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{{Short description|Form of government ruled by a monarch, or a polity with this form of government}}
{{Short description|Form of government ruled by a monarch, or a polity with this form of government}}
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{{Monarchism}}
{{Monarchism}}
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A '''monarchy''' is a [[form of government]] in which a person, the [[monarch]], [[reign]]s as [[head of state]] for the rest of their life, or until [[abdication]]. The extent of the authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic ([[constitutional monarchy]]), to fully [[autocratic]] ([[absolute monarchy]]), and may have [[Political representation|representational]], [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[legislative]], and [[judicial]] functions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Monarchy {{!}} Definition, Examples, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/monarchy |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=Britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
A '''monarchy''' is a hereditary [[form of government]] in which political power is legally passed on to the family members of the [[monarch]], a head of state who rules for life.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Bogdanor | first1=Vernon | title=The Monarchy and the Constitution | date=1995 | publisher=Clarendon Press | isbn=978-0-19-829334-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mN6SzMefot4C&dq=monarchy&pg=PA1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1=Spellman | first1=W. M. | title=Monarchies 1000-2000 | date=2001 | publisher=Reaktion Books | isbn=978-1-86189-087-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MRbExiEuYPsC&q=hereditary&pg=PA15 }}</ref> While monarchs gain their power depending on specific succession laws, they can also gain their authority via [[elective monarchy|election]].<ref>{{Cite episode | title = The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m0010f8z | access-date = 29 March 2023 | series = In Our Time | series-link = In Our Time (radio series) | network = [[BBC Radio 4]] | date = 14 October 2021}}</ref>


The [[Order of succession|succession]] of monarchs has mostly been [[Hereditary monarchy|hereditary]], often building [[dynasties]]; however, monarchies can also be [[elective monarchy|elective]] and [[Self-proclaimed monarchy|self-proclaimed]].<ref>{{Cite episode | title = The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m0010f8z | access-date = 29 March 2023 | series = In Our Time | series-link = In Our Time (radio series) | network = [[BBC Radio 4]] | date = 14 October 2021}}</ref> [[Aristocracy (class)|Aristocrats]], though not inherent to monarchies, often function as the pool of persons from which the monarch is chosen, and to fill the constituting institutions (e.g. [[Diet (assembly)|diet]] and [[Royal court|court]]), giving many monarchies [[oligarchic]] elements. The [[Legitimacy (political)#Monarchy|political legitimacy]] of the inherited, elected or proclaimed monarchy has most often been based on claims of [[Popular monarchy|representation of people]] and land through some form of relation (e.g. [[kinship]]) and [[Divine right of kings|divine right]] or other [[achieved status]].
Monarchies were the most common form of government until the 20th century, when republics [[Abolition of monarchy|replaced many monarchies]], notably at the end of [[World War I]].<ref>{{cite book | title=Political Systems, Structures, and Functions | date=June 2012 | publisher=Britannica Educational | isbn=978-1-61530-747-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3fScAAAAQBAJ&dq=%22decline%20of%20monarchies%22%20%2219th%20and%2020th%22&pg=PP1 }}</ref><ref name="Kimizuka">{{cite book | last1=Kimizuka | first1=Naotaka | title=Constitutional Monarchy of the Twenty-First Century | date=July 2024 | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-981-97-4327-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3JUREQAAQBAJ&dq=constitutional+monarchies&pg=PA8 }}</ref> {{As of | 2025}}, [[List of current monarchs of sovereign states|forty-three sovereign nations]] in the world have a monarch, including fifteen [[Commonwealth realm]]s that share [[Charles III|King Charles III]] as their head of state. Other than that, there is a range of [[List of current non-sovereign monarchs|sub-national monarchical entities]]. Most of the modern monarchies are [[constitutional monarchies]], retaining under a [[constitution]] unique legal and ceremonial roles for monarchs exercising limited or no political power, similar to heads of state in a [[parliamentary republic]].<ref name="Kimizuka"/>
 
Monarchs can carry various titles such as [[emperor]], [[Queen regnant|empress]], [[king]], and [[Queen regnant|queen]]. Monarchies can form [[federation]]s, [[personal union]]s, and [[realm]]s with [[vassal]]s through personal association with the monarch, which is a common reason for monarchs carrying several titles. Some countries have preserved titles such as "'''kingdom'''" while dispensing with an official serving monarch (note the example of [[Francoist Spain]] from 1947 to 1975) or while relying on a long-term [[regency]] (as in the case of Hungary in the [[Horthy era]] from 1920 to 1944).
 
Monarchies were the most common form of government until the 20th century, when republics [[Abolition of monarchy|replaced many monarchies]], notably at the end of [[World War I]]. {{As of | 2024}}, [[List of current monarchs of sovereign states|forty-three sovereign nations]] in the world have a monarch, including fifteen [[Commonwealth realm]]s that share [[Charles III|King Charles III]] as their head of state. Other than that, there is a range of [[List of current non-sovereign monarchs|sub-national monarchical entities]]. Most of the modern monarchies are constitutional monarchies, retaining under a [[constitution]] unique legal and ceremonial roles for monarchs exercising limited or no political power, similar to heads of state in a [[parliamentary republic]].


==Etymology==
==Etymology==
{{further|King (title)|Rex (title)|Realm}}
{{further|King (title)|Rex (title)|Realm}}
The word "monarch" ({{langx|la|monarchia|links=yes|label=Late Latin}}) comes from the [[Greek language|Ancient Greek]] word {{Lang|grc|[[wikt:μονάρχης|μονάρχης]]}} ({{Lang|grc-Latn|monárkhēs}}), derived from {{Lang|grc|[[wikt:μόνος|μόνος]]}} ({{Lang|grc-Latn|mónos}}, "one, single") and {{Lang|grc|[[wikt:ἄρχω|ἄρχω]]}} ({{Lang|grc-Latn|árkhō}}, "to rule"): compare {{Lang|grc|[[wikt:ἄρχων|ἄρχων]]}} ({{Lang|grc-Latn|[[Archon|árkhōn]]}}, "ruler, chief"). It referred to a single, at least, nominally, absolute ruler. In current usage the word ''monarchy'' usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule, as elective monarchies are quite rare.
The word ''monarch'' first appeared in the mid-15th century as monark, meaning “a supreme governor for life, a sole or autocratic ruler of a state.” It comes from the Old French monarche (14th century, Modern French monarque) and directly from the Late Latin monarcha, which in turn derives from the Greek monarkhēs, meaning “one who rules alone” (see monarchy).<ref>{{cite web | title=Search 'monarch' on etymonline | url=https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=monarch }}</ref> The term ''monarchy'' dates back to the mid-14th century, when it referred to a kingdom or territory ruled by a monarch, and by the late 14th century it also meant rule by a single person with supreme power. It comes from Old French monarchie (13th century), meaning “sovereignty” or “absolute power,” which was borrowed from Late Latin monarchia and ultimately from Greek monarkhia, “absolute rule,” literally “ruling of one,” from monos (“alone”) and arkhein (“to rule”).<ref>{{cite web | title=Monarchy - Etymology, Origin & Meaning | url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/monarchy }}</ref>


