [[sugarcane]] juice, has a similar etymological origin: Portuguese ''{{Lang|pt|jágara}}'' from the Malayalam ''{{Lang|ml-latn|cakkarā}}'', which is from the Sanskrit ''{{Lang|sa-latn|śarkarā}}''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/jaggery |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001000114/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/jaggery |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 October 2012 |title=Jaggery |publisher=Oxford Dictionaries |access-date=17 August 2012}}</ref>
+The English word ''[[jaggery]]'', a coarse [[brown sugar]] made from [[date palm]] sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin: Portuguese ''{{Lang|pt|jágara}}'' from the Malayalam ''{{Lang|ml-latn|cakkarā}}'', which is from the Sanskrit ''{{Lang|sa-latn|śarkarā}}''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/jaggery |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001000114/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/jaggery |archive-date=1 October 2012 |title=Jaggery |publisher=Oxford Dictionaries |access-date=17 August 2012}}</ref>
 == History ==
 {{Main|History of sugar}}
-=== Ancient world to Renaissance ===
 [[File:Canaviais Sao Paulo 01 2008 06.jpg|thumb|[[Sugar cane]] plantation]]
+Sugar was first produced from sugar cane in the Indian subcontinent.<ref name="Moxham2002">{{cite book|author=Roy Moxham|title=The Great Hedge of India: The Search for the Living Barrier that Divided a People|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sVWItAEACAAJ|date=7 February 2002|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-7867-0976-2}}</ref> Diverse species of sugar cane seem to have originated from India (''[[Saccharum barberi]]'' and ''[[Saccharum edule|S. edule]]'') and New Guinea (''[[Saccharum officinarum|S. officinarum]]'').<ref name=Kiple>{{cite book |url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/sugar.htm |title=World history of Food – Sugar |first=Kenneth F. |last=Kiple |author2=Kriemhild Conee Ornelas |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=9 January 2012 |archive-date=23 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123183317/http://www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/sugar.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Sharpe>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnoleaflets.com//leaflets/sugar.htm |title=Sugar Cane: Past and Present |work=Illinois: Southern Illinois University |author=Sharpe, Peter |year=1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710203319/http://www.ethnoleaflets.com//leaflets/sugar.htm |archive-date=10 July 2011}}</ref> Sugarcane is described in Chinese manuscripts dating to the 8th century BCE, which state that the use of sugarcane originated in India.<ref name=gr1>{{cite book |title=Something about sugar: its history, growth, manufacture and distribution |first=George |last=Rolph |year=1873 |url=https://archive.org/details/somethingaboutsu00rolprich|location=San Francisco|publisher= J.J. Newbegin }}</ref>
-==== Asia ====
+[[Nearchus]], admiral of [[Alexander the Great]], the Greek physician [[Dioscorides|Pedanius Dioscorides]] and the Roman [[Pliny the Elder]] also described sugar.<ref name=faas>{{cite book | last1=Faas | first1=P. | last2=Whiteside | first2=S. | title=Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-226-23347-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YXGlAr17oekC&pg=PA149 | page=149}}</ref> In the mid-15th century, sugar was introduced into [[Madeira]] and the [[Canary Islands]], where it was mass produced. [[Christopher Columbus]] introduced it to the [[New World]] leading to sugar industries in [[Captaincy General of Cuba|Cuba]] and [[Spanish Jamaica|Jamaica]] by the 1520s.<ref name="duke">{{cite book | title=The Repeating: The Caribbean and the Postmodern Perspective | publisher=Duke University Press |author=Antonio Benítez Rojo |others=James E. Maraniss (translation) |year=1996|isbn=0-8223-1865-2 |page=93}}</ref> The Portuguese took sugar cane to Brazil.
-Sugar has been produced in the [[Indian subcontinent]]<ref name="Moxham2002">{{cite book|author=Roy Moxham|title=The Great Hedge of India: The Search for the Living Barrier that Divided a People|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sVWItAEACAAJ|date=7 February 2002|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-7867-0976-2}}</ref> for thousands of years. Sugarcane cultivation spread from there into China via the [[Khyber Pass]] and caravan routes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gordon |first=Stewart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_4AAwAAQBAJ |title=When Asia was the World |publisher=Da Capo Press |year=2008 |page=12|isbn=978-0-306-81556-0 }}</ref> It was not plentiful or cheap in early times, and in most parts of the world, [[honey]] was more often used for sweetening.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eteraf-Oskouei |first1=Tahereh |last2=Najafi |first2=Moslem |date=June 2013 |title=Traditional and Modern Uses of Natural Honey in Human Diseases: A Review |journal=  Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences|volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=731–742 |pmid=23997898 |pmc=3758027 }}</ref> Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness. Even after refined sugarcane became more widely available during the European colonial era,<ref>{{cite book | title=The Cambridge World History of Food | year=2000 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vr2qnK_QOuAC&dq=palm+sugar+southeast+history&pg=PA1162 | page=1162 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=9780521402156 | access-date=19 March 2023 | archive-date=15 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415074233/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vr2qnK_QOuAC&dq=palm+sugar+southeast+history&pg=PA1162 | url-status=live }}</ref> [[palm sugar]] was preferred in [[Java]] and other sugar producing parts of southeast Asia, and along with [[coconut sugar]], is still used locally to make desserts today.<ref>{{cite book |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia from Angkor Wat to East Timor |year=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&dq=palm+sugar+southeast+history&pg=PA1257 |page=1257 |isbn=9781576077702 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=5 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505134019/https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&dq=palm+sugar+southeast+history&pg=PA1257 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Cooking Through History: A Worldwide Encyclopedia of Food with Menus and Recipes |date=2 December 2020 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_cUOEAAAQBAJ&dq=palm+sugar+southeast+history&pg=PA645 |page=645 |isbn=9781610694568 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=15 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415074233/https://books.google.com/books?id=_cUOEAAAQBAJ&dq=palm+sugar+southeast+history&pg=PA645 |url-status=live }}</ref>
-Sugarcane is native of tropical areas such as the Indian subcontinent (South Asia) and Southeast Asia.<ref name="Moxham2002"/><ref name=Kiple/> Different species seem to have originated from different locations; ''[[Saccharum barberi]]'' originated in India, and ''[[Saccharum edule|S. edule]]'' and ''[[Saccharum officinarum|S. officinarum]]'' came from [[New Guinea]].<ref name=Kiple>{{cite book |url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/sugar.htm |title=World history of Food – Sugar |first=Kenneth F. |last=Kiple |author2=Kriemhild Conee Ornelas |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=9 January 2012 |archive-date=23 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123183317/http://www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/sugar.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Sharpe>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnoleaflets.com//leaflets/sugar.htm |title=Sugar Cane: Past and Present |work=Illinois: Southern Illinois University |author=Sharpe, Peter |year=1998 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710203319/http://www.ethnoleaflets.com//leaflets/sugar.htm |archive-date=10 July 2011}}</ref> One of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating to the 8th century BCE, which state that the use of sugarcane originated in India.<ref name=gr1>{{cite book |title=Something about sugar: its history, growth, manufacture and distribution |first=George |last=Rolph |year=1873 |url=https://archive.org/details/somethingaboutsu00rolprich|location=San Francisco|publisher= J.J. Newbegin }}</ref>
-In the tradition of Indian medicine ([[Ayurveda|āyurveda]]), sugarcane is known by the name ''Ikṣu'', and sugarcane juice is known as ''Phāṇita''. Its varieties, synonyms and characteristics are defined in [[Nighantu|nighaṇṭus]] such as the Bhāvaprakāśa (1.6.23, group of sugarcanes).<ref>{{Cite book | last = Murthy | first = K.R. Srikantha | title = Bhāvaprakāśa of Bhāvamiśra, Vol. I | publisher = Chowkhamba Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi | year = 2016 | isbn=978-81-218-0000-6 | pages = 490–494 | edition = reprint 2016 | series = Krishnadas Ayurveda Series 45}}</ref>
-Sugar remained relatively unimportant until around 350 AD when the Indians discovered methods of turning [[sugarcane juice]] into granulated crystals that were easier to store and transport. It was then considered as 'sweet spice' and Indian traders started trading sugar outside India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Sugar - From Early Sugarcane Cultivation |url=https://www.sugarhistory.net/who-made-sugar/history-of-sugar/ |access-date=2025-02-27 |website=www.sugarhistory.net}}</ref> The Greek physician [[Pedanius Dioscorides]] attested to the method in his 1st century CE medical treatise ''[[De Materia Medica]]'': {{blockquote|There is a kind of coalesced honey called sakcharon [i.e. sugar] found in reeds in India and [[Arabia Felix|Eudaimon Arabia]] similar in consistency to salt and brittle enough to be broken between the teeth like salt,|author=Pedanius Dioscorides|title=Materia Medica|source=Book II<ref>Quoted from Book Two of Dioscorides' ''Materia Medica''. The book is downloadable from links at the Wikipedia [[Dioscorides]] page.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/de-materia-medica |title=de materia medica}}</ref>}}
-In the local Indian language, these crystals were called ''khanda'' ([[Devanagari]]: खण्ड, {{IAST|Khaṇḍa}}), which is the source of the word ''candy''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sugarcane: Saccharum Officinarum |publisher=USAID, Govt of United States |year=2006 |page=7.1 |url=http://www.usaid.gov/locations/latin_america_caribbean/environment/docs/ag&environ/Sugarcane.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106015828/http://www.usaid.gov/locations/latin_america_caribbean/environment/docs/ag%26environ/Sugarcane.pdf |archive-date=6 November 2013 }}</ref> Indian sailors, who carried [[clarified butter]] and sugar as supplies, introduced knowledge of sugar along the various [[trade routes]] they travelled.<ref name="Adas">{{cite book |last=Adas |first=Michael |title=Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History |date=2001 |publisher=Temple University Press |isbn=1-56639-832-0 |publication-place=Philadelphia |page=311}}</ref> Traveling Buddhist monks took sugar [[crystallization methods]] to China.<ref name="Kieschnick1">{{cite book | last=Kieschnick | first=John | title=The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture | publisher=Princeton University Press | publication-place=Princeton | date=2003-04-06 | isbn=0-691-09676-7}}</ref> During the reign of [[Harsha]] (r. 606–647) in [[North India]], Indian envoys in [[Tang dynasty|Tang China]] taught methods of cultivating sugarcane after [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]] (r. 626–649) made known his interest in sugar. China established its first sugarcane plantations in the seventh century.<ref name="sen 38 40">{{cite book | last=Sen | first=Tansen | title=Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600–1400 | publisher=University of Hawaii Press | publication-place=Honolulu (T.H.) | date=2003-01-01 | isbn=0-8248-2593-4 | pages=38–40}}</ref> Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, to obtain technology for sugar refining.<ref name="Kieschnick11">{{cite book | last=Kieschnick | first=John | title=The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture | publisher=Princeton University Press | publication-place=Princeton | date=2003-04-06 | isbn=0-691-09676-7 | page=258}}</ref>
-==== Europe ====
-[[File:Trionfi di Cibele e Juno.jpg|thumb|Two elaborate sugar ''[[trionfo|triomfi]]'' of goddesses for a dinner given by the [[Earl of Castlemaine]], British ambassador in Rome, 1687]]
-[[Nearchus]], admiral of [[Alexander the Great]], knew of sugar during the year 325 BC because of his participation in [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great#Sources|the campaign of India]] led by Alexander (''[[Arrian]], [[Anabasis Alexandri|Anabasis]]'').<ref>Jean Meyer, Histoire du sucre, ed. Desjonquières, 1989</ref><ref>Anabasis Alexandri, translated by E.J. Chinnock (1893)</ref> In addition to the Greek physician [[Pedanius Dioscorides]], the Roman [[Pliny the Elder]] also described sugar in his 1st century CE [[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]: "''Sugar is made in Arabia as well, but Indian sugar is better. It is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut. Sugar is used only for medical purposes.''"<ref name=faas>{{cite book | last1=Faas | first1=P. | last2=Whiteside | first2=S. | title=Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-226-23347-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YXGlAr17oekC&pg=PA149 | page=149}}</ref> [[Crusades|Crusaders]] brought sugar back to Europe after their campaigns in the [[Holy Land]], where they encountered caravans carrying "sweet salt". Early in the 12th century, the [[Republic of Venice]] acquired some villages near [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] and set up estates to produce sugar for export to Europe. It supplemented the use of honey, which had previously been the only available sweetener.<ref name="Ponting 2000 481">{{cite book |last=Ponting |first=Clive |author-link=Clive Ponting |title=World history: a new perspective |orig-year=2000 |year=2000 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |location=London |isbn=978-0-7011-6834-6 |page=481}}</ref> Crusade chronicler [[William of Tyre]], writing in the late 12th century, described sugar as "very necessary for the use and health of mankind".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barber |first1=Malcolm |edition=2nd |title=The two cities: medieval Europe, 1050–1320 |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-17415-2 |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Kkm7cgT_xkC&pg=PA14}}</ref> In the 15th century, [[Venice]] was the chief sugar refining and distribution center in Europe.<ref name=gr1/>
-There was a drastic change in the mid-15th century, when [[Madeira]] and the [[Canary Islands]] were settled from Europe and sugar introduced there.<ref>Strong, 195</ref><ref name="Manning-2006">{{Cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/745696019|title=Themes in West Africa's history|date=2006|publisher=Ohio University|others=Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku.|isbn=978-0-8214-4566-2|location=Athens|pages=102–103|chapter=Slavery & Slave Trade in West Africa 1450-1930|oclc=745696019|access-date=24 August 2020|archive-date=31 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031183147/https://www.worldcat.org/title/themes-in-west-africas-history/oclc/745696019|url-status=live}}</ref> After this an "all-consuming passion for sugar ... swept through society" as it became far more easily available, though initially still very expensive.<ref>Strong, 194</ref> By 1492, Madeira was producing over {{convert|3000000|lb|kg|order=flip}} of sugar annually.<ref>Frankopan, 200. "By the time Columbus set sail, Madeira alone was producing more than 3 million pounds in weight of sugar per year—albeit at the cost of what one scholar has described as early modern 'ecocide,' as forests were cleared and non-native animal species like rabbits and rats multiplied in such numbers that they were seen as a form of divine punishment."</ref> [[Genoa]], one of the centers of distribution, became known for candied fruit, while Venice specialized in pastries, sweets (candies), and [[sugar sculpture]]s. Sugar was considered to have "valuable medicinal properties" as a "warm" food under prevailing categories, being "helpful to the stomach, to cure cold diseases, and sooth lung complaints".<ref>Strong, 194–195, 195 quoted</ref>
-A feast given in [[Tours]] in 1457 by [[Gaston IV, Count of Foix|Gaston de Foix]], which is "probably the best and most complete account we have of a late medieval banquet" includes the first mention of sugar sculptures, as the final food brought in was "a heraldic menagerie sculpted in sugar: lions, stags, monkeys ... each holding in paw or beak the arms of the [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungarian king]]".<ref>Strong, 75</ref> Other recorded grand feasts in the decades following included similar pieces.<ref>Strong, 133–134, 195–197</ref> Originally the sculptures seem to have been eaten in the meal, but later they become merely table decorations, the most elaborate called ''[[trionfo|trionfi]]''. Several significant sculptors are known to have produced them; in some cases their preliminary drawings survive. Early ones were in brown sugar, partly [[casting|cast]] in molds, with the final touches carved. They continued to be used until at least the Coronation Banquet for [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom]] in 1903; among other sculptures every guest was given a sugar crown to take away.<ref>Strong, 309</ref>
-=== Modern history ===
-{{see also|Triangular trade}}
-{{multiple image
- | align = right
- | direction = vertical
- | width = 200
- | image1 = Sugar Cane closeup.jpg
- | caption1 = Sugar cane; demand for sugar contributed to creating [[Colonialism|colonial systems]] in areas where cultivation of sugar cane was profitable.
- | image2 = Hacienda La Fortuna Francisco Oller 1885 Brooklyn Museum.jpg
- | caption2 = ''Hacienda La Fortuna.'' A sugar mill complex in Puerto Rico, painted by [[Francisco Oller]] in 1885, [[Brooklyn Museum]]
-}}In August 1492, [[Christopher Columbus]] collected sugar cane samples in [[La Gomera]] in the [[Canary Islands]], and introduced it to the [[New World]].<ref>{{cite book |title= Historia de la conquista de las siete islas de Canarias |last= Abreu y Galindo |first= J. de |editor= A. Cioranescu  |year= 1977 |publisher= Goya ediciones |location= Tenerife }}</ref> The cuttings were planted and the first sugar-cane harvest in [[Hispaniola]] took place in 1501. Many sugar mills had been constructed in [[Captaincy General of Cuba|Cuba]] and [[Spanish Jamaica|Jamaica]] by the 1520s.<ref name="duke">{{cite book | title=The Repeating: The Caribbean and the Postmodern Perspective | publisher=Duke University Press |author=Antonio Benítez Rojo |others=James E. Maraniss (translation) |year=1996|isbn=0-8223-1865-2 |page=93}}</ref> The Portuguese took sugar cane to Brazil. By 1540, there were 800 cane-sugar mills in [[Santa Catarina Island]] and another 2,000 on the north coast of Brazil, [[Demarara]], and [[Surinam (Dutch colony)|Surinam]]. It took until 1600 for Brazilian sugar production to exceed that of [[São Tomé]], which was the main center of sugar production in sixteenth century.<ref name="Manning-2006"/>
-{{multiple image
-| align             = right
-| total_width       = 320
-| image1            = Andreas Sigismund Marggaf.jpg
-| image2            = Achard Franz Karl.jpg
-| footer            = German chemists [[Andreas Sigismund Marggraf]] (left) and [[Franz Karl Achard]] (right) both laid the foundation of the modern sugar industry.
-}}
-By the 1680s, the retail price of sugar in England had dropped to approximately 10d for a pound, making [[confectionery]] affordable to [[merchant]]s. Increased sugar production lead to a retail price drop across Europe.<ref>{{cite book | title=A History of Global Consumption 1500-1800 | publisher=Taylor & Francis |author1=Ina Baghdiantz McCabe |year=2014 |isbn=9781317652656 |page=59}}</ref> However, sugar remained a luxury in Europe until the early 19th century, when it became more widely available, due to the rise of [[Sugar beet|beet sugar]] in [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], and later in [[First French Empire|France]] under [[Napoleon]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eufic.org/de/food-today/article/the-origins-of-sugar-from-beet|title=The Origins of Sugar from Beet|date=3 July 2001|website=EUFIC|access-date=29 March 2020|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801195414/https://www.eufic.org/de/food-today/article/the-origins-of-sugar-from-beet|url-status=dead}}</ref> Beet sugar was a German invention, since, in 1747, [[Andreas Sigismund Marggraf]] announced the discovery of sugar in beets and devised a method using alcohol to extract it.<ref>{{cite book |author=Marggraf |year=1747 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJQDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA79 |chapter=Experiences chimiques faites dans le dessein de tirer un veritable sucre de diverses plantes, qui croissent dans nos contrées |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231160304/https://books.google.com/books?id=lJQDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA79 |archive-date=31 December 2022 |trans-chapter=Chemical experiments made with the intention of extracting real sugar from diverse plants that grow in our lands |title=Histoire de l'académie royale des sciences et belles-lettres de Berlin |pages= 79–90 |language=fr}}</ref> Marggraf's student, [[Franz Karl Achard]], devised an economical industrial method to extract the sugar in its pure form in the late 18th century.<ref>{{cite book |author=Achard |year=1799 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0zhOAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA163 |chapter=Procédé d'extraction du sucre de bette |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221022133746/https://books.google.com/books?id=0zhOAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA163 |archive-date=22 October 2022 |trans-chapter=Process for extracting sugar from beets |title=Annales de Chimie |volume=32 |pages=163–168}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid = 13086516 | last = Wolff | first = G. | year = 1953 |title = Franz Karl Achard, 1753–1821; a contribution of the cultural history of sugar |volume=7 |issue=4 |periodical=[[Medizinische Monatsschrift für Pharmazeuten|Medizinische Monatsschrift]] |pages=253–4 }}</ref> Achard first produced beet sugar in 1783 in [[Kaulsdorf (Berlin)|Kaulsdorf]], and in 1801, the world's first beet sugar production facility was established in [[Konary, Wołów County|Cunern]], [[Silesia]] (then part of Prussia, now [[Poland]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www2.tu-berlin.de/~zuckerinstitut/museum.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070824035034/http://www2.tu-berlin.de/~zuckerinstitut/museum.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 August 2007|title=Festveranstaltung zum 100jährigen Bestehen des Berliner Institut für Zuckerindustrie|date=23 November 2004|website=Technische Universität Berlin|access-date=29 March 2020}}</ref> The works of Marggraf and Achard were the starting point for the sugar industry in Europe,<ref>{{cite book|title=[[Larousse Gastronomique]]|date=13 October 2009|publisher=[[Éditions Larousse]]|isbn=9780600620426|pages=1152}}</ref> and for the modern sugar industry in general, since sugar was no longer a luxury product and a product almost only produced in warmer climates.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf|title=Andreas Sigismund Marggraf {{!}} German chemist|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=29 March 2020|archive-date=29 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329175917/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf|url-status=live}}</ref>
-Sugar became highly popular and by the 19th century, was found in every household. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient resulted in major economic and social changes.<ref name="mintz">{{cite book |title= Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History |first= Sidney |last= Mintz |isbn= 978-0-14-009233-2 |year= 1986 |publisher= Penguin |url= https://archive.org/details/sweetnesspowerpl00mint }}</ref> Demand drove, in part, the colonization of tropical islands and areas where labor-intensive sugarcane plantations and sugar manufacturing facilities could be successful.<ref name="mintz"/> World consumption increased more than 100 times from 1850 to 2000, led by Britain, where it increased from about 2 pounds per head per year in 1650 to 90 pounds by the early 20th century. In the late 18th century Britain consumed about half the sugar which reached Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Otter |first1=Chris |title=Diet for a large planet |date=2020 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=USA |isbn=978-0-226-69710-9 |page=73 }}</ref>
-After slavery was [[Abolitionism|abolished]], the demand for workers in European colonies in the Caribbean was filled by [[Indentured servitude|indentured laborers]] from the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name=britain1>{{cite web |title= Forced Labour |year= 2010 |publisher= The National Archives, Government of the United Kingdom |url= http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/india/forced.htm |access-date= 1 February 2012 |archive-date= 4 December 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161204015712/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/india/forced.htm |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first= Walton |last= Lai |title= Indentured labor, Caribbean sugar: Chinese and Indian migrants to the British West Indies, 1838–1918 |year= 1993 |publisher= Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn= 978-0-8018-7746-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first= Steven |last= Vertovik |author2= (Robin Cohen, ed.) |title= The Cambridge survey of world migration |year= 1995 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/cambridgesurveyo00robi/page/57 57–68] |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 978-0-521-44405-7 |url= https://archive.org/details/cambridgesurveyo00robi/page/57 }}</ref> Millions of enslaved or indentured laborers were brought to various European colonies in the Americas, Africa and Asia (as a result of demand in Europe for among other commodities, sugar), influencing the ethnic mixture of numerous nations around the globe.<ref>{{cite book |title= A Question of Labour: Indentured Immigration Into Trinidad & British Guiana, 1875–1917 |first= K |last= Laurence |publisher= St Martin's Press |year= 1994 |isbn= 978-0-312-12172-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= St. Lucia's Indian Arrival Day |work= Repeating Islands |year= 2009 |publisher= Caribbean Repeating Islands |url= http://repeatingislands.com/2009/05/07/st-lucia%E2%80%99s-indian-arrival-day/ |access-date= 1 February 2012 |archive-date= 24 April 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170424085806/https://repeatingislands.com/2009/05/07/st-lucia%E2%80%99s-indian-arrival-day/ |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Indian indentured labourers |publisher= The National Archives, Government of the United Kingdom |year= 2010 |url= http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/records/research-guides/indian-indentured-labour.htm |access-date= 1 February 2012 |archive-date= 12 December 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111212175352/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/records/research-guides/indian-indentured-labour.htm |url-status= live }}</ref>
-Sugar also led to some industrialization of areas where sugar cane was grown. For example, in the 1790s Lieutenant J. Paterson, of the [[Bengal Presidency]] promoted to the [[Parliament of Great Britain|British parliament]] the idea that sugar cane could grow in [[Company rule in India|British India]], where it had started, with many advantages and at less expense than in the [[West Indies]]. As a result, sugar factories were established in [[Bihar]] in eastern India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bihargatha.in/early-agriculture-based-enterprenureships/sugar-concerns |title=Early Sugar Industry of Bihar – Bihargatha |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910142340/http://www.bihargatha.in/early-agriculture-based-enterprenureships/sugar-concerns |archive-date=10 September 2011 |website=Bihargatha.in |accessdate=7 January 2012}}</ref><ref>
-Compare: {{cite book | last1 = Bosma | first1 = Ulbe | title = The Sugar Plantation in India and Indonesia: Industrial Production, 1770–2010 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DZuyAAAAQBAJ | series = Studies in Comparative World History | publisher = Cambridge University Press | date = 2013 | isbn = 978-1-107-43530-8 | access-date = 3 September 2018}}</ref> During the [[Napoleonic Wars]], sugar-beet production increased in continental Europe because of the difficulty of importing sugar when shipping was subject to [[blockade]]. By 1880 the sugar beet was the main source of sugar in Europe. It was also cultivated in [[Lincolnshire]] and other parts of England, although the United Kingdom continued to import the main part of its sugar from its colonies.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.sucrose.com/lhist.html |title= How Sugar is Made – the History |work= SKIL: Sugar Knowledge International |access-date= 28 March 2012 |archive-date= 20 October 2002 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20021020062627/http://www.sucrose.com/lhist.html |url-status= live }}</ref>
-Until the late nineteenth century, sugar was purchased in [[sugarloaf|loaves]], which had to be cut using implements called [[sugar nips]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.thesugargirls.com/a-visit-to-the-tate-lyle-archive// |title= A Visit to the Tate & Lyle Archive |publisher= The Sugar Girls blog |date= 10 March 2012 |access-date= 11 March 2012 |archive-date= 30 July 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120730135449/http://www.thesugargirls.com/a-visit-to-the-tate-lyle-archive/ |url-status= usurped }}</ref> In later years, granulated sugar was more usually sold in bags. [[Sugar cube]]s were produced in the nineteenth century. The first inventor of a process to produce sugar in cube form was [[Jakob Christof Rad]], director of a sugar refinery in [[Dačice]]. In 1841, he produced the first sugar cube in the world.<ref name=history>{{cite web|title=Dačice|url=https://www.dacice.cz/en/|publisher=Město Dačice|access-date=2021-09-02|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101743/https://www.dacice.cz/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> He began sugar-cube production after being granted a five-year patent for the process on 23 January 1843. [[Henry Tate]] of [[Tate & Lyle]] was another early manufacturer of sugar cubes at his refineries in [[Liverpool]] and London. Tate purchased a patent for sugar-cube manufacture from German [[Eugen Langen]], who in 1872 had invented a different method of processing of sugar cubes.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Duncan |last1=Barrett |first2=Nuala |last2=Calvi |publisher= Collins |title= The Sugar Girls |isbn=978-0-00-744847-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sugargirlstaleso0000barr/page/ ix] |year=2012 |url=https://archive.org/details/sugargirlstaleso0000barr/page/}}</ref>
+Beet sugar, the starting point for the modern sugar industry,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Andreas Sigismund Marggraf {{!}} German chemist |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329175917/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf |archive-date=29 March 2020 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> was a German invention.<ref>{{cite book |author=Marggraf |year=1747 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJQDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA79 |chapter=Experiences chimiques faites dans le dessein de tirer un veritable sucre de diverses plantes, qui croissent dans nos contrées |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231160304/https://books.google.com/books?id=lJQDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA79 |archive-date=31 December 2022 |trans-chapter=Chemical experiments made with the intention of extracting real sugar from diverse plants that grow in our lands |title=Histoire de l'académie royale des sciences et belles-lettres de Berlin |pages= 79–90 |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="TUBe">{{Cite web |date=23 November 2004 |title=Festveranstaltung zum 100 jährigen Bestehen des Berliner Institut für Zuckerindustrie |url=http://www2.tu-berlin.de/~zuckerinstitut/museum.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070824035034/http://www2.tu-berlin.de/~zuckerinstitut/museum.html |archive-date=24 August 2007 |publisher=Technische Universität Berlin}}</ref> Beet sugar was first produced industrially in 1801 in [[Konary, Wołów County|Cunern]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]].<ref name=TUBe />