==History==
==History==
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The similar form of societal hierarchy known as [[chiefdom]] or [[Tribal chief|tribal kingship]] is prehistoric. Chiefdoms provided the concept of state formation, which started with civilizations such as [[Mesopotamia]], [[Ancient Egypt]] and the [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus Valley civilization]].<ref name="Kottak1991">{{cite book|author=Conrad Phillip Kottak|title=Cultural Anthropology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_NLtAAAAMAAJ|year=1991|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=978-0-07-035615-3|page=124}}</ref> In some parts of the world, chiefdoms became monarchies.<ref name="BoahenAjayi1986">{{cite book|author1=A. Adu Boahen|author2=J. F. Ade Ajayi|author3=Michael Tidy|title=Topics in West African History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xLoKAQAAIAAJ|year=1986|publisher=Longman Group|isbn=978-0-582-58504-1|page=19}}</ref> Some of the oldest recorded and evidenced monarchies were [[Narmer]], [[Pharaoh]] of Ancient Egypt {{Circa|3100 BCE}}, and [[Enmebaragesi]], a [[Sumer]]ian King of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] {{Circa|2600 BCE}}.
The similar form of societal hierarchy known as [[chiefdom]] or [[Tribal chief|tribal kingship]] is prehistoric. Chiefdoms provided the concept of state formation, which started with civilizations such as [[Mesopotamia]], [[Ancient Egypt]] and the [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus Valley civilization]].<ref name="Kottak1991">{{cite book|author=Conrad Phillip Kottak|title=Cultural Anthropology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_NLtAAAAMAAJ|year=1991|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=978-0-07-035615-3|page=124}}</ref> In some parts of the world, chiefdoms became monarchies.<ref name="BoahenAjayi1986">{{cite book|author1=A. Adu Boahen|author2=J. F. Ade Ajayi|author3=Michael Tidy|title=Topics in West African History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xLoKAQAAIAAJ|year=1986|publisher=Longman Group|isbn=978-0-582-58504-1|page=19}}</ref> Some of the oldest recorded and evidenced monarchies were [[Narmer]], [[Pharaoh]] of Ancient Egypt {{Circa|3100 BCE}}, and [[Enmebaragesi]], a [[Sumer]]ian King of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] {{Circa|2600 BCE}}.


From earliest records, monarchs could be directly hereditary, while others were elected from among eligible members. With the [[Pharaoh|Egyptian]], [[Outline of ancient China|Chinese]], [[Outline of ancient India|Indian]],<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=t6A4DwAAQBAJ Political Violence in Ancient India]'', p.23, "In later Vedic texts, the frequency of the word "dharma" decreased and its connotations shrank; it came to be especially connected with kingship and with the royal consecration ritual known as the rājasūya."</ref> [[Lugal|Mesopotamian]], [[Sudanic languages|Sudanic]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Traditions and encounters|quote=By about 5000 b.c.e. many Sudanic peoples had formed small monarchies ruled by kings who were viewed as divine or semidivine beings.|page=63|publisher=[[McGraw–Hill Education]]}}</ref> reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Proto-Indo-European religion]], and others, the monarch held [[Sacred king|sacral functions]] directly connected to [[sacrifice]] and was sometimes identified with having [[imperial cult|divine ancestry]], possibly establishing a notion of the [[divine right of kings]].
From earliest records, monarchs could be directly hereditary, while others were elected from among eligible members. With the [[Pharaoh|Egyptian]], [[Outline of ancient China|Chinese]], [[Outline of ancient India|Indian]],<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=t6A4DwAAQBAJ Political Violence in Ancient India]'', p.23, "In later Vedic texts, the frequency of the word "dharma" decreased and its connotations shrank; it came to be especially connected with kingship and with the royal consecration ritual known as the rājasūya."</ref> [[Lugal|Mesopotamian]], [[Sudanic languages|Sudanic]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Traditions and encounters|quote=By about 5000 b.c.e. many Sudanic peoples had formed small monarchies ruled by kings who were viewed as divine or semidivine beings.|page=63|publisher=[[McGraw–Hill Education]]}}</ref> reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Proto-Indo-European religion]], and others, the monarch held [[Sacred king|sacral functions]] directly connected to [[sacrifice]] and was sometimes identified with having [[imperial cult|divine ancestry]], possibly establishing a notion of the [[divine right of kings]].