-Sugar was rationed during [[World War I]], though it was said that "No previous war in history has been fought so largely on sugar and so little on alcohol",<ref>{{cite book |last1=Otter |first1=Chris |title=Diet for a large planet |date=2020 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=USA |isbn=978-0-226-69710-9 |page=96 }}</ref> and more sharply during [[World War II]].<ref name=Hicks>{{cite web |last1=Hicks |first1=Jesse |title=The Pursuit of Sweet |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/the-pursuit-of-sweet |publisher=Science History Institute |date=Spring 2010 |access-date=28 October 2018 |archive-date=5 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105224816/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/the-pursuit-of-sweet |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=1953: Sweet rationing ends in Britain |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/5/newsid_2737000/2737731.stm |work=BBC |date=5 February 1953 |access-date=28 October 2018 |archive-date=25 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225083426/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/5/newsid_2737000/2737731.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Nilsson |first1=Jeff |title=Could You Stomach America's Wartime Sugar Ration? 75 Years Ago |url=https://www.saturdayeveningpost.com/2017/05/stomach-americas-wartime-sugar-ration-75-years-ago/ |work=Saturday Evening Post |date=5 May 2017 |access-date=28 October 2018 |archive-date=29 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181029031055/https://www.saturdayeveningpost.com/2017/05/stomach-americas-wartime-sugar-ration-75-years-ago/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Lee |first1=K. |title=Sugar Supply |url=https://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1946100200 |publisher=CQ Press. |access-date=28 October 2018 |date=1946 |archive-date=29 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181029030756/https://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1946100200 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rationing of food and clothing during the Second World War |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/encyclopedia/homefront/rationing |publisher=The Australian War Memorial |date=25 October 2017 |access-date=28 October 2018 |archive-date=29 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181029031012/https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/encyclopedia/homefront/rationing |url-status=live }}</ref> Rationing led to the development and use of various [[artificial sweeteners]].<ref name=Hicks/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ur-Rehman |first1=S |last2=Mushtaq |first2=Z |last3=Zahoor |first3=T |last4=Jamil |first4=A |last5=Murtaza |first5=MA |title=Xylitol: a review on bioproduction, application, health benefits, and related safety issues. |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |date=2015 |volume=55 |issue=11 |pages=1514–28 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2012.702288 |pmid=24915309|s2cid=20359589}}</ref>
+Sugar became a household item by the 19th century, and this evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient resulted in major economic and social changes.<ref name="mintz">{{cite book |title= Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History |first= Sidney |last= Mintz |isbn= 978-0-14-009233-2 |year= 1986 |publisher= Penguin |url= https://archive.org/details/sweetnesspowerpl00mint }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=October 2025}} Demand drove, in part, the colonisation and industrialisation of previously under-developed lands. It was also intimately associated with slavery.<ref name="mintz"/>{{Page needed|date=October 2025}} World consumption increased more than 100 times from 1850 to 2000, led by the United Kingdom, where it increased from about 2 pounds per head per year in 1650 to 90 pounds by the early 20th century.
 == Chemistry ==
 [[File:Saccharose2.svg|frame|[[Sucrose]]: a disaccharide of [[glucose]] (left) and [[fructose]] (right)]]
+Scientifically, ''sugar'' loosely refers to a number of compounds typically with the formula (CH<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>n</sub>.   Some large classes of sugars, ranked in increasing order of molecular weight are [[monosaccharide]]s, [[disaccharide]]s, or oligosaccharides.
-Scientifically, ''sugar'' loosely refers to a number of [[carbohydrate]]s, such as [[monosaccharide]]s, [[disaccharide]]s, or [[oligosaccharide]]s. Monosaccharides are also called "simple sugars", the most important being glucose. Most monosaccharides have a formula that conforms to {{chem|C|n|H|2n|O|n}} with n between 3 and 7 ([[deoxyribose]] being an exception). [[Glucose]] has the [[molecular formula]] {{chem|C|6|H|12|O|6}}. The names of typical sugars end with -''ose'', as in "glucose" and "[[fructose]]". Sometimes such words may also refer to any types of [[carbohydrate]]s soluble in water. The [[Open-chain compound|acyclic]] mono- and disaccharides contain either [[aldehyde]] groups or [[ketone]] groups. These [[carbonyl|carbon-oxygen]] double bonds (C=O) are the reactive centers. All [[saccharide]]s with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined by [[glycosidic bond]]s with the resultant loss of a molecule of water ({{chem|H|2|O}}) per bond.<ref name=Pigman>{{cite book |last=Pigman |first=Ward |author2=Horton, D. |title=The Carbohydrates: Chemistry and Biochemistry Vol 1A |editor=Pigman and Horton |edition=2nd |year=1972 |publisher=Academic Press |location=San Diego |isbn=978-0-12-556352-9 |pages=1–67}}</ref>
-[[Monosaccharide]]s in a closed-chain form can form glycosidic bonds with other monosaccharides, creating disaccharides (such as [[sucrose]]) and [[polysaccharide]]s (such as [[starch]] or [[cellulose]]). [[Enzymes]] must hydrolyze or otherwise break these glycosidic bonds before such compounds become [[metabolism|metabolized]]. After digestion and absorption the principal monosaccharides present in the blood and internal tissues include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Many [[pentose]]s and [[hexose]]s can form [[Heterocyclic compound|ring structures]]. In these closed-chain forms, the aldehyde or ketone group remains non-free, so many of the reactions typical of these groups cannot occur. Glucose in solution exists mostly in the ring form at [[chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]], with less than 0.1% of the molecules in the open-chain form.<ref name=Pigman/>
-=== Natural polymers ===
-[[Biopolymer]]s of sugars are common in nature. Through photosynthesis, plants produce [[glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate]] (G3P), a phosphated 3-carbon sugar that is used by the cell to make monosaccharides such as glucose ({{chem|C|6|H|12|O|6}}) or (as in cane and beet) sucrose ({{chem|C|12|H|22|O|11}}). Monosaccharides may be further converted into [[polysaccharides#Structural polysaccharides|structural polysaccharides]] such as [[cellulose]] and [[pectin]] for [[cell wall]] construction or into energy reserves in the form of [[polysaccharides#Storage polysaccharides|storage polysaccharides]] such as starch or [[inulin]]. Starch, consisting of two different polymers of glucose, is a readily degradable form of chemical [[potential energy|energy]] stored by [[cell (biology)|cells]], and can be converted to other types of energy.<ref name=Pigman/> Another polymer of glucose is cellulose, which is a linear chain composed of several hundred or thousand glucose units. It is used by plants as a structural component in their cell walls. Humans can digest cellulose only to a very limited extent, though [[ruminant]]s can do so with the help of [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] bacteria in their gut.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF01089198 |last1=Joshi |first1=S |last2=Agte |first2=V |title=Digestibility of dietary fiber components in vegetarian men |journal=Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (Dordrecht, Netherlands) |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=39–44 |year=1995 |pmid=8719737|s2cid=25995873 }}</ref> [[DNA]] and [[RNA]] are built up of the monosaccharides [[deoxyribose]] and [[ribose]], respectively. Deoxyribose has the formula {{chem|C|5|H|10|O|4}} and ribose the formula {{chem|C|5|H|10|O|5}}.<ref>{{Merck11th|8205}}.</ref>
-=== Flammability and heat response ===
-[[File:Sugar 2xmacro.jpg|thumb|Magnification of grains of refined [[sucrose]], the most common [[free sugar]]]]
-Because sugars burn easily when exposed to flame, the handling of sugars risks [[dust explosion]]. The risk of explosion is higher when the sugar has been milled to superfine texture, such as for use in [[chewing gum]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vmsoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT120|title=The Science of Sugar Confectionery|last=Edwards|first=William P.|date=9 November 2015|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|isbn=978-1-78262-609-1|page=120|language=en}}</ref> The [[2008 Georgia sugar refinery explosion]], which killed 14 people and injured 36, and destroyed most of the refinery, was caused by the ignition of sugar dust.<ref>{{cite news|title=CSB Releases New Safety Video, "Inferno: Dust Explosion at Imperial Sugar"|date=7 October 2009|work=[[U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board]]|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=17 May 2021|url=https://www.csb.gov/csb-releases-new-safety-video-inferno-dust-explosion-at-imperial-sugar/|archive-date=24 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424011424/https://www.csb.gov/csb-releases-new-safety-video-inferno-dust-explosion-at-imperial-sugar/|url-status=live}}</ref>
-In its culinary use, exposing sugar to heat causes [[caramelization]]. As the process occurs, [[Volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] chemicals such as [[diacetyl]] are released, producing the characteristic [[caramel]] flavor.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Characteristics of the Thermal Degradation of Glucose and Maltose Solutions |journal=Prev Nutr Food Sci |date=2015 |pmid=26175997 |pmc=4500512 |last1=Woo |first1=K. S. |last2=Kim |first2=H. Y. |last3=Hwang |first3=I. G. |last4=Lee |first4=S. H. |last5=Jeong |first5=H. S. |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=102–9 |doi=10.3746/pnf.2015.20.2.102 }}</ref>
-== Types ==
 === Monosaccharides ===
+{{main|monosaccharide}}
+Monosaccharides are also called "simple sugars", the most important being glucose. Most monosaccharides have a formula that conforms to {{chem|C|n|H|2n|O|n}} with n between 3 and 7 ([[deoxyribose]] being an exception). [[Glucose]] has the [[molecular formula]] {{chem|C|6|H|12|O|6}}. The names of typical sugars end with -''ose'', as in "glucose" and "[[fructose]]". Such labels may also refer to any types of these compounds. Fructose, galactose, and glucose are all simple sugars, monosaccharides, with the general formula {{chem2|C6H12O6}}. They have five hydroxyl groups (−OH) and a carbonyl group (C=O) and are cyclic when dissolved in water. They each exist as several [[isomer]]s with dextro- and laevo-rotatory forms that cause polarized light to diverge to the right or the left.<ref name=Manual>{{cite book |title=Manual of Nutrition; Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food |last=Buss |first=David |author2=Robertson, Jean |year=1976 |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |location=London |pages=5–9 }}</ref>
-Fructose, galactose, and glucose are all simple sugars, monosaccharides, with the general formula {{chem2|C6H12O6}}. They have five hydroxyl groups (−OH) and a carbonyl group (C=O) and are cyclic when dissolved in water. They each exist as several [[isomer]]s with dextro- and laevo-rotatory forms that cause polarized light to diverge to the right or the left.<ref name=Manual>{{cite book |title=Manual of Nutrition; Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food |last=Buss |first=David |author2=Robertson, Jean |year=1976 |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |location=London |pages=5–9 }}</ref>
+* Fructose, or fruit sugar, occurs naturally in fruits, some root vegetables, cane sugar and honey and is the sweetest of the sugars. It is one of the components of sucrose or table sugar. It is used as a [[High-fructose corn syrup|high-fructose syrup]], which is manufactured from hydrolyzed corn starch that has been processed to yield [[corn syrup]], with enzymes then added to convert part of the glucose into fructose.<ref>{{cite book |first=Norman |last=Kretchmer |author2=Claire B. Hollenbeck |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFUYelP6ht0C |title=Sugars and Sweeteners |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-8493-8835-4 |publisher=CRC Press, Inc.}}</ref>
+* '''[[Galactose]]''' generally does not occur in the free state but is a constituent with glucose of the disaccharide lactose or milk sugar. It is less sweet than glucose. It is a component of the antigens found on the surface of [[red blood cell]]s that determine [[ABO blood group system|blood groups]].<ref name="Raven and Johnson">{{cite book |title=Understanding Biology |edition=3rd |first=Peter H. |last=Raven |author2=George B. Johnson|page=203 |isbn=978-0-697-22213-8 |year=1995 |editor=Carol J. Mills |publisher=WM C. Brown}}</ref>
+* '''[[Glucose]]''' occurs naturally in fruits and plant juices and is the primary product of [[photosynthesis]]. [[Starch]] is converted into glucose during digestion, and glucose is the form of sugar that is transported around the bodies of animals in the bloodstream. Although in principle there are two [[enantiomer]]s of glucose (mirror images one of the other), naturally occurring glucose is D-glucose. This is also called ''dextrose'', or ''grape sugar'' because drying grape juice produces crystals of dextrose that can be [[sieve]]d from the other components.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Teller|first=George L.|date=January 1918|title=Sugars Other Than Cane or Beet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kynnAAAAMAAJ|journal=The American Food Journal|pages=23–24|access-date=19 March 2023|archive-date=15 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415074234/https://books.google.com/books?id=kynnAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>
-* '''[[Fructose]]''', or fruit sugar, occurs naturally in fruits, some root vegetables, cane sugar and honey and is the sweetest of the sugars. It is one of the components of sucrose or table sugar. It is used as a [[High-fructose corn syrup|high-fructose syrup]], which is manufactured from hydrolyzed corn starch that has been processed to yield [[corn syrup]], with enzymes then added to convert part of the glucose into fructose.<ref>{{cite book |first=Norman |last=Kretchmer |author2=Claire B. Hollenbeck |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFUYelP6ht0C |title=Sugars and Sweeteners |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-8493-8835-4 |publisher=CRC Press, Inc.}}</ref>
+The [[Open-chain compound|acyclic]] monosaccharides (and disaccharides) contain either [[aldehyde]] groups or [[ketone]] groups. These [[carbonyl|carbon-oxygen]] double bonds (C=O) are the reactive centers. All [[Saccharide (disambiguation)|saccharide]]s with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined by [[glycosidic bond]]s with the resultant loss of a molecule of water ({{chem|H|2|O}}) per bond.<ref name=Pigman>{{cite book |last=Pigman |first=Ward |author2=Horton, D. |title=The Carbohydrates: Chemistry and Biochemistry Vol 1A |editor=Pigman and Horton |edition=2nd |year=1972 |publisher=Academic Press |location=San Diego |isbn=978-0-12-556352-9 |pages=1–67}}</ref>
-* '''[[Galactose]]''' generally does not occur in the free state but is a constituent with glucose of the disaccharide [[lactose]] or milk sugar. It is less sweet than glucose. It is a component of the antigens found on the surface of [[red blood cell]]s that determine [[ABO blood group system|blood groups]].<ref name="Raven and Johnson">{{cite book |title=Understanding Biology |edition=3rd |first=Peter H. |last=Raven |author2=George B. Johnson |name-list-style=amp |page=203 |isbn=978-0-697-22213-8 |year=1995 |editor=Carol J. Mills |publisher=WM C. Brown}}</ref>
-* '''[[Glucose]]''' occurs naturally in fruits and plant juices and is the primary product of [[photosynthesis]]. [[Starch]] is converted into glucose during digestion, and glucose is the form of sugar that is transported around the bodies of animals in the bloodstream. Although in principle there are two [[enantiomer]]s of glucose (mirror images one of the other), naturally occurring glucose is D-glucose. This is also called '''dextrose''', or ''grape sugar'' because drying grape juice produces crystals of dextrose that can be [[sieve]]d from the other components.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Teller|first=George L.|date=January 1918|title=Sugars Other Than Cane or Beet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kynnAAAAMAAJ|journal=The American Food Journal|pages=23–24|access-date=19 March 2023|archive-date=15 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415074234/https://books.google.com/books?id=kynnAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Glucose syrup is a liquid form of glucose that is widely used in the manufacture of foodstuffs. It can be manufactured from starch by [[enzymatic hydrolysis]].<ref>{{Ullmann |author=Schenck, Fred W. |title=Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups   |doi=10.1002/14356007.a12_457.pub2 }}</ref> For example, [[corn syrup]], which is produced commercially by breaking down [[maize starch]], is one common source of purified dextrose.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 |url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=184.1857 |access-date=12 September 2020 |website=AccessData, US Food and Drug Administration |archive-date=6 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200906163303/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=184.1857|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, dextrose is naturally present in many unprocessed, [[whole food]]s, including [[honey]] and fruits such as grapes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ireland |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uK5Gkzs-DfQC&q=dextrose+naturally&pg=PT280 |title=A Dictionary of Dentistry|date=25 March 2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-158502-9}}</ref>
 === Disaccharides ===
+{{main|disaccharide}}
+Lactose, maltose, and sucrose are disaccharides, also called "compound sugars". The share the formula {{chem2|C12H22O11}}. They are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide molecules with the expulsion of a molecule of water.<ref name=Manual/>
-Lactose, maltose, and sucrose are all compound sugars, disaccharides, with the general formula {{chem2|C12H22O11}}. They are formed by the combination of two monosaccharide molecules with the exclusion of a molecule of water.<ref name=Manual/>
+* Lactose is the naturally occurring sugar found in milk. A molecule of lactose is formed by the combination of a molecule of galactose with a molecule of glucose. It is broken down when consumed into its constituent parts by the enzyme [[lactase]] during digestion. Children have this enzyme but some adults no longer form it and they are unable to digest lactose.<ref>{{britannica|id=327315 |title=Lactase }}</ref>
+* Maltose is formed during the germination of certain grains, the most notable being [[barley]], which is converted into [[malt]], the source of the sugar's name. A molecule of maltose is formed by the combination of two molecules of glucose. It is less sweet than glucose, fructose or sucrose.<ref name=Manual/> It is formed in the body during the digestion of starch by the enzyme [[amylase]] and is itself broken down during digestion by the enzyme [[maltase]].<ref>{{britannica|id=360586 |title=Maltase }}</ref>
+* Sucrose is found in the stems of sugarcane and roots of sugar beet. It also occurs naturally alongside fructose and glucose in other plants, in particular fruits and some roots such as carrots. The different proportions of sugars found in these foods determines the range of sweetness experienced when eating them.<ref name=Manual/> A molecule of sucrose is formed by the combination of a molecule of glucose with a molecule of fructose. After being eaten, sucrose is split into its constituent parts during digestion by a number of enzymes known as [[sucrase]]s.<ref>{{britannica|id=571354 |title=Sucrase }}</ref>
-* '''[[Lactose]]''' is the naturally occurring sugar found in milk. A molecule of lactose is formed by the combination of a molecule of galactose with a molecule of glucose. It is broken down when consumed into its constituent parts by the enzyme [[lactase]] during digestion. Children have this enzyme but some adults no longer form it and they are unable to digest lactose.<ref>{{britannica|id=327315 |title=Lactase }}</ref>
+===Polysaccharides===
-* '''[[Maltose]]''' is formed during the germination of certain grains, the most notable being [[barley]], which is converted into [[malt]], the source of the sugar's name. A molecule of maltose is formed by the combination of two molecules of glucose. It is less sweet than glucose, fructose or sucrose.<ref name=Manual/> It is formed in the body during the digestion of starch by the enzyme [[amylase]] and is itself broken down during digestion by the enzyme [[maltase]].<ref>{{britannica|id=360586 |title=Maltase }}</ref>
+{{main|polysaccharides}}
-* '''[[Sucrose]]''' is found in the stems of sugarcane and roots of sugar beet. It also occurs naturally alongside fructose and glucose in other plants, in particular fruits and some roots such as carrots. The different proportions of sugars found in these foods determines the range of sweetness experienced when eating them.<ref name=Manual/> A molecule of sucrose is formed by the combination of a molecule of glucose with a molecule of fructose. After being eaten, sucrose is split into its constituent parts during digestion by a number of enzymes known as [[sucrase]]s.<ref>{{britannica|id=571354 |title=Sucrase }}</ref>
+Longer than disaccharides are oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.  [[Cellulose]] and [[chitin]] are polymers, often crystalline, found in diverse plants and insects, respectively.  Cellulose cannot be digested directly by animals.  Starch is an amorphous polymer of glucose that is found in many plants and is widely used in the [[sugar industry]].
 == Sources ==
 The sugar contents of common fruits and vegetables are presented in Table 1.
@@ Line 190: / Line 126: @@
 == Production ==
 {{see also|List of sugars}}
@@ Line 196: / Line 131: @@
 ===Sugar===
-In 2022–2023 world production of sugar was 186 million tonnes, and in 2023–2024 an estimated 194 million tonnes — a surplus of 5 million tonnes, according to [[Ragus]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ragus.co.uk/global-sugar-market-report-april-2024 |title=Global sugar market report April 2024 |work=Ragus |last=Eastick |first=Ben |date=4 April 2024 |access-date=15 January 2025}}</ref>
+In 2022–2023 world production of sugar was 186 million tonnes, and in 2023–2024 an estimated 194 million tonnes — a surplus of 5 million tonnes, according to Ragus.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ragus.co.uk/global-sugar-market-report-april-2024 |title=Global sugar market report April 2024 |work=Ragus |last=Eastick |first=Ben |date=4 April 2024 |access-date=15 January 2025}}</ref>
 === Sugarcane ===
+{{Table alignment}}
-{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:15em;"
+{| class="wikitable floatright col2right"
 |-
-! colspan=2|Sugarcane production – 2022
+! colspan=2|Sugarcane production – 2022<br> (millions of [[tonne]]s)
-|-
-!  style="background:#ddf; width:75%;"| Country
-!  style="background:#ddf; width:25%; text-align:center;"| <small>Millions of [[tonne]]s</small>
 |-
 | {{BRA}} || 724.4
@@ Line 224: / Line 156: @@
 Sugarcane is any of several species, or their hybrids, of giant grasses in the genus ''[[Saccharum]]'' in the family [[Poaceae]]. They have been cultivated in tropical climates in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia over centuries for the sucrose found in their stems.<ref name="Moxham2002"/>
+[[File:World production of raw sugar by main producers.svg|left|thumb|World production of raw sugar, main producers<ref>{{cite book |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2021 |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4477en/|access-date=2021-12-13 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |via=www.fao.org |year=2021 |doi=10.4060/cb4477en |isbn=978-92-5-134332-6 |s2cid=240163091 |archive-date=3 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103083611/https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4477en/ |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
-[[File:World Production Of Raw Sugar, Main Producers.svg|thumb|left|World production of raw sugar, main producers<ref>{{cite book |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2021 |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4477en/|access-date=2021-12-13 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |via=www.fao.org |year=2021 |doi=10.4060/cb4477en |isbn=978-92-5-134332-6 |s2cid=240163091 |archive-date=3 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103083611/https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4477en/ |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
+Sugar cane requires a frost-free climate with sufficient rainfall during the growing season to make full use of the plant's substantial growth potential. The crop is harvested mechanically or by hand, chopped into lengths and conveyed rapidly to the processing plant (commonly known as a [[sugar mill]]) where it is either milled and the juice extracted with water or extracted by diffusion.<ref name="skil2">{{cite web |title=How Cane Sugar is Made – the Basic Story |url=http://www.sucrose.com/lcane.html |publisher=Sugar Knowledge International |access-date=24 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922144828/http://www.sucrose.com/lcane.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The juice is clarified with [[Calcium hydroxide|lime]] and heated to destroy [[enzyme]]s. The resulting thin syrup is concentrated in a series of evaporators, after which further water is removed. The resulting [[Supersaturation|supersaturated]] solution is seeded with sugar crystals, facilitating crystal formation and drying.<ref name=skil2/> [[Molasses]] is a by-product of the process and the fiber from the stems, known as [[bagasse]],<ref name=skil2/> is burned to provide energy for the sugar extraction process. The crystals of raw sugar have a sticky brown coating and either can be used as they are, can be bleached by [[sulfur dioxide]], or can be treated in a [[carbonatation]] process to produce a whiter product.<ref name=skil2/> About {{convert|2500|L|usgal}} of irrigation water is needed for every {{convert|1|kg|lb|abbr=off|spell=in}} of sugar produced.<ref>{{cite web |first=Kerry |last=Flynn |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/india-drought-2016-may-lead-29-35-drop-sugar-output-2016-17-season-report-2358604 |title=India Drought 2016 May Lead 29–35% Drop In Sugar Output For 2016–17 Season: Report |newspaper=International Business Times |date=23 April 2016 |access-date=27 October 2016 |archive-date=9 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009123021/http://www.ibtimes.com/india-drought-2016-may-lead-29-35-drop-sugar-output-2016-17-season-report-2358604 |url-status=live }}</ref>
-Sugar cane requires a frost-free climate with sufficient rainfall during the growing season to make full use of the plant's substantial growth potential. The crop is harvested mechanically or by hand, chopped into lengths and conveyed rapidly to the [[sugar mill|processing plant]] (commonly known as a [[sugar mill]]) where it is either milled and the juice extracted with water or extracted by diffusion.<ref name="skil2">{{cite web |title=How Cane Sugar is Made – the Basic Story |url=http://www.sucrose.com/lcane.html |publisher=Sugar Knowledge International |access-date=24 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922144828/http://www.sucrose.com/lcane.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The juice is clarified with [[Calcium hydroxide|lime]] and heated to destroy [[enzyme]]s. The resulting thin syrup is concentrated in a series of evaporators, after which further water is removed. The resulting [[Supersaturation|supersaturated]] solution is seeded with sugar crystals, facilitating crystal formation and drying.<ref name=skil2/> [[Molasses]] is a by-product of the process and the fiber from the stems, known as [[bagasse]],<ref name=skil2/> is burned to provide energy for the sugar extraction process. The crystals of raw sugar have a sticky brown coating and either can be used as they are, can be bleached by [[sulfur dioxide]], or can be treated in a [[carbonatation]] process to produce a whiter product.<ref name=skil2/> About {{convert|2500|L|usgal}} of irrigation water is needed for every {{convert|1|kg|lb|abbr=off|spell=in}} of sugar produced.<ref>{{cite web |first=Kerry |last=Flynn |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/india-drought-2016-may-lead-29-35-drop-sugar-output-2016-17-season-report-2358604 |title=India Drought 2016 May Lead 29–35% Drop In Sugar Output For 2016–17 Season: Report |newspaper=International Business Times |date=23 April 2016 |access-date=27 October 2016 |archive-date=9 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009123021/http://www.ibtimes.com/india-drought-2016-may-lead-29-35-drop-sugar-output-2016-17-season-report-2358604 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 === Sugar beet ===
+{{Table alignment}}
-{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:15em;"
+{| class="wikitable floatright col2right"
-|-
-! colspan=2|Sugar beet production – 2022
-|-
-!  style="background:#ddf; width:75%;"| Country
-!  style="background:#ddf; width:25%; text-align:center;"| <small>Millions of [[tonne]]s</small>
 |-
+! colspan=2|Sugar beet production – 2022<br>(millions of [[tonne]]s)
 |-
 | {{RUS}} || 48.9
@@ Line 252: / Line 178: @@
 |}
-In 2022, global production of [[sugar beet]]s was 260 million [[tonne]]s, led by Russia with 18.8% of the world total (table).