[[Polybius]] identified monarchy as one of three "benign" basic forms of government (monarchy, [[aristocracy]], and [[Democracy#Origins|democracy]]), opposed to the three "malignant" basic forms of government ([[Tyrant|tyranny]], [[oligarchy]], and [[Mob rule|ochlocracy]]). The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as "[[king]]" or "ruler" (translating ''[[archon]]'', ''[[basileus]]'', ''[[rex (title)|rex]]'', ''[[Tyrant|tyrannos]]'', etc.) or as "[[Queen regnant|queen]]" (''[[basilinna]]'', ''basilissa'', ''basileia'' or ''basilis'';<ref>Liddell & Scott</ref> ''regina''). Polybius originally understood monarchy{{NoteTag|Now substituted with the concept of [[autocracy]].}} as a component of [[Republic|republics]], but since antiquity monarchy has contrasted with forms of republic, where executive power is wielded by free citizens and their assemblies. The 4th-century BCE Hindu text ''[[Arthashastra|Arthasastra]]'' laid out the ethics of monarchism.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Arthasastra: Selections from the Classic Indian Work on Statecraft|date=September 15, 2012|publisher=Hackett Publishing|isbn=9781603849029}}</ref> In antiquity, some monarchies were [[Abolition of monarchy|abolished]] in favour of such assemblies in [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] ([[Roman Republic]], 509 BCE), and [[History of Athens|Athens]] ([[Athenian democracy]], 500 BCE).
[[Polybius]] identified monarchy as one of three "benign" basic forms of government (monarchy, [[aristocracy]], and [[Democracy#Origins|democracy]]), opposed to the three "malignant" basic forms of government ([[Tyrant|tyranny]], [[oligarchy]], and [[Mob rule|ochlocracy]]). The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as "[[king]]" or "ruler" (translating ''[[archon]]'', ''[[basileus]]'', ''[[rex (title)|rex]]'', ''[[Tyrant|tyrannos]]'', etc.) or as "[[Queen regnant|queen]]" (''[[basilinna]]'', ''basilissa'', ''basileia'' or ''basilis'';<ref>Liddell & Scott</ref> ''regina''). Polybius originally understood monarchy as a component of [[Republic|republics]], but since antiquity monarchy has contrasted with forms of republic, where executive power is wielded by free citizens and their assemblies.<ref>{{cite web | title=Polybius • Histories — Book 5 | url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/polybius/5*.html }}</ref> The 4th-century BCE Hindu text ''[[Arthashastra|Arthasastra]]'' laid out the ethics of monarchism.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Arthasastra: Selections from the Classic Indian Work on Statecraft|date=September 15, 2012|publisher=Hackett Publishing|isbn=9781603849029}}</ref> In antiquity, some monarchies were [[Abolition of monarchy|abolished]] in favour of such assemblies in [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] ([[Roman Republic]], 509 BCE), and [[History of Athens|Athens]] ([[Athenian democracy]], 500 BCE).
[[File:Europe map 1648.PNG|thumb|left|Map of monarchies and republics in Europe, 1648]]
[[File:Europe map 1648.PNG|thumb|left|Map of monarchies and republics in Europe, 1648]]
By the 17th century, monarchy was challenged by evolving [[Parliamentary system|parliamentarism]] e.g. through regional assemblies (such as the [[Icelandic Commonwealth]], the Swiss ''[[Landsgemeinde]]'' and later ''[[Tagsatzung]]'', and the High Medieval [[Medieval commune|communal movement]] linked to the rise of medieval [[town privileges]]) and by modern anti-monarchism e.g. of the temporary overthrow of the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|English monarchy]] by the [[Parliament of England]] in 1649, the [[American Revolution]] of 1776 and the [[French Revolution]] of 1789. One of many opponents of that trend was [[Elizabeth Dawbarn]], whose anonymous ''Dialogue between Clara Neville and Louisa Mills, on Loyalty'' (1794) features "silly Louisa, who admires liberty, [[Thomas Paine|Tom Paine]] and the US, [who is] lectured by Clara on God's approval of monarchy" and on the influence women can exert on men.<ref>''The Feminist Companion to Literature in English'', ed. Virginia Blain, Patricia Clements and Isobel Grundy, (London: Batsford, 1990), p. 272.</ref>
By the 17th century, monarchy was challenged by evolving [[Parliamentary system|parliamentarism]] e.g. through regional assemblies (such as the [[Icelandic Commonwealth]], the Swiss ''[[Landsgemeinde]]'' and later ''[[Tagsatzung]]'', and the High Medieval [[Medieval commune|communal movement]] linked to the rise of medieval [[town privileges]]) and by modern anti-monarchism e.g. of the temporary overthrow of the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|English monarchy]] by the [[Parliament of England]] in 1649, the [[American Revolution]] of 1776 and the [[French Revolution]] of 1789. One of many opponents of that trend was [[Elizabeth Dawbarn]], whose anonymous ''Dialogue between Clara Neville and Louisa Mills, on Loyalty'' (1794) features "silly Louisa, who admires liberty, [[Thomas Paine|Tom Paine]] and the US, [who is] lectured by Clara on God's approval of monarchy" and on the influence women can exert on men.<ref>''The Feminist Companion to Literature in English'', ed. Virginia Blain, Patricia Clements and Isobel Grundy, (London: Batsford, 1990), p. 272.</ref>
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Today forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a [[List of current monarchs of sovereign states|monarch]], including fifteen [[Commonwealth realm]]s that have [[Charles III]] as the head of state. Most modern monarchs are [[Constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarchs]], who retain a unique legal and ceremonial role but exercise limited or no political power under a constitution. Many are so-called [[crowned republic]]s, surviving particularly in small states.<ref>W. Veenendaal, "Monarchy and Democracy in Small States: An Ambiguous Symbiosis," in S. Wolf, ed., ''State Size Matters: Politik und Recht I'm Kontext von Kleinstaatlichkeit und Monarchie'' (Wiesbaden: Springer VS, 2016), pp. 183–198, {{doi|10.1007/978-3-658-07725-9_9}}, {{ISBN|978-3-658-07724-2|}}.</ref>
Today forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a [[List of current monarchs of sovereign states|monarch]], including fifteen [[Commonwealth realm]]s that have [[Charles III]] as the head of state. Most modern monarchs are [[Constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarchs]], who retain a unique legal and ceremonial role but exercise limited or no political power under a constitution. Many are so-called [[crowned republic]]s, surviving particularly in small states.<ref>W. Veenendaal, "Monarchy and Democracy in Small States: An Ambiguous Symbiosis," in S. Wolf, ed., ''State Size Matters: Politik und Recht I'm Kontext von Kleinstaatlichkeit und Monarchie'' (Wiesbaden: Springer VS, 2016), pp. 183–198, {{doi|10.1007/978-3-658-07725-9_9}}, {{ISBN|978-3-658-07724-2|}}.</ref>


In some nations, however, such as [[Morocco]], [[Qatar]], [[Liechtenstein]], and [[Thailand]], the hereditary monarch has more political influence than any other single source of authority in the state, even if it is by a constitutional mandate.
In some nations, however, such as [[Morocco]], [[Qatar]], [[Liechtenstein]], and [[Thailand]], the hereditary monarch has more political influence than any other single source of authority in the state.<ref>{{cite web | title=Seven myths about democracy in Morocco | url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/north-africa-west-asia/seven-myths-about-democracy-in-morocco/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Thailand's king seeks to bring back absolute monarchy | newspaper=The Economist | url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2020/10/14/thailands-king-seeks-to-bring-back-absolute-monarchy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Qatar - Politics, Economy, Society &#124; Britannica | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Qatar/Government-and-society }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last1=Bertolini | first1=Elisa | editor-first1=Laura | editor-last1=Hood | title=Europe's microstates: The medieval monarchies that survive in our midst | date=December 23, 2024 | doi=10.64628/AB.qaqpc5xh5 | url=https://theconversation.com/europes-microstates-the-medieval-monarchies-that-survive-in-our-midst-245328 }}</ref>


According to a 2020 study, monarchy arose as a system of governance because of an efficiency in governing large populations and expansive territories during periods when coordinating such populations was difficult. The authors argue that monarchy declined as an efficient regime type with innovations in communications and transportation technology, as the efficiency of monarchy relative to other regime types declined.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gerring |first1=John |last2=Wig |first2=Tore |last3=Veenendaal |first3=Wouter |last4=Weitzel |first4=Daniel |last5=Teorell |first5=Jan |last6=Kikuta |first6=Kyosuke |date=2020 |title=Why Monarchy? The Rise and Demise of a Regime Type |url=http://urn.nb.no/URN:NBN:no-87297 |journal=Comparative Political Studies |language=en |volume=54 |issue=3–4 |pages=585–622 |doi=10.1177/0010414020938090 |issn=0010-4140 |s2cid=225612565 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10852/84589}}</ref>
According to a 2020 study, monarchy arose as a system of governance because of an efficiency in governing large populations and expansive territories during periods when coordinating such populations was difficult. The authors argue that monarchy declined as an efficient regime type with innovations in communications and transportation technology, as the efficiency of monarchy relative to other regime types declined.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gerring |first1=John |last2=Wig |first2=Tore |last3=Veenendaal |first3=Wouter |last4=Weitzel |first4=Daniel |last5=Teorell |first5=Jan |last6=Kikuta |first6=Kyosuke |date=2020 |title=Why Monarchy? The Rise and Demise of a Regime Type |url=http://urn.nb.no/URN:NBN:no-87297 |journal=Comparative Political Studies |language=en |volume=54 |issue=3–4 |pages=585–622 |doi=10.1177/0010414020938090 |issn=0010-4140 |s2cid=225612565 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10852/84589}}</ref>
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==Characteristics and role==
==Characteristics and role==
[[File:Allan Ramsay - King George III in coronation robes - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|[[George III|King George III of the United Kingdom]], [[Coronation Portrait of George III|coronation portrait]] by [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]], 1762]]
[[File:Allan Ramsay - King George III in coronation robes - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|[[George III|King George III of the United Kingdom]], [[Coronation Portrait of George III|coronation portrait]] by [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]], 1762]]
Monarchies are associated with [[Hereditary monarchy|hereditary reign]], in which monarchs reign for life{{NoteTag|Malaysia is a special case. Malaysia's head of state, the [[Yang di-Pertuan Agong]] (often translated as "King"), is elected to serve a five-year term. However, he is elected from among the federation's subnational monarchies, each of whom inherit their position and rule for life.}} and the responsibilities and power of the position pass to their child or another member of their family when they die. Most monarchs, both historically and in the modern-day, have been born and brought up within a [[royal family]], the centre of the [[royal household]] and [[Royal court|court]]. Growing up in a royal family (called a [[dynasty]] when it continues for several [[generation]]s), [[heir apparent|future monarchs]] are often trained for their expected future responsibilities as monarch.<ref>{{Cite web |last=UCL |date=2021-11-08 |title=What is the role of the monarchy? |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/explainers/what-role-monarchy |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=The Constitution Unit |language=en}}</ref>
Monarchies are associated with [[Hereditary monarchy|hereditary reign]], in which monarchs reign for life and the responsibilities and power of the position pass to their child or another member of their family when they die. Most monarchs, both historically and in the modern-day, have been born and brought up within a [[royal family]], the centre of the [[royal household]] and [[Royal court|court]]. Growing up in a royal family (called a [[dynasty]] when it continues for several [[generation]]s), [[heir apparent|future monarchs]] are often trained for their expected future responsibilities as monarch.<ref>{{Cite web |last=UCL |date=2021-11-08 |title=What is the role of the monarchy? |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/explainers/what-role-monarchy |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=The Constitution Unit |language=en}}</ref>


Different systems of hereditary [[Order of succession|succession]] have been used, such as [[proximity of blood]], [[primogeniture]], and [[agnatic seniority]] ([[Salic law]]). While most monarchs in history have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Beemer |first=Cristy |date=2011 |title=The Female Monarchy: A Rhetorical Strategy of Early Modern Rule |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23064026 |journal=Rhetoric Review |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=258–274 |doi=10.1080/07350198.2011.581937 |jstor=23064026 |s2cid=144455583 |issn=0735-0198|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The term "[[queen regnant]]" refers to a ruling monarch, while "[[queen consort]]" refers to the wife of a reigning king. Rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy: there have been some family dictatorships{{NoteTag |Examples are [[Oliver Cromwell]] and [[Richard Cromwell]] in the [[Commonwealth of England]], [[Kim il-Sung]] and [[Kim Jong Il]] in [[North Korea]], the [[Somoza family]] in [[Nicaragua]], [[François Duvalier]] and [[Jean-Claude Duvalier]] in [[Haiti]], and [[Hafez al-Assad]] and [[Bashar al-Assad]] in [[Syria]].}} (and also [[Political family|political families]]) in many [[Democracy|democracies]].{{NoteTag |For example, the [[Kennedy family]] in the United States and the [[Nehru-Gandhi family]] in [[India]]. See [[list of political families]].}}
Different systems of hereditary [[Order of succession|succession]] have been used, such as [[proximity of blood]], [[primogeniture]], and [[agnatic seniority]] ([[Salic law]]). While most monarchs in history have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Beemer |first=Cristy |date=2011 |title=The Female Monarchy: A Rhetorical Strategy of Early Modern Rule |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23064026 |journal=Rhetoric Review |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=258–274 |doi=10.1080/07350198.2011.581937 |jstor=23064026 |s2cid=144455583 |issn=0735-0198|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The term "[[queen regnant]]" refers to a ruling monarch, while "[[queen consort]]" refers to the wife of a reigning king. Rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy: there have been some family dictatorships (and also [[Political family|political families]]) in many [[Democracy|democracies]].
 
The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the immediate continuity of leadership (as evidenced in the classic phrase "[[The king is dead, long live the king!|The King is dead. Long live the King!]]").