+In 2022, global production of sugar beets was 260 million [[tonne]]s, led by Russia with 18.8% of the world total (table).
-Sugar beet became a major source of sugar in the 19th century when methods for extracting the sugar became available. It is a [[biennial plant]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/safety/environmental_safety/184.sugar_beet.html |title=Biennial beet |publisher=GMO Compass |access-date=26 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202202007/http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/safety/environmental_safety/184.sugar_beet.html |archive-date=2 February 2014 }}</ref> a [[cultivar|cultivated variety]] of ''[[Beta vulgaris]]'' in the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Amaranthaceae]], the tuberous root of which contains a high proportion of sucrose. It is cultivated as a root crop in temperate regions with adequate rainfall and requires a fertile soil. The crop is harvested mechanically in the autumn and the crown of leaves and excess soil removed. The roots do not deteriorate rapidly and may be left in the field for some weeks before being transported to the processing plant where the crop is washed and sliced, and the sugar extracted by diffusion.<ref name="skil">{{cite web |url=http://www.sucrose.com/lbeet.html |title=How Beet Sugar is Made |publisher=Sugar Knowledge International |access-date=22 March 2012 |archive-date=21 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321063949/http://www.sucrose.com/lbeet.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Milk of lime]] is added to the raw juice with [[carbonatation|calcium carbonate]]. After water is evaporated by boiling the syrup under a vacuum, the syrup is cooled and seeded with sugar crystals. The [[white sugar]] that crystallizes can be separated in a centrifuge and dried, requiring no further refining.<ref name=skil/>
+Sugar beet became a major source of sugar in the 19th century when methods for extracting the sugar became available. It is a [[biennial plant]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/safety/environmental_safety/184.sugar_beet.html |title=Biennial beet |publisher=GMO Compass |access-date=26 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202202007/http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/safety/environmental_safety/184.sugar_beet.html |archive-date=2 February 2014 }}</ref> a [[cultivar|cultivated variety]] of ''[[Beta vulgaris]]'' in the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Amaranthaceae]], the tuberous root of which contains a high proportion of sucrose. It is cultivated as a root crop in temperate regions with adequate rainfall and requires a fertile soil. The crop is harvested mechanically in the autumn and the crown of leaves and excess soil removed. The roots do not deteriorate rapidly and may be left in the field for some weeks before being transported to the processing plant where the crop is washed and sliced, and the sugar extracted by diffusion.<ref name="skil">{{cite web |url=http://www.sucrose.com/lbeet.html |title=How Beet Sugar is Made |publisher=Sugar Knowledge International |access-date=22 March 2012 |archive-date=21 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321063949/http://www.sucrose.com/lbeet.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Milk of lime]] is added to the raw juice with [[calcium carbonate]]. After water is evaporated by boiling the syrup under a vacuum, the syrup is cooled and seeded with sugar crystals. The [[white sugar]] that crystallizes can be separated in a centrifuge and dried, requiring no further refining.<ref name=skil/>
 === Refining ===
@@ Line 260: / Line 186: @@
 {{See also|Sugar refinery|Non-centrifugal cane sugar|White sugar}}
-Refined sugar is made from raw sugar that has undergone a [[refining]] process to remove the [[molasses]].<ref name="agrifinasi">{{cite web |title=Tantangan Menghadapi Ketergantungan Impor Gula Rafinasi |publisher=Asosiasi Gula Rafinasi Indonesia |url=http://www.agrirafinasi.org/tentang-kami/swasembada |access-date=9 April 2014 |language=id |archive-date=13 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413155338/http://www.agrirafinasi.org/tentang-kami/swasembada |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="kompas">{{cite web |title=Rafinasi Vs Gula Kristal Putih |publisher=Kompas Gramedia |url=http://bisniskeuangan.kompas.com/read/2011/07/29/02442655/Rafinasi.Vs.Gula.Kristal.Putih |access-date=9 April 2014 |language=id |date=29 July 2011 |archive-date=13 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413155126/http://bisniskeuangan.kompas.com/read/2011/07/29/02442655/Rafinasi.Vs.Gula.Kristal.Putih |url-status=live }}</ref> Raw sugar is sucrose which is extracted from sugarcane or [[sugar beet]]. While raw sugar can be consumed, the refining process removes unwanted tastes and results in refined sugar or white sugar.<ref name="western">{{cite web |title=Refining and Processing Sugar |publisher=The Sugar Association |access-date=16 April 2014 |url=http://westernsugar.com/pdf/Refining%20and%20Processing%20Sugar.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221031555/http://westernsugar.com/pdf/Refining%20and%20Processing%20Sugar.pdf |archive-date=21 February 2015 }}</ref><ref name="tebu">{{cite book |title=Ketika Tebu Mulai Berbunga |chapter=Bagaimana Gula Dimurnikan – Proses Dasar |editor1=Pakpahan, Agus |editor2=Supriono, Agus |year=2005 |publisher=Sugar Observer |location=Bogor |isbn=978-979-99311-0-8 |language=id}}</ref>
+Refined sugar is made from raw sugar that has undergone a [[refining]] process to remove the molasses.<ref name="agrifinasi">{{cite web |title=Tantangan Menghadapi Ketergantungan Impor Gula Rafinasi |publisher=Asosiasi Gula Rafinasi Indonesia |url=http://www.agrirafinasi.org/tentang-kami/swasembada |access-date=9 April 2014 |language=id |archive-date=13 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413155338/http://www.agrirafinasi.org/tentang-kami/swasembada }}</ref><ref name="kompas">{{cite web |title=Rafinasi Vs Gula Kristal Putih |publisher=Kompas Gramedia |url=http://bisniskeuangan.kompas.com/read/2011/07/29/02442655/Rafinasi.Vs.Gula.Kristal.Putih |access-date=9 April 2014 |language=id |date=29 July 2011 |archive-date=13 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413155126/http://bisniskeuangan.kompas.com/read/2011/07/29/02442655/Rafinasi.Vs.Gula.Kristal.Putih |url-status=live }}</ref> Raw sugar is sucrose which is extracted from sugarcane or sugar beet. While raw sugar can be consumed, the refining process removes unwanted tastes and results in refined sugar or white sugar.<ref name="western">{{cite web |title=Refining and Processing Sugar |publisher=The Sugar Association |access-date=16 April 2014 |url=http://westernsugar.com/pdf/Refining%20and%20Processing%20Sugar.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221031555/http://westernsugar.com/pdf/Refining%20and%20Processing%20Sugar.pdf |archive-date=21 February 2015 }}</ref><ref name="tebu">{{cite book |title=Ketika Tebu Mulai Berbunga |chapter=Bagaimana Gula Dimurnikan – Proses Dasar |editor1=Pakpahan, Agus |editor2=Supriono, Agus |year=2005 |publisher=Sugar Observer |location=Bogor |isbn=978-979-99311-0-8 |language=id}}</ref>
 The sugar may be transported in bulk to the country where it will be used and the refining process often takes place there. The first stage is known as affination and involves immersing the sugar crystals in a concentrated syrup that softens and removes the sticky brown coating without dissolving them. The crystals are then separated from the liquor and dissolved in water. The resulting syrup is treated either by a [[carbonatation]] or by a phosphatation process. Both involve the precipitation of a fine solid in the syrup and when this is filtered out, many of the impurities are removed at the same time. Removal of color is achieved by using either a granular [[activated carbon]] or an [[ion-exchange resin]]. The sugar syrup is concentrated by boiling and then cooled and seeded with sugar crystals, causing the sugar to crystallize out. The liquor is spun off in a centrifuge and the white crystals are dried in hot air and ready to be packaged or used. The surplus liquor is made into refiners' molasses.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sucrose.com/lref.html |title=How Sugar is Refined |publisher=SKIL |access-date=22 March 2012 |archive-date=22 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322085837/http://www.sucrose.com/lref.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
@@ Line 285: / Line 211: @@
 * [[Coarse-grain sugar]], also known as sanding sugar, composed of reflective crystals with grain size of about 1 to 3&nbsp;mm, similar to [[kitchen salt]]. Used atop baked products and candies, it will not dissolve when subjected to heat and moisture.<ref name=TSA>{{cite web |url=https://www.sugar.org/sugar/types/ |title=Sugar types |publisher=The sugar association |access-date=23 September 2019 |archive-date=6 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200106232829/https://www.sugar.org/sugar/types/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
 * Granulated sugar (about 0.6&nbsp;mm crystals), also known as table sugar or regular sugar, is used at the table, to sprinkle on foods and to sweeten hot drinks (coffee and tea), and in home baking to add sweetness and texture to baked products (cookies and cakes) and desserts (pudding and ice cream). It is also used as a preservative to prevent micro-organisms from growing and perishable food from spoiling, as in candied fruits, jams, and [[marmalade]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sugarnutrition.org.uk/types-and-uses.aspx |title=Types and uses |publisher=Sugar Nutrition UK |access-date=23 March 2012 |archive-date=5 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805014855/http://www.sugarnutrition.org.uk/types-and-uses.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>
-* Milled sugars such as [[powdered sugar]] (icing sugar) are ground to a fine powder. They are used for dusting foods and in baking and confectionery.<ref name=BS>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishsugar.co.uk/Journey-of-Sugar.aspx |title=The journey of sugar |publisher=British Sugar |access-date=23 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326144355/http://www.britishsugar.co.uk/Journey-of-Sugar.aspx |archive-date=26 March 2011 }}</ref><ref name=TSA />
+* Milled sugars such as [[powdered sugar]] (icing sugar) are ground to a fine powder. They are used for dusting foods and in baking and confectionery.<ref name=BS>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishsugar.co.uk/Journey-of-Sugar.aspx |title=The journey of sugar |publisher=British Sugar |access-date=23 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326144355/http://www.britishsugar.co.uk/Journey-of-Sugar.aspx |archive-date=26 March 2011 }}</ref><ref name=TSA />
 * Screened sugars such as [[caster sugar]] are crystalline products separated according to the size of the grains. They are used for decorative table sugars, for blending in dry mixes and in baking and confectionery.<ref name=BS/>
+===Densities===
+The densities of culinary sugars varies owing to differences in particle size and inclusion of moisture:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powderandbulk.com/resources/bulk_density/material_bulk_density_chart_s.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021027094329/http://www.powderandbulk.com/resources/bulk_density/material_bulk_density_chart_s.htm |archive-date=27 October 2002 |title=Engineering Resources – Bulk Density Chart |work=Powder and Bulk}}</ref>
+* Beet sugar 0.80 g/mL
+* Dextrose sugar 0.62 g/mL ( = 620&nbsp;kg/m^3)
+* Granulated sugar 0.70 g/mL
+* Powdered sugar 0.56 g/mL
 === Shapes ===
-{{Redirect|Lump sugar|the South Korean film|Lump Sugar}}
 [[File:Würfelzucker -- 2018 -- 3564.jpg|thumb|Sugar cubes]]
@@ Line 303: / Line 233: @@
 [[File:Brown sugar examples.JPG|thumb|Brown sugar examples: Muscovado (top), dark brown (left), light brown (right)]]
-[[Brown sugar]]s are granulated sugars, either containing residual molasses, or with the grains deliberately coated with molasses to produce a light- or dark-colored sugar such as [[muscovado]] and [[turbinado]]. They are used in baked goods, confectionery, and [[toffee]]s.<ref name=BS/> Their darkness is due to the amount of molasses they contain. They may be classified based on their darkness or country of origin.<ref name=TSA />
+Brown sugars are granulated sugars, either containing residual molasses, or with the grains deliberately coated with molasses to produce a light- or dark-colored sugar such as [[muscovado]] and [[turbinado]]. They are used in baked goods, confectionery, and [[toffee]]s.<ref name=BS/> Their darkness is due to the amount of molasses they contain. They may be classified based on their darkness or country of origin.<ref name=TSA />
 === Liquid sugars ===
-[[File:Runny hunny.jpg|thumb|upright|A jar of [[honey]] with a [[honey dipper|dipper]] and a [[American biscuit|biscuit]] ]]
+[[File:Runny hunny.jpg|thumb|upright|A jar of honey with a [[honey dipper|dipper]] and a [[American biscuit|biscuit]] ]]
+*[[Glucose syrup]] and corn syrup are widely used in the manufacture of foodstuffs. They manufactured from starch by [[enzymatic hydrolysis]].<ref>{{Ullmann |author=Schenck, Fred W. |title=Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups   |doi=10.1002/14356007.a12_457.pub2 }}</ref> For example, corn syrup, which is produced commercially by breaking down [[maize starch]], is one common source of purified dextrose.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 |url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=184.1857 |access-date=12 September 2020 |website=AccessData, US Food and Drug Administration |archive-date=6 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200906163303/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=184.1857}}</ref>  Such [[syrup]]s are  use in producing beverages, [[hard candy]], [[ice cream]], and [[Fruit preserves|jams]].<ref name=BS/>
+* [[Inverted sugar syrup]], commonly known as invert syrup or invert sugar, is a mixture of two simple sugars—glucose and fructose—that is made by heating granulated sugar in water. It is used in breads, cakes, and beverages for adjusting sweetness, aiding moisture retention and avoiding crystallization of sugars.<ref name=BS/>
+* Molasses and [[treacle]] are obtained by removing sugar from sugarcane or sugar beet juice, as a byproduct of sugar production. They may be blended with the above-mentioned syrups to enhance sweetness and used in a range of baked goods and confectionery including toffees and [[licorice]].<ref name=BS/>