Some monarchies are not hereditary. In an [[elective monarchy]], monarchs are [[Election|elected]] or appointed by some body (an [[electoral college]]) for life or a defined period. Four elective monarchies exist today: [[Cambodia]], [[Malaysia]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]] are 20th-century creations, while one (the [[Pope|papacy]]) is ancient.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Definition of an Elective Monarchy|url=https://www.theclassroom.com/definition-elective-monarchy-5221.html|access-date=2021-08-30|website=The Classroom {{!}} Empowering Students in Their College Journey|language=en}}</ref>
Some monarchies are not hereditary. In an [[elective monarchy]], monarchs are [[Election|elected]] or appointed by some body (an [[electoral college]]) for life or a defined period. Four elective monarchies exist today: [[Cambodia]], [[Malaysia]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]] are 20th-century creations, while one (the [[Pope|papacy]]) is ancient.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Definition of an Elective Monarchy|url=https://www.theclassroom.com/definition-elective-monarchy-5221.html|access-date=2021-08-30|website=The Classroom {{!}} Empowering Students in Their College Journey|language=en}}</ref>
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===Powers of the monarch===
===Powers of the monarch===
[[File:Salman of Saudi Arabia - 2020 (49563590728) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|King [[Salman of Saudi Arabia]] is an absolute monarch.]]
[[File:Salman of Saudi Arabia - 2020 (49563590728) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|King [[Salman of Saudi Arabia]] is an absolute monarch.]]
* In an [[absolute monarchy]], the monarch rules as an [[Autocracy|autocrat]], with absolute power over the state and government—for example, the right to [[rule by decree]], promulgate [[law]]s, and impose [[punishment]]s.
* In an [[absolute monarchy]], the monarch rules with absolute power over the state and government.
* In a [[constitutional monarchy]], the monarch's power is subject to a [[constitution]]. In most current constitutional monarchies, the monarch is mainly a ceremonial [[figurehead]] [[symbol]] of national unity and state continuity. Although nominally [[sovereignty|sovereign]], the electorate (through the [[legislature]]) exercises political sovereignty. Constitutional monarchs' [[Power (social and political)|political power]] is limited. Typical monarchical powers include granting [[pardon]]s, granting [[Honor system|honours]], and [[reserve power]]s, e.g. to dismiss the [[prime minister]], refuse to dissolve parliament, or [[veto]] legislation ("withhold [[Royal assent|Royal Assent]]"). They often also have privileges of inviolability and [[sovereign immunity]]. A monarch's powers and influence will depend on tradition, precedent, popular opinion, and [[law]].
* In a [[constitutional monarchy]], the monarch's power is subject to a [[constitution]]. In most current constitutional monarchies, the monarch is mainly a ceremonial [[figurehead]] symbol of national unity and state continuity.  
** [[Constitutional monarchy|Semi-constitutional monarchies]] exhibit fewer parliamentary powers or simply monarchs with more authority.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ecpr.eu/Events/PaperDetails.aspx?PaperID=30190&EventID=95 |title=Semi presidential systems and semi constitutional monarchies: A historical assessment of executive power-sharing |last1=Anckar|first1=Carsten|last2=Akademi|first2=Åbo |date=2016|publisher=European Consortium for Political Research (ECPR) |access-date=2019-08-14}}</ref> The term "parliamentary monarchy" may be used to differentiate from semi-constitutional monarchies.
** [[Constitutional monarchy|Semi-constitutional monarchies]] exhibit fewer parliamentary powers or simply monarchs with more authority.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ecpr.eu/Events/PaperDetails.aspx?PaperID=30190&EventID=95 |title=Semi presidential systems and semi constitutional monarchies: A historical assessment of executive power-sharing |last1=Anckar|first1=Carsten|last2=Akademi|first2=Åbo |date=2016|publisher=European Consortium for Political Research (ECPR) |access-date=2019-08-14}}</ref> The term "parliamentary monarchy" may be used to differentiate from semi-constitutional monarchies.
* Monarchical reign has often been linked with [[Military dictatorship|military authority]]. In the late [[Roman Empire]], the [[Praetorian Guard]] several times deposed [[Roman emperor]]s and installed new emperors. Similarly, in the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], the [[Ghilman]]s (slave soldiers) deposed Caliphs once they became prominent, allowing new ones to come to power. The Hellenistic kings of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedon]] and of [[Epirus]] were elected by the army, which was similar in composition to the ''[[Ecclesia (ancient Greece)|ecclesia]]'' of [[Democracy|democracies]], the council of all free citizens; military service was often linked with citizenship among the male members of the royal house. The military has dominated the monarch in modern [[Thailand]] and in [[History of Japan|medieval Japan]] (where a hereditary military chief, the ''[[Shogun|shōgun]]'', was the ''de facto'' ruler, although the [[Emperor of Japan|Japanese emperor]] nominally reigned). In [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]], the [[House of Savoy|Savoy]] monarchy under King [[Victor Emmanuel III]] coexisted with the [[National Fascist Party|Fascist]] single-party rule of [[Benito Mussolini]]; [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] under the [[Iron Guard]] and [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]] during the first months of the [[Greek junta|Colonels' regime]] were similar. [[Francoist Spain|Spain under Francisco Franco]] was officially a monarchy, although there was no monarch on the throne. Upon his death, Franco was succeeded as head of state by the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] heir, [[Juan Carlos I]], and [[Spanish transition to democracy|Spain became a democracy]] with the king as a figurehead constitutional monarch.
===Person of monarch===
[[File:Ruling Monarchs in 1908 Postcard Print.png |thumb|right|Postcard of ruling monarchs, taken in 1908, between February (accession of [[Manuel II of Portugal|King Manuel II of Portugal]]) and November (death of the [[Guangxu Emperor]])|upright]]
Most monarchies only have a single person acting as monarch at any given time, although two monarchs have ruled simultaneously in some countries, a situation known as [[diarchy]]. Historically this was the case in the ancient [[Polis|Greek city-state]] of [[Sparta]]. There are examples of joint sovereignty of spouses, parent and child or other relatives (such as [[William III of England|William III]] and [[Mary II of England|Mary II]] in the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of England|England]] and [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]], [[Tsar]]s [[Peter the Great|Peter I]] and [[Ivan V of Russia]], and [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles I]] and [[Joanna of Castile]]).
[[Andorra]] currently is the world's only constitutional diarchy, a co-principality. Located in the [[Pyrenees]] between [[Spain]] and [[France]], it has two co-princes: the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Urgell|bishop of Urgell]] in Spain (a [[prince-bishop]]) and the [[president of France]] (derived ''ex officio'' from the French kings, who themselves inherited the title from the counts of Foix). It is the only case in which an independent country's (co-)monarch is [[Democracy|democratically]] elected by the citizens of another country.
In a [[personal union]], separate independent states share the same person as monarch, but each realm retains separate laws and government. The fifteen separate [[Commonwealth realm]]s are sometimes described as being in a personal union with King Charles III as monarch. However, they can also be described as being in a shared monarchy.
A [[regent]] may rule when the monarch is a [[Minor (law)|minor]], absent, or debilitated.
A [[pretender]] is a claimant to an abolished throne or a throne already occupied by somebody else.
[[Abdication]] is the act of formally giving up one's monarchical power and status.
Monarchs may mark the ceremonial beginning of their reigns with a [[coronation]] or [[enthronement]].
===Role of monarch===
Monarchy, especially absolute monarchy, is sometimes linked to [[Religion|religious]] aspects; many monarchs once claimed the right to rule by the will of a [[deity]] ([[Divine right of kings|Divine Right of Kings]], [[Mandate of Heaven]]), or a special connection to a deity ([[sacred king]]), or even purported to be divine kings, or [[incarnation]]s of deities themselves ([[imperial cult]]). Many European monarchs have been styled {{Lang|la|[[Defender of the Faith|Fidei defensor]]}} (Defender of the Faith); some hold official positions relating to the [[state religion]] or established church.
In the Western political tradition, a morally based, balanced monarchy was stressed as the ideal form of government, and little attention was paid to modern-day ideals of egalitarian democracy: e.g. [[Thomas Aquinas|Saint Thomas Aquinas]] unapologetically declared: "Tyranny is wont to occur not less but more frequently on the basis of polyarchy [rule by many, i.e. oligarchy or democracy] than on the basis of monarchy." (''On Kingship''). However, Thomas Aquinas also stated that the ideal monarchical system would also have at lower levels of government both an aristocracy and elements of democracy in order to create a balance of power. The monarch would also be subject to both natural and divine law, and to the [[Catholic Church|Church]] in matters of religion.
In [[Dante Alighieri]]'s ''De Monarchia'', a spiritualised, imperial Catholic monarchy is strongly promoted according to a [[Guelphs and Ghibellines|Ghibelline]] world-view in which the "royal religion of [[Melchizedek]]" is emphasised against the priestly claims of the rival papal ideology.
In [[Saudi Arabia]], the [[King of Saudi Arabia|king]] is a head of state who is both the absolute monarch of the country and the [[Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques]] of Islam (خادم الحرمين الشريفين).
The roles of monarchs can overlap with other monarchies through [[personal union]] or [[dynastic union]], with maybe becoming institutional [[real union]] and possibly a larger [[federal monarchy|federal]], [[composite monarchy|composite]] or [[Unitary state|unitary]] monarchy, [[realm]] and state.
===Titles of monarchs===
{{See also|Composite monarchy}}
[[File:Téwodros II - 2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tewodros II]], [[Emperor of Ethiopia]]|upright]]
Monarchs can have various [[title]]s. Common European titles of monarchs (in that hierarchical order of nobility) are [[emperor]] or empress (from [[Latin]]: ''[[imperator]]'' or ''imperatrix''), [[king]] or [[Queen regnant|queen]], [[grand duke]] or grand duchess, [[prince]] or [[princess]], [[duke]] or duchess.<ref>Meyers Taschenlexikon Geschichte 1982 vol.1 p21</ref> Some [[Early modern period|early modern]] European titles (especially in German states) included [[prince-elector|elector]] (German: {{Lang|de|Kurfürst}}, Prince-Elector, literally "electing prince"), [[margrave]] (German: {{Lang|de|Markgraf}}, equivalent to the French title ''marquis'', literally "count of the borderland"), and [[burgrave]] (German: {{Lang|de|Burggraf}}, literally "count of the castle"). Lesser titles include [[count]] and [[Graf|princely count]]. Slavic titles include [[knyaz]] and [[tsar]] (ц︢рь) or [[Tsarina|tsaritsa]] (царица), a word derived from the [[Roman Empire|Roman imperial]] title ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]''.
In the [[Muslim world]], titles of monarchs include [[Caliphate|caliph]] (successor to the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] and a leader of the entire Muslim community), [[padishah]] (emperor), [[sultan]] or [[Sultana (title)|sultana]], [[Shah|shâhanshâh]] (emperor), [[shah]], [[malik]] (king) or [[malik]]ah (queen), [[emir]] (commander, prince) or [[emir]]a (princess), [[sheikh]] or [[sheikh]]a, [[imam]] (used in [[Oman]]). East Asian titles of monarchs include [[Emperor of China|''huángdì'']] (emperor) or ''nǚhuáng'' (empress regnant), [[Son of Heaven|''tiānzǐ'']] (son of heaven), ''[[Emperor of Japan|tennō]]'' (emperor) or ''[[Josei Tennō|josei tennō]]'' (empress regnant), ''[[Korean nobility#Royal titles|wang]]'' (king) or ''[[Korean nobility#Royal titles|yeowang]]'' (queen regnant), ''[[Emperor of Korea|hwangje]]'' (emperor) or ''yeoje'' (empress regnant). South Asian and South East Asian titles included ''[[Maharaja|mahārāja]]'' (high king) or ''maharani'' (high queen), ''[[raja]]'' (king) and ''[[rana (title)|rana]]'' (king) or ''[[rani]]'' (queen) and ''ratu'' (South East Asian queen). Historically, [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] and [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] monarchs have used the title ''[[Khan (title)|khan]]'' and ''[[khagan]]'' (emperor) or ''[[khatun]]'' and ''[[khanum]]''; [[Ancient Egypt]]ian monarchs have used the title ''[[pharaoh]]'' for men and women. In [[Ethiopian Empire]], monarchs used title ''[[Emperor of Ethiopia|nəgusä nägäst]]'' (king of kings) or [[Emperor of Ethiopia|''nəgəstä nägäst'']] (queen of kings).
Many monarchs are addressed with particular [[Style (form of address)|styles]] or manners of address, like "[[Majesty]]", "[[Royal Highness]]", "[[By the Grace of God]]", ''[[Amir al-Mu'minin|Amīr al-Mu'minīn]]'' ("Leader of the Faithful"), ''[[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Hünkar-i Khanedan-i Âl-i Osman]]'', "Sovereign of the Sublime House of Osman"), ''[[Malay styles and titles|Duli Yang Maha Mulia Seri Paduka Baginda]]'' ("Majesty"), ''Jeonha'' ("Majesty"), ''Tennō Heika'' (literally "His Majesty the heavenly sovereign"), ''Bìxià'' ("Bottom of the Steps").
Sometimes titles are used to express claims to territories that are not held in fact (for example, [[English claims to the French throne]]), or titles not recognised ([[antipope]]s). Also, after a monarchy is deposed, often former monarchs and their descendants are given alternative titles (the [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]] was given the hereditary title [[Duke of Braganza]]).
===Non-sovereign monarchies===
{{Main|Non-sovereign monarchy}}
A non-sovereign monarchy is one where the monarch is subject to a temporal authority higher than their own. Some are dependent on other powers (see [[vassal]]s, [[suzerainty]], [[puppet state]], [[hegemony]]). In the British colonial era, [[indirect rule]] under a [[Paramount ruler|paramount power]] existed, such as the [[princely state]]s under the [[British Raj]].
In [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]], [[Ghana]] and [[Uganda]], the ancient kingdoms and [[chiefdom]]s that were met by the colonialists when they first arrived on the continent are now constitutionally protected as regional or sectional entities.
Furthermore, in [[Nigeria]], though the hundreds of [[List of Nigerian traditional states|sub-regional polities]] that exist there are not provided for in the current constitution, they are nevertheless legally recognised aspects of the structure of governance that operates in the nation. For example, the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] city-state of [[Akure Kingdom|Akure]] in south-western Nigeria is something of an elective monarchy: its reigning ''[[Oba (ruler)|Oba]] [[Akure Kingdom|Deji]]'' has to be chosen by an electoral college of [[Nigerian Chieftaincy|nobles]] from amongst a finite collection of royal princes of the realm upon the death or removal of an incumbent.
In addition to these five countries, non-sovereign monarchies of varied sizes and complexities exist all over the rest of the continent of [[Africa]].
===Statehood===
Monarchies pre-date [[polity|polities]] like [[nation state]]s<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Rise of the Nation-State across the World, 1816 to 2001.|date=2010-10-08 |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=75 |issue=5 |doi= 10.1177/0003122410382639 |last1=Wimmer|first1=Andreas|last2=Feinstein|first2=Yuval|pages=764–790|s2cid=10075481 |quote=Sovereignty has a domestic and an external component. Domestically, a written constitution claims a nationally defined community of equal citizens as the political (and moral) foundation of the state and foresees some institutional representation of this community (not necessarily a freely elected parliament). Internal sovereignty thus stands in opposition to dynasticism, theocracy, feudal privilege, and mass slavery. [page 773]}}</ref> and even [[territorial state]]s. A [[nation]] or constitution is not necessary in a monarchy since a person, the monarch, binds the separate territories and [[Legitimacy (political)|political legitimacy]] (e.g. in personal union) together.
Monarchies, though, have applied [[National symbol|state symbols]] like [[insignia]] or abstracts like the concept of [[the Crown]] to create a state identity, which is to be carried and occupied by the monarch, but represents the monarchy even in absence and [[#Succession|succession]] of the monarch.
Nevertheless, monarchies can also be bound to [[territory|territories]] (e.g., the [[Monarchy of Norway|King of Norway]]) and [[popular monarchy|peoples]] (e.g., the [[Monarchy of Belgium|King of the Belgians]]).


==Succession==
==Succession==
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In 1980, [[Sweden]] became the first monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne.<ref>[[Statens offentliga utredningar|SOU]] 1977:5 ''Kvinnlig tronföljd'', p. 16.</ref> Other kingdoms (such as the [[Netherlands]] in 1983, [[Norway]] in 1990, [[Belgium]] in 1991, [[Denmark]] in 2009, and [[Luxembourg]]<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-15489544 "Overturning Centuries of Royal Rules"] (2011-10-28). ''BBC.com''. Retrieved 2018-11-02.</ref> in 2011) have since followed suit. The [[United Kingdom]] adopted absolute (equal) primogeniture (subject to the claims of existing heirs) on April 25, 2013, following [[Perth Agreement|agreement by the prime ministers of the sixteen Commonwealth Realms]] at the 22nd Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-32073399|title=New rules on royal succession come into effect|work=BBC News|date=March 26, 2015|access-date=1 August 2019}}</ref>
In 1980, [[Sweden]] became the first monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne.<ref>[[Statens offentliga utredningar|SOU]] 1977:5 ''Kvinnlig tronföljd'', p. 16.</ref> Other kingdoms (such as the [[Netherlands]] in 1983, [[Norway]] in 1990, [[Belgium]] in 1991, [[Denmark]] in 2009, and [[Luxembourg]]<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-15489544 "Overturning Centuries of Royal Rules"] (2011-10-28). ''BBC.com''. Retrieved 2018-11-02.</ref> in 2011) have since followed suit. The [[United Kingdom]] adopted absolute (equal) primogeniture (subject to the claims of existing heirs) on April 25, 2013, following [[Perth Agreement|agreement by the prime ministers of the sixteen Commonwealth Realms]] at the 22nd Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-32073399|title=New rules on royal succession come into effect|work=BBC News|date=March 26, 2015|access-date=1 August 2019}}</ref>