+* In [[winemaking]], [[sugars in wine|fruit sugars]] are converted into alcohol by a [[fermentation (wine)|fermentation]] process. If the [[must]] formed by pressing the fruit has a low sugar content, additional sugar may be added to raise the alcohol content of the wine in a process called [[chaptalization]]. In the production of sweet wines, fermentation may be halted before it has run its full course, leaving behind some [[Sweetness of wine|residual sugar]] that gives the wine its sweet taste.<ref name="Oxford pg 665-666">{{cite book |title=The Oxford Companion to Wine |edition=3rd |last=Robinson |first=Jancis |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-860990-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc/page/665 665–66] |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc/page/665 }}</ref>
-* [[Syrup]]s are thick, viscous liquids consisting primarily of a solution of sugar in water. They are used in the food processing of a wide range of products including beverages, [[hard candy]], [[ice cream]], and [[Fruit preserves|jams]].<ref name=BS/>
+===Burnt sugars and caramels===
-** [[Inverted sugar syrup]], commonly known as invert syrup or invert sugar, is a mixture of two simple sugars—glucose and fructose—that is made by heating granulated sugar in water. It is used in breads, cakes, and beverages for adjusting sweetness, aiding moisture retention and avoiding crystallization of sugars.<ref name=BS/>
+Heating sugar to near 200 °C for several minutes yields a product called burnt sugar.  Often additives are used to modify the resulting caramels, e.g. [[alkali]] or [[sulfite]]s. Several volatile products evolve in the heating process including [[butanone]], several [[furan]]s ([[2-Acetofuran|2-acetofuran]], [[furanone]], [[hydroxymethyl furfural]]), and [[levoglucosan]] and more.<ref name=UllmannSugar>{{cite book |last1=Schiweck |first1=Hubert |last2=Clarke |first2=Margaret |last3=Pollach |first3=Günter |title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |chapter=Sugar |date=2007 |doi=10.1002/14356007.a25_345.pub2 |isbn=978-3-527-30385-4 }}</ref>
-* [[Molasses]] and [[treacle]] are obtained by removing sugar from sugarcane or sugar beet juice, as a byproduct of sugar production. They may be blended with the above-mentioned syrups to enhance sweetness and used in a range of baked goods and confectionery including toffees and [[licorice]].<ref name=BS/>
-* In [[winemaking]], [[sugars in wine|fruit sugars]] are converted into alcohol by a [[fermentation (wine)|fermentation]] process. If the [[must]] formed by pressing the fruit has a low sugar content, additional sugar may be added to raise the alcohol content of the wine in a process called [[chaptalization]]. In the production of sweet wines, fermentation may be halted before it has run its full course, leaving behind some [[Sweetness of wine|residual sugar]] that gives the wine its sweet taste.<ref name="Oxford pg 665-666">{{cite book |title=The Oxford Companion to Wine |edition=3rd |last=Robinson |first=Jancis |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-860990-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc/page/665 665–66] |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc/page/665 }}</ref>
+Because sugars burn easily when exposed to flame, the handling of sugar powders risks [[dust explosion]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vmsoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT120|title=The Science of Sugar Confectionery|last=Edwards|first=William P.|date=9 November 2015|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|isbn=978-1-78262-609-1|page=120|language=en}}</ref> The [[2008 Georgia sugar refinery explosion]], which killed 14 people and injured 36, and destroyed most of the refinery, was caused by the ignition of sugar dust.<ref>{{cite news|title=CSB Releases New Safety Video, "Inferno: Dust Explosion at Imperial Sugar"|date=7 October 2009|work=[[U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board]]|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=17 May 2021|url=https://www.csb.gov/csb-releases-new-safety-video-inferno-dust-explosion-at-imperial-sugar/|archive-date=24 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424011424/https://www.csb.gov/csb-releases-new-safety-video-inferno-dust-explosion-at-imperial-sugar/|url-status=live}}</ref>
 === Other sweeteners ===
@@ Line 322: / Line 256: @@
 == Consumption ==
 Worldwide sugar provides 10% of the daily calories (based on a 2000 kcal diet).<ref>{{cite web |title=Food Balance Sheets |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2007 |url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/368/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=368#ancor |access-date=28 March 2012 |archive-date=9 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009115932/http://faostat.fao.org/site/368/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=368#ancor |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1750, the average Briton got 72 calories a day from sugar. In 1913, this had risen to 395. In 2015, sugar still provided around 14% of the calories in British diets.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Otter |first1=Chris |title=Diet for a large planet |date=2020 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=USA |isbn=978-0-226-69710-9 |page=22 }}</ref> According to one source, per capita consumption of sugar in 2016 was highest in the United States, followed by Germany and the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Amber Pariona|title=Top Sugar Consuming Nations In The World|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/top-sugar-consuming-nations-in-the-world.html|publisher=World Atlas|access-date=20 May 2018|date=25 April 2017|archive-date=22 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622135129/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/top-sugar-consuming-nations-in-the-world.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
-== Nutrition and flavor ==
+===Nutrition and flavor ===
 {{nutritionalvalue
 | name = Sugar (sucrose), brown (with molasses)
@@ Line 364: / Line 296: @@
 | water = 0.03 g
 | right =
-| note = [https://web.archive.org/web/20130306035148/http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/6319 Full link to USDA database entry]
+| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/746784/nutrients Full link to USDA database entry]
 }}
-Brown and white granulated sugar are 97% to nearly 100% carbohydrates, respectively, with less than 2% water, and no dietary fiber, protein or fat (table). Brown sugar contains a moderate amount of iron (15% of the [[Reference Daily Intake]] in a 100 gram amount, see table), but a typical serving of 4 grams (one teaspoon), would provide 15 [[calorie]]s and a negligible amount of iron or any other nutrient.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sugars, granulated (sucrose) in 4 grams (from pick list) |url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/sweets/5592/2 |publisher=Conde Nast for the USDA National Nutrient Database, version SR-21 |access-date=13 May 2017 |date=2014 |archive-date=7 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307044435/http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/sweets/5592/2 |url-status=live }}</ref> Because brown sugar contains 5–10% [[molasses]] reintroduced during processing, its value to some consumers is a richer flavor than white sugar.<ref>{{cite news |author1=O'Connor, Anahad |title=The Claim: Brown Sugar Is Healthier Than White Sugar |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/12/health/nutrition/12real.html |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=13 May 2017 |date=12 June 2007 |archive-date=13 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170513094025/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/12/health/nutrition/12real.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
+Brown and white granulated sugar are 97% to nearly 100% carbohydrates, respectively, with less than 2% water, and no dietary fiber, protein or fat (table).<ref>{{cite web |title=Sugars, granulated (sucrose) in 4 grams (from pick list) |url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/sweets/5592/2 |publisher=Conde Nast for the USDA National Nutrient Database, version SR-21 |access-date=13 May 2017 |date=2014 |archive-date=7 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307044435/http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/sweets/5592/2 |url-status=live }}</ref> Because brown sugar contains 5–10% molasses reintroduced during processing, its value to some consumers is a richer flavor than white sugar.<ref>{{cite news |author1=O'Connor, Anahad |title=The Claim: Brown Sugar Is Healthier Than White Sugar |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/12/health/nutrition/12real.html |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=13 May 2017 |date=12 June 2007 |archive-date=13 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170513094025/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/12/health/nutrition/12real.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
 == Health effects ==
+The World Health Organization and other clinical associations recommend that reducing the consumption of ''free sugar'' (sugar sources added during manufacturing) to less than 10% of total energy needs can help to lower disease risk.<ref name=huang/><ref name=who-nlm/> This amount of sugar consumption is equivalent to about {{cvt|50|g}} or 12 [[teaspoon]]s of added sugar per day.<ref name="diab-can">{{cite web |title=Sugar and diabetes |url=https://www.diabetes.ca/advocacy---policies/our-policy-positions/sugar---diabetes |publisher=Diabetes Canada |access-date=3 October 2025 |date=2025}}</ref> {{As of|2025}}, the [[American Heart Association]] recommends that free sugar intake be limited to 6% of total daily energy needs, or {{cvt|36|g}} (9 teaspoons) for adult males, and {{cvt|25|g}} (6 teaspoons) for women.<ref name="aha-add">{{cite web |title=Added sugars |url=https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/sugar/added-sugars |publisher=American Heart Association |access-date=3 October 2025 |date=2025}}</ref> In many countries, the source and amount of added sugars can be viewed among ingredients on the [[List of food labeling regulations|labels]] of packaged foods.<ref name=aha-add/> Added sugars provide no nutritional benefit, but are a source of excess calories that can lead to overweight and increased disease risk.<ref name=huang/><ref name=who-nlm/><ref name=diab-can/><ref name=aha-add/>
-=== General ===
-High sugar consumption damages human health more than it provides nutritional benefit, and in particular is associated with a risk of cardiometabolic health detriments.<ref name=huang>{{cite journal |vauthors=Huang Y, Chen Z, Chen B, Li J, Yuan X, Li J, Wang W, Dai T, Chen H, Wang Y, Wang R, Wang P, Guo J, Dong Q, Liu C, Wei Q, Cao D, Liu L |title=Dietary sugar consumption and health: umbrella review |journal=BMJ |volume=381 |issue= |pages=e071609 |date=April 2023 |pmid=37019448 |pmc=10074550 |doi=10.1136/bmj-2022-071609 |display-authors=5}}</ref>
-=== Sugar industry funding and health information ===
-{{main|Sugar marketing#Influence on health information and guidelines}}
-Sugar refiners and manufacturers of sugary foods and drinks have sought to influence medical research and [[public health]] recommendations,<ref name=conflict_2017/><ref name=sweet_policies/> with substantial and largely clandestine spending documented from the 1960s to 2016.<ref name="jama2016"/><ref name=Kearns_caries/><ref name=selling_souls/><ref name=sponsorship/> The results of research on the health effects of sugary food and drink differ significantly, depending on whether the researcher has financial ties to the food and drink industry.<ref name=Schillinger_bias/><ref name=financial_Bes-Rasttrollo/><ref name=NYT_linked/> A 2013 medical review concluded that "unhealthy commodity industries should have no role in the formation of national or international NCD <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[non-communicable disease]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> policy".<ref name=profits_pandemics/> Similar efforts to steer coverage of sugar-related health information have been made in popular media, including news media and social media.<ref name=NYT_cocacola/><ref name=NYT_sweettalk/><ref name=time_soda/>
 === Obesity and metabolic syndrome ===
 {{main|Diet and obesity#Sugar consumption}}
-A 2003 technical report by the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) provides evidence that high intake of sugary drinks (including [[fruit juice]]) increases the risk of [[obesity]] by adding to overall [[energy intake]].<ref name="WHO2003">{{cite web |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42665/1/WHO_TRS_916.pdf?ua=1 |author=Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation |year=2003 |title=WHO Technical Report Series 916: Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases |access-date=25 December 2013 |archive-date=25 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625203948/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42665/1/WHO_TRS_916.pdf?ua=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> By itself, sugar is doubtfully a factor causing obesity and [[metabolic syndrome]].<!--<ref name=WHO2003/>--><ref>{{cite journal |last=Stanhope |first=Kimber L. |title=Role of fructose-containing sugars in the epidemics of obesity and metabolic syndrome |journal=Annual Review of Medicine |volume=63 |issue=1 |year=2012 |pages=329–343 |doi=10.1146/annurev-med-042010-113026 |pmid=22034869 |quote=There is controversy concerning the role of sugar in the epidemics of obesity and metabolic syndrome.   |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1nIaViaOE9Noq8g4PwZr649w-1qi_cVKR/view}}</ref> [[Meta-analysis]] showed that excessive consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages increased the risk of developing [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type 2 diabetes]] and metabolic syndrome – including weight gain<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hill|first1=J. O. |last2=Prentice |first2=A. M. |date=1995-07-01 |title=Sugar and body weight regulation|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=264S–273S |doi=10.1093/ajcn/62.1.264S |pmid=7598083 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and obesity – in adults and children.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Risk of Metabolic Syndrome and Type 2 Diabetes: A meta-analysis |doi=10.2337/dc10-1079 |year=2010 |last1=Malik |first1=V. S. |last2=Popkin |first2=B. M. |last3=Bray |first3=G. A. |last4=Despres |first4=J.-P. |last5=Willett |first5=W. C. |last6=Hu |first6=F. B. |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=2477–83 |pmid=20693348 |pmc=2963518}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Malik |first1=Vasanti S. |last2=Pan |first2=An |last3=Willett |first3=Walter C. |last4=Hu |first4=Frank B. |date=1 October 2013 |title=Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |language=en |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=1084–1102 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.113.058362 |issn=0002-9165 |pmc=3778861 |pmid=23966427}}</ref>