In the absence of children, the next most senior member of the collateral line (for example, a younger sibling of the previous monarch) becomes monarch. In complex cases, this can mean that there are closer blood relatives to the deceased monarch than the next in line according to primogeniture. This has often led, especially in Europe in the [[Middle Ages]], to conflict between the principle of primogeniture and the principle of [[proximity of blood]].
Other hereditary systems of succession included [[tanistry]], which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and [[Agnatic seniority]]. In some monarchies, such as [[Saudi Arabia]], succession to the throne first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority). On June 21, 2017, King Salman of Saudi Arabi revolted against this style of monarchy and elected his son to inherit the throne.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chara|first=Jihan|date=2018-10-01|title=Saudi Arabia: A prince's revolution|journal=European View|language=en|volume=17|issue=2|pages=227–234|doi=10.1177/1781685818803525|issn=1781-6858|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Is Power Trumping Legitimacy in Saudi Arabia? | date=April 20, 2022 | url=https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/is-power-trumping-legitimacy-in-saudi-arabia/ }}</ref>
 
Other hereditary systems of succession included [[tanistry]], which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and [[Agnatic seniority]]. In some monarchies, such as [[Saudi Arabia]], succession to the throne first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority).  
 
On June 21, 2017, King Salman of Saudi Arabi revolted against this style of monarchy and elected his son to inherit the throne.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chara|first=Jihan|date=2018-10-01|title=Saudi Arabia: A prince's revolution|journal=European View|language=en|volume=17|issue=2|pages=227–234|doi=10.1177/1781685818803525|issn=1781-6858|doi-access=free}}</ref>


===Elective monarchies===
===Elective monarchies===


{{see also| Jure uxoris}}
{{see also| Jure uxoris}}
{{unreferenced section|date=November 2018}}
[[File:Pope Francis Korea Haemi Castle 19.jpg|thumb|[[Pope Francis]], Sovereign of the [[Vatican City|Vatican City State]] from 2013 to 2025]]
[[File:Pope Francis Korea Haemi Castle 19.jpg|thumb|[[Pope Francis]], Sovereign of the [[Vatican City|Vatican City State]] from 2013 to 2025]]
In an [[elective monarchy]], monarchs are [[Election|elected]] or appointed by somebody (an [[electoral college]]) for life or a defined period, but then reign like any other monarch. There is no popular vote involved in elective monarchies, as the elective body usually consists of a small number of eligible people. Historical examples of elective monarchy are the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s (chosen by [[prince-elector]]s but often coming from the same dynasty) and the [[Royal elections in Poland|free election]] of kings of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. For example, [[Pepin the Short]] (father of [[Charlemagne]]) was elected [[List of Frankish kings|King of the Franks]] by an assembly of Frankish leading men;<ref>{{Cite book |first=John |last=Middleton |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/920786632 |title=World monarchies and dynasties |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7656-8050-1 |oclc=920786632}}</ref> nobleman [[Stanisław August Poniatowski]] of Poland was an elected king, as was [[Frederick I of Denmark]]. [[Gauls|Gallic]] and [[Germanic peoples]] also had elective monarchies.
In an [[elective monarchy]], monarchs are [[Election|elected]] or appointed by somebody (an [[electoral college]]) for life or a defined period, but then reign like any other monarch. There is no popular vote involved in elective monarchies, as the elective body usually consists of a small number of eligible people. Historical examples of elective monarchy are the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s (chosen by [[prince-elector]]s but often coming from the same dynasty) and the [[Royal elections in Poland|free election]] of kings of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. For example, [[Pepin the Short]] (father of [[Charlemagne]]) was elected [[List of Frankish kings|King of the Franks]] by an assembly of Frankish leading men;<ref>{{Cite book |first=John |last=Middleton |title=World monarchies and dynasties |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7656-8050-1 |oclc=920786632}}</ref> nobleman [[Stanisław August Poniatowski]] of Poland was an elected king, as was [[Frederick I of Denmark]]. [[Gauls|Gallic]] and [[Germanic peoples]] also had elective monarchies.