+A 2003 technical report by the [[World Health Organization]] provided evidence that high intake of sugary drinks (including [[fruit juice]]) increases the risk of obesity by adding to overall energy intake.<ref name="WHO2003">{{cite web |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42665/1/WHO_TRS_916.pdf?ua=1 |author=Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation |year=2003 |title=WHO Technical Report Series 916: Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases |access-date=25 December 2013 |archive-date=25 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625203948/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42665/1/WHO_TRS_916.pdf?ua=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> By itself, sugar is not a factor causing obesity and [[metabolic syndrome]], but rather its excessive consumption adds to caloric burden, which [[meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] showed could increase the risk of developing [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type 2 diabetes]] and [[metabolic syndrome]] in adults and children.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Risk of Metabolic Syndrome and Type 2 Diabetes: A meta-analysis |doi=10.2337/dc10-1079 |year=2010 |last1=Malik |first1=V. S. |last2=Popkin |first2=B. M. |last3=Bray |first3=G. A. |last4=Despres |first4=J.-P. |last5=Willett |first5=W. C. |last6=Hu |first6=F. B. |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=2477–83 |pmid=20693348 |pmc=2963518}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Malik |first1=Vasanti S. |last2=Pan |first2=An |last3=Willett |first3=Walter C. |last4=Hu |first4=Frank B. |date=1 October 2013 |title=Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |language=en |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=1084–1102 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.113.058362 |issn=0002-9165 |pmc=3778861 |pmid=23966427}}</ref>
 === Cancer ===
 Sugar consumption does not directly cause cancer.<ref name="Australia">{{Cite web|date=2021|title=Does sugar cause cancer?|url=https://www.cancer.org.au/iheard/does-sugar-cause-cancer|website=Cancer Council Australia|language=en-GB|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328003849/https://www.cancer.org.au/iheard/does-sugar-cause-cancer|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021|title=Does Sugar Cause Cancer?|url=https://www.cancer.net/blog/2021-11/does-sugar-cause-cancer|website=American Society of Clinical Oncology|language=en-GB|archive-date=1 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001021316/https://www.cancer.net/blog/2021-11/does-sugar-cause-cancer}}</ref><ref name="CRUK">{{Cite web|date=2023|title=Sugar and cancer – what you need to know|url=https://news.cancerresearchuk.org/2023/08/16/sugar-and-cancer-what-you-need-to-know/|website=Cancer Research UK|language=en-GB|archive-date=6 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106023109/https://news.cancerresearchuk.org/2023/08/16/sugar-and-cancer-what-you-need-to-know/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cancer Council Australia]] have stated that "there is no evidence that consuming sugar makes cancer cells grow faster or cause cancer".<ref name="Australia"/> There is an indirect relationship between sugar consumption and obesity-related cancers through increased risk of excess body weight.<ref name="CRUK"/><ref name="Australia"/><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016|title=The Sugar and Cancer Connection|url=https://www.aicr.org/news/the-sugar-cancer-connection/|website=American Institute for Cancer Research|language=en-GB|archive-date=20 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120123107/https://www.aicr.org/news/the-sugar-cancer-connection/|url-status=live}}</ref>
@@ Line 396: / Line 317: @@
 === Cognition ===
+Despite some studies suggesting that sugar consumption causes hyperactivity, the quality of evidence is low<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Del-Ponte |first1=Bianca |last2=Quinte |first2=Gabriela Callo |last3=Cruz |first3=Suélen |last4=Grellert |first4=Merlen |last5=Santos |first5=Iná S. |date=2019 |title=Dietary patterns and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165032718329720 |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders |language=en |volume=252 |pages=160–173 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2019.04.061|pmid=30986731 |hdl=10923/18896 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and it is generally accepted within the scientific community that the notion of children's 'sugar rush' is a myth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mantantzis |first1=Konstantinos |last2=Schlaghecken |first2=Friederike |last3=Sünram-Lea |first3=Sandra I. |last4=Maylor |first4=Elizabeth A. |date=2019-06-01 |title=Sugar rush or sugar crash? A meta-analysis of carbohydrate effects on mood |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763418309175 |journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews |volume=101 |pages=45–67 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.03.016 |pmid=30951762 |issn=0149-7634|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wolraich |first=Mark L. |date=1995-11-22 |title=The Effect of Sugar on Behavior or Cognition in Children: A Meta-analysis |url=http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.1995.03530200053037 |journal=JAMA |language=en |volume=274 |issue=20 |pages=1617–1621 |doi=10.1001/jama.1995.03530200053037 |pmid=7474248 |issn=0098-7484|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A 2019 meta-analysis found that sugar consumption does not improve [[mood (psychology)|mood]], but can lower alertness and increase fatigue within an hour of consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mantantzis|first1=Konstantinos|last2=Schlaghecken|first2=Friederike|last3=Sünram-Lea|first3=Sandra I.|last4=Maylor|first4=Elizabeth A.|date=1 June 2019|title=Sugar rush or sugar crash? A meta-analysis of carbohydrate effects on mood|journal=Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews|language=en|volume=101|pages=45–67|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.03.016|pmid=30951762|s2cid=92575160|url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/115618/1/WRAP-Sugar-rush-crash-meta-analysis-carbohydrate-effects-mood-Maylor-2019.pdf|access-date=30 April 2020|archive-date=6 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506043832/http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/115618/1/WRAP-Sugar-rush-crash-meta-analysis-carbohydrate-effects-mood-Maylor-2019.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> One review of low-quality studies of children consuming high amounts of [[energy drink]]s showed association with higher rates of unhealthy behaviors, including smoking and excessive alcohol use, and with hyperactivity and [[insomnia]], although such effects could not be specifically attributed to sugar over other components of those drinks such as [[caffeine]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Visram | first1=Shelina | last2=Cheetham | first2=Mandy | last3=Riby | first3=Deborah M | last4=Crossley | first4=Stephen J | last5=Lake | first5=Amelia A | title=Consumption of energy drinks by children and young people: a rapid review examining evidence of physical effects and consumer attitudes | journal=BMJ Open | volume=6 | issue=10 | article-number=e010380 | date=1 October 2016 | issn=2044-6055 | pmid=27855083 | pmc=5073652 | doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010380 | url=}}</ref>
-Despite some studies suggesting that sugar consumption causes hyperactivity, the quality of evidence is low<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Del-Ponte |first1=Bianca |last2=Quinte |first2=Gabriela Callo |last3=Cruz |first3=Suélen |last4=Grellert |first4=Merlen |last5=Santos |first5=Iná S. |date=2019 |title=Dietary patterns and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165032718329720 |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders |language=en |volume=252 |pages=160–173 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2019.04.061|pmid=30986731 |hdl=10923/18896 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and it is generally accepted within the scientific community that the notion of children's 'sugar rush' is a myth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mantantzis |first1=Konstantinos |last2=Schlaghecken |first2=Friederike |last3=Sünram-Lea |first3=Sandra I. |last4=Maylor |first4=Elizabeth A. |date=2019-06-01 |title=Sugar rush or sugar crash? A meta-analysis of carbohydrate effects on mood |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763418309175 |journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews |volume=101 |pages=45–67 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.03.016 |pmid=30951762 |issn=0149-7634}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wolraich |first=Mark L. |date=1995-11-22 |title=The Effect of Sugar on Behavior or Cognition in Children: A Meta-analysis |url=http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.1995.03530200053037 |journal=JAMA |language=en |volume=274 |issue=20 |pages=1617–1621 |doi=10.1001/jama.1995.03530200053037 |pmid=7474248 |issn=0098-7484}}</ref> A 2019 [[meta-analysis]] found that sugar consumption does not improve [[mood (psychology)|mood]], but can lower alertness and increase fatigue within an hour of consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mantantzis|first1=Konstantinos|last2=Schlaghecken|first2=Friederike|last3=Sünram-Lea|first3=Sandra I.|last4=Maylor|first4=Elizabeth A.|date=1 June 2019|title=Sugar rush or sugar crash? A meta-analysis of carbohydrate effects on mood|journal=Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews|language=en|volume=101|pages=45–67|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.03.016|pmid=30951762|s2cid=92575160|url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/115618/1/WRAP-Sugar-rush-crash-meta-analysis-carbohydrate-effects-mood-Maylor-2019.pdf|access-date=30 April 2020|archive-date=6 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506043832/http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/115618/1/WRAP-Sugar-rush-crash-meta-analysis-carbohydrate-effects-mood-Maylor-2019.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> One review of low-quality studies of children consuming high amounts of [[energy drink]]s showed association with higher rates of unhealthy behaviors, including smoking and excessive alcohol use, and with hyperactivity and [[insomnia]], although such effects could not be specifically attributed to sugar over other components of those drinks such as [[caffeine]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Visram | first1=Shelina | last2=Cheetham | first2=Mandy | last3=Riby | first3=Deborah M | last4=Crossley | first4=Stephen J | last5=Lake | first5=Amelia A | title=Consumption of energy drinks by children and young people: a rapid review examining evidence of physical effects and consumer attitudes | journal=BMJ Open | volume=6 | issue=10 | pages=e010380 | date=1 October 2016 | issn=2044-6055 | pmid=27855083 | pmc=5073652 | doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010380 | url=}}</ref>
 === Tooth decay ===
-The WHO, [[Action on Sugar]] and the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) consider free sugars an essential dietary factor in the development of dental caries.<ref name="WHO 2017">{{Cite web|date=2017|title=Sugars and dental caries|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sugars-and-dental-caries|website=World Health Organization|language=en-GB|archive-date=11 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240811044111/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sugars-and-dental-caries|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019|title=Sugars and tooth decay|url=https://www.actiononsugar.org/sugar-and-health/sugars-and-tooth-decay/|website=Action on Sugar|language=en-GB|archive-date=24 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240724031923/https://www.actiononsugar.org/sugar-and-health/sugars-and-tooth-decay/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2015|title=SACN Carbohydrates and Health Report|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/sacn-carbohydrates-and-health-report|website=Public Health England|language=en-GB|archive-date=21 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240821161928/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/sacn-carbohydrates-and-health-report|url-status=live}}</ref> WHO have stated that "dental caries can be prevented by avoiding dietary free sugars".<ref name="WHO 2017"/>
+The WHO, [[Action on Sugar]] and the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) state dental caries, also known as tooth decay/cavities, "can be prevented by avoiding dietary free sugars".<ref name=who-nlm/><ref name="WHO 2017">{{Cite web|date=2017|title=Sugars and dental caries|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sugars-and-dental-caries|website=World Health Organization|language=en-GB|archive-date=11 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240811044111/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sugars-and-dental-caries|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019|title=Sugars and tooth decay|url=https://www.actiononsugar.org/sugar-and-health/sugars-and-tooth-decay/|website=Action on Sugar|language=en-GB|archive-date=24 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240724031923/https://www.actiononsugar.org/sugar-and-health/sugars-and-tooth-decay/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2015|title=SACN Carbohydrates and Health Report|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/sacn-carbohydrates-and-health-report|website=Public Health England|language=en-GB|archive-date=21 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240821161928/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/sacn-carbohydrates-and-health-report|url-status=live}}</ref>
 A review of human studies showed that the incidence of caries is lower when sugar intake is less than 10% of total energy consumed.<ref>{{cite journal|pmc=3872848|year=2014|last1=Moynihan|first1=P. J|title=Effect on Caries of Restricting Sugars Intake: Systematic Review to Inform WHO Guidelines|journal=Journal of Dental Research|volume=93|issue=1|pages=8–18|last2=Kelly|first2=S. A|pmid=24323509|doi=10.1177/0022034513508954}}</ref> [[Sugar-sweetened beverage]] consumption is associated with an increased risk of tooth decay.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Valenzuela MJ, Waterhouse B, Aggarwal VR, Bloor K, Doran T|year=2021|title=Effect of sugar-sweetened beverages on oral health: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Eur J Public Health|url=|volume=31|issue=1|pages=122–129|doi=10.1093/eurpub/ckaa147|pmid=32830237}}</ref>
@@ Line 407: / Line 327: @@
 === Nutritional displacement ===
-The "[[empty calories]]" argument states that a diet high in [[Added sugar|added]] (or 'free') sugars will reduce consumption of foods that contain [[essential nutrient]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Marriott BP, Olsho L, Hadden L, Connor P |title=Intake of added sugars and selected nutrients in the United States, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003–2006 |journal=Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=228–58 |year=2010 |pmid=20301013 |doi=10.1080/10408391003626223 |s2cid=205689533 }}</ref> This nutrient displacement occurs if sugar makes up more than 25% of daily energy intake,<ref name="dietary_reference">{{cite book |title=Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids |author1=Panel on Macronutrients |author2=Panel on the Definition of Dietary Fiber |author3=Subcommittee on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients |author4=Subcommittee on Interpretation and Uses of Dietary Reference Intakes |author5=the Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes |author6=Food and Nutrition Board |author7=[[Institute of Medicine]] of the [[National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine]]  |author8-link=National Research Council (United States) |author8=National Research Council |date=2005 |publisher=National Academies Press |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-309-08525-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780309085250 |access-date=4 December 2018 |quote=Although there were insufficient data to set a UL [Tolerable Upper Intake Levels] for added sugars, a maximal intake level of 25 percent or less of energy is suggested to prevent the displacement of foods that are major sources of essential micronutrients }}</ref> a proportion associated with poor diet quality and risk of obesity.<ref name="2015_WHO_guidelines">{{cite report |title=Guideline. Sugars intake for adults and children. |author=World Health Organization |date=2015 |publisher=WHO Press |location=Geneva |isbn=978-92-4-154902-8 |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/149782/9789241549028_eng.pdf}}</ref> Displacement may occur at lower levels of consumption.<ref name="dietary_reference"/>
+The "[[empty calories]]" argument states that a diet high in [[Added sugar|added]] (or 'free') sugars will reduce consumption of foods that contain [[essential nutrient]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Marriott BP, Olsho L, Hadden L, Connor P |title=Intake of added sugars and selected nutrients in the United States, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003–2006 |journal=Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=228–58 |year=2010 |pmid=20301013 |doi=10.1080/10408391003626223 |s2cid=205689533 }}</ref> This nutrient displacement occurs if sugar makes up more than 25% of daily energy intake,<ref name="dietary_reference">{{cite book |title=Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids |author1=Panel on Macronutrients |author2=Panel on the Definition of Dietary Fiber |author3=Subcommittee on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients |author4=Subcommittee on Interpretation and Uses of Dietary Reference Intakes |author5=the Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes |author6=Food and Nutrition Board |author7=[[Institute of Medicine]] of the [[National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine]]  |author8-link=National Research Council (United States) |author8=National Research Council |date=2005 |publisher=National Academies Press |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-309-08525-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780309085250 |access-date=4 December 2018 |quote=Although there were insufficient data to set a UL [Tolerable Upper Intake Levels] for added sugars, a maximal intake level of 25 percent or less of energy is suggested to prevent the displacement of foods that are major sources of essential micronutrients }}</ref> a proportion associated with poor diet quality and risk of obesity.<ref name=who-nlm/> Displacement may occur at lower levels of consumption.<ref name="dietary_reference"/>
 === Recommended dietary intake ===
-The WHO recommends that both adults and children reduce the intake of free sugars to less than 10% of total energy intake, and suggests a reduction to below 5%. "Free sugars" include monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods, and sugars found in fruit juice and concentrates, as well as in honey and syrups. According to the WHO, "[t]hese recommendations were based on the totality of available evidence reviewed regarding the relationship between free sugars intake and body weight (low and moderate quality evidence) and dental caries (very low and moderate quality evidence)."<ref name="WHO 2015p4">{{cite web |title=Guideline: Sugar intake for adults and children |date=2015 |page=4 |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/149782/9789241549028_eng.pdf |publisher=World Health Organization |location=Geneva|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704002426/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/149782/9789241549028_eng.pdf|archive-date=4 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
+The WHO recommends that both adults and children reduce the intake of free sugars to less than 10% of total energy intake.<ref name=who-nlm/> "Free sugars" include monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods, and sugars found in fruit juice and concentrates, as well as in honey and syrups.<ref name=who-nlm/><ref name=aha-add/>
-On 20 May 2016, the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] announced changes to the Nutrition Facts panel displayed on all foods, to be effective by July 2018. New to the panel is a requirement to list "added sugars" by weight and as a percent of Daily Value (DV). For vitamins and minerals, the intent of DVs is to indicate how much should be consumed. For added sugars, the guidance is that 100% DV should not be exceeded. 100% DV is defined as 50 grams. For a person consuming 2000 calories a day, 50 grams is equal to 200 calories and thus 10% of total calories—the same guidance as the WHO.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/food/guidanceregulation/guidancedocumentsregulatoryinformation/labelingnutrition/ucm385663.htm|title=Labeling & Nutrition – Changes to the Nutrition Facts Label|first=Center for Food Safety and Applied|last=Nutrition|website=www.fda.gov|date=22 February 2021|access-date=10 March 2017|archive-date=1 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101031958/https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/LabelingNutrition/ucm385663.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> To put this in context, most {{convert|12|USfloz||0|adj=on}} cans of soda contain 39 grams of sugar. In the United States, a government survey on food consumption in 2013–2014 reported that, for men and women aged 20 and older, the average total sugar intakes—naturally occurring in foods and added—were, respectively, 125 and 99 g/day.<ref>[https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400530/pdf/1314/Table_1_NIN_GEN_13.pdf What We Eat In America, NHANES 2013–2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224042515/https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400530/pdf/1314/Table_1_NIN_GEN_13.pdf |date=24 February 2017 }}.</ref>
+On 20 May 2016, the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] announced changes to the Nutrition Facts panel displayed on all foods, to be effective by July 2018. New to the panel is a requirement to list "added sugars" by weight and as a percent of Daily Value (DV). For vitamins and minerals, the intent of DVs is to indicate how much should be consumed. For added sugars, the guidance is that 100% DV should not be exceeded. 100% DV is defined as 50 grams. For a person consuming 2000 calories a day, 50 grams is equal to 200 calories and thus 10% of total calories—the same guidance as the WHO.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/food/guidanceregulation/guidancedocumentsregulatoryinformation/labelingnutrition/ucm385663.htm|title=Labeling & Nutrition – Changes to the Nutrition Facts Label|first=Center for Food Safety and Applied|last=Nutrition|website=www.fda.gov|date=22 February 2021|access-date=10 March 2017|archive-date=1 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101031958/https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/LabelingNutrition/ucm385663.htm}}</ref> To put this in context, most {{convert|12|USfloz||0|adj=on}} cans of soda contain 39 grams of sugar. In the United States, a government survey on food consumption in 2013–2014 reported that, for men and women aged 20 and older, the average total sugar intakes—naturally occurring in foods and added—were, respectively, 125 and 99 grams per day.<ref>[https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400530/pdf/1314/Table_1_NIN_GEN_13.pdf What We Eat In America, NHANES 2013–2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224042515/https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400530/pdf/1314/Table_1_NIN_GEN_13.pdf |date=24 February 2017 }}.</ref> The American Heart Association recommends even lower daily consumption of added sugars: 36 grams for men, and 25 grams for women.<ref name=aha-add/>
-== Measurements ==
-Various culinary sugars have different densities due to differences in particle size and inclusion of moisture. The "Engineering Resources – Bulk Density Chart" published in ''Powder and Bulk'' gives values for bulk densities:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powderandbulk.com/resources/bulk_density/material_bulk_density_chart_s.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021027094329/http://www.powderandbulk.com/resources/bulk_density/material_bulk_density_chart_s.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 October 2002 |title=Engineering Resources – Bulk Density Chart |work=Powder and Bulk}}</ref>
-* Beet sugar 0.80 g/mL
-* Dextrose sugar 0.62 g/mL ( = 620&nbsp;kg/m^3)
-* Granulated sugar 0.70 g/mL
-* Powdered sugar 0.56 g/mL
-{{anchor|History}}
 == Society and culture ==
-Manufacturers of sugary products, such as soft drinks and candy, and the [[Sugar Association|Sugar Research Foundation]] have been accused of trying to influence consumers and medical associations in the 1960s and 1970s by creating doubt about the potential health hazards of sucrose overconsumption, while promoting [[saturated fat]] as the main dietary risk factor in [[cardiovascular disease]]s.<ref name="jama2016"/> In 2016, the criticism led to recommendations that diet [[policymaker]]s emphasize the need for high-quality research that accounts for multiple [[biomarker]]s on development of cardiovascular diseases.<ref name=jama2016/>
+Manufacturers of sugary products, such as soft drinks and candy, and the [[Sugar Association|Sugar Research Foundation]] have been accused of trying to influence consumers and medical associations in the 1960s and 1970s by creating doubt about the potential health hazards of sucrose overconsumption, while promoting [[saturated fat]] as the main dietary risk factor in [[cardiovascular disease]]s.<ref name="jama2016"/> In 2016, the criticism led to recommendations that diet [[policymaker]]s emphasize the need for high-quality research that accounts for multiple [[biomarker]]s on development of cardiovascular diseases.<ref name="jama2016">{{cite journal|pmc=5099084|year=2016|vauthors=Kearns CE, Schmidt LA, Glantz SA |title=Sugar Industry and Coronary Heart Disease Research: A Historical Analysis of Internal Industry Documents|journal=JAMA Internal Medicine|volume=176|issue=11|pages=1680–85|doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.5394 |pmid=27617709}}</ref>
-Originally, no sugar was white; anthropologist [[Sidney Mintz]] writes that white likely became understood as the ideal after groups who associated the color white with purity transferred their value to sugar.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Mintz |first=Sidney |author-link=Sidney Mintz |title=The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets |date= |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-931339-6 |editor-last=Goldstein |editor-first=Darra |editor-link=Darra Goldstein |location= |chapter=Foreword}}</ref> In India, sugar frequently appears in religious observances. For ritual purity, such sugar cannot be white.<ref name=":0" />
+Originally, no sugar was white; anthropologist [[Sidney Mintz]] writes that white likely became understood as the ideal after groups who associated the color white with purity transferred their value to sugar.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Mintz |first=Sidney |author-link=Sidney Mintz |title=The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-931339-6 |editor-last=Goldstein |editor-first=Darra |editor-link=Darra Goldstein |location= |chapter=Foreword}}</ref> In India, sugar frequently appears in religious observances. For ritual purity, such sugar cannot be white.<ref name=":0" />
 == Gallery ==
@@ Line 438: / Line 349: @@
 File:Vollrohrzucker braun.JPG|Whole cane sugar (brown), vacuum-dried
 File:Raw sugar closeup.jpg|alt=raw sugar closeup|Raw crystals of unrefined, unbleached sugar
+|60px
 </gallery>
 == See also ==
-* [[Barley sugar]]
+{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
-* [[Blood sugar level]]
+* {{Annotated link|[[Barley sugar]]}}
-* [[Glycemic load]]
+* {{Annotated link|[[Blood sugar level]]}}
-* [[Glycomics]]
+* {{Annotated link|[[Caramelization]]}}
-* [[Holing cane]]
+* {{Annotated link|[[Glycemic load]]}}
-* [[Insulin]]
+* {{Annotated link|[[Glycome]]}}
-* [[List of unrefined sweeteners]]
+* {{Annotated link|[[Insulin]]}}
-* [[Rare sugar]]
+* {{Annotated link|[[List of unrefined sweeteners]]}}
-* [[Carbonated drinks]]
+{{div col end}}
-* [[Satiety value]]
-* [[Sugar plantations in the Caribbean]]
 == References ==
+{{Reflist}}
-{{Reflist|30em|
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-}}
-{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
 ==Sources==