Six forms of elective monarchies exist today. The [[Pope]] of the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]] (who rules as [[Sovereign]] of the [[Vatican City|Vatican City State]]) is [[Papal conclave|elected]] for life by the [[College of Cardinals]]. In the [[Sovereign Military Order of Malta]], the [[List of grand masters of the Knights Hospitaller|Prince and Grand Master]] is elected for life tenure by the Council Complete of State from within its members. In [[Malaysia]], the federal king, called the [[Yang di-Pertuan Agong]] or Paramount Ruler, is elected for a five-year term from among and by the hereditary rulers (mostly [[sultan]]s) of nine of the federation's constitutive [[States and federal territories of Malaysia|states]], all on the [[Malay Peninsula|Malay peninsula]]. The [[United Arab Emirates]] also chooses its federal leaders from among emirs of the federated states. Furthermore, [[Andorra]] has a unique constitutional arrangement as one of its heads of state is the President of the [[France|French Republic]] in the form of a [[Co-Princes of Andorra|Co-Prince]]. This is the only instance in the world where the monarch of a state is elected by the citizens of a different country. In New Zealand, the Maori King, head of the Kingitanga Movement, is elected by a council of Maori elders at the funeral of their predecessor, which is also where their coronation takes place. All of the Heads of the Maori King Movement have been descendants of the first Maori King, Potatau Te Wherowhero, who was elected and became King in June 1858. The current monarch is Queen [[Nga wai hono i te po|Nga wai hono i te po]], who was elected and became Queen on 5 September 2024 after the death of her father, King [[Tūheitia|Tūheitia]], on 30 August 2024. As well as being Queen and head of the Kingitanga Movement, Queen Nga wai hono i te po is also ''ex officio'' the Paramount Chief of the Waikato-Tainui tribe.
The [[Pope]] of the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]] (who rules as [[Sovereign]] of the [[Vatican City|Vatican City State]]) is [[Papal conclave|elected]] for life by the [[College of Cardinals]].<ref>{{cite web | title=How is a New Pope Chosen? &#124; USCCB | url=https://www.usccb.org/offices/public-affairs/how-new-pope-chosen }}</ref> In the [[Sovereign Military Order of Malta]], the [[List of grand masters of the Knights Hospitaller|Prince and Grand Master]] is elected for life tenure by the Council Complete of State from within its members. In [[Malaysia]], the federal king, called the [[Yang di-Pertuan Agong]] or Paramount Ruler, is elected for a five-year term from among and by the hereditary rulers (mostly [[sultan]]s) of nine of the federation's constitutive [[States and federal territories of Malaysia|states]], all on the [[Malay Peninsula|Malay peninsula]].<ref>{{cite book | last1=Nohlen | first1=Dieter | last2=Grotz | first2=Florian | last3=Hartmann | first3=Christof | title=Elections in Asia and the Pacific : A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific | date=November 15, 2001 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-153042-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQ1REAAAQBAJ&dq=yang%20di%20pertuan%20agong%20election&pg=PA149 }}</ref> The [[United Arab Emirates]] also chooses its federal leaders from among emirs of the federated states. Furthermore, [[Andorra]] has a unique constitutional arrangement as one of its heads of state is the President of the [[France|French Republic]] in the form of a [[Co-Princes of Andorra|Co-Prince]].<ref>{{cite book | last1=Gendźwiłł | first1=Adam | last2=Kjaer | first2=Ulrik | last3=Steyvers | first3=Kristof | title=The Routledge Handbook of Local Elections and Voting in Europe | date=February 27, 2022 | publisher=Routledge | isbn=978-1-000-53122-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLdZEAAAQBAJ&dq=andorra+king+election&pg=PT240 }}</ref> In New Zealand, the Maori King, head of the Kingitanga Movement, is elected by a council of Maori elders at the funeral of their predecessor, which is also where their coronation takes place. All of the Heads of the Maori King Movement have been descendants of the first Maori King, Potatau Te Wherowhero, who was elected and became King in June 1858.


Appointment by the current monarch is another system, used in [[Jordan]]. It also was used in [[Russian Empire|Imperial Russia]]; however, it was soon changed to semi-Salic because the instability of the appointment system resulted in [[History of Russia (1721–1796)|an age of palace revolutions]]. In this system, the monarch chooses the successor, who is always his relative.
===Usurpation===
{{main|Usurper}}
 
Another way monarchs have historically gained royal power is by seizing it, either by force or other illegitimate measures. Historically usurpation has usually happened via a [[coup detat|coup]] or by fraudulently claiming be a descendant of a ruler that they may or may not be related to. According to [[Herodotus]], this was done by someone impersonating [[Smerdis]] in order to seize the throne of [[Cyrus the Great]] after his death.<ref>Herodotus, ''The Histories'' Book 3, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/3c*.html 61–79]</ref>


===Other ways of succession===
===Other ways of succession===
{{see also|Order of succession|Self-proclaimed monarchy|Legitimacy (political)}}
{{see also|Order of succession|Self-proclaimed monarchy|Legitimacy (political)}}
Other ways to succeed to a monarchy can be through claiming alternative votes (e.g. as in the case of the [[Western Schism]]), claims of a mandate to rule (e.g. a popular or [[Divine right of kings|divine mandate]]), [[military occupation]], a [[coup d'état]], a will of the previous monarch or treaties between factions inside and outside of a monarchy (e.g. as in the case of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]).


====By accession====
====By accession====
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This is especially employed to legitimize and settle disputed successions, changes in ways of succession, status of a monarch (e.g. as in the case of the [[Privilegium Maius|''privilegium maius'']] deed) or new monarchies altogether (e.g. as in the case of the [[Coronation of Napoleon|coronation of Napoleon I]]).
This is especially employed to legitimize and settle disputed successions, changes in ways of succession, status of a monarch (e.g. as in the case of the [[Privilegium Maius|''privilegium maius'']] deed) or new monarchies altogether (e.g. as in the case of the [[Coronation of Napoleon|coronation of Napoleon I]]).
====Dynasties====
Succession is often based on the expected continuation of a [[dynasty|dynastic period]] or association in a [[dynastic union]], which is sometimes [[War of succession|challenged]] by diverging [[Lineage (anthropology)|lineage]] and [[Legitimists (disambiguation)|legitimism]].


====Succession crisis====
====Succession crisis====
{{Further|Succession crisis}}
{{Main|Succession crisis}}
In cases of succession challenges, it can be instrumental for [[pretender]]s to secure or install [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]] through the above, for example proof of accession like insignia, through treaties or a claim of a divine mandate to rule (e.g. by [[Hong Xiuquan]] and his [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]]).
In cases of succession challenges, it can be instrumental for [[pretender]]s to secure or install [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]] through the above, for example proof of accession like insignia, through treaties or a claim of a divine mandate to rule (e.g. by [[Hong Xiuquan]] and his [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]]).


== Current monarchies ==
== Current monarchies ==
{{Main article|List of current monarchs of sovereign states}}
{{Main article|List of current monarchs of sovereign states}}
{{multiple issues|section=yes|
{{more citations needed|section|date=November 2018}}
{{original research|section|date=November 2018}}
}}
{| align=center
|[[File:World Monarchies.svg|thumb|750px|
{{legend|#AA0000|[[Absolute monarchy|Absolute monarchies]]}}
{{legend|#D45500|[[Constitutional monarchy|Semi-constitutional monarchies]]}}
{{legend|#285F27|[[Constitutional monarchy|Parliamentary monarchies]]}}
{{legend|#008000|[[Commonwealth realm]]s (parliamentary monarchies in [[personal union]])}}
{{legend|#FF00FF|[[List of monarchies#Subnational monarchies|Subnational monarchies]]}}]]
|}
{{clear}}
{{Basic Forms of government}}
{{Basic Forms of government}}
{{Systems of government}}
{{Systems of government}}


Currently, there are 43 nations and a population of roughly half a billion people in the world with a monarch as head of state. They fall roughly into the following categories:
Currently, there are several countries in the world with a monarch as head of state. They fall roughly into the following categories:


=== Commonwealth realms ===
=== Commonwealth realms ===
[[Charles III|King Charles III]] is, separately, monarch of fifteen [[Commonwealth realm]]s ([[Antigua and Barbuda]], the [[Australia|Commonwealth of Australia]], the [[The Bahamas|Commonwealth of the Bahamas]], [[Belize]], [[Canada]], [[Grenada]], [[Jamaica]], [[New Zealand]], the [[Papua New Guinea|Independent State of Papua New Guinea]], the [[Saint Kitts and Nevis|Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Tuvalu]] and the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]). They evolved out of the [[British Empire]] into fully independent states within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] that retain the King as head of state. All fifteen realms are constitutional monarchies and full democracies where the King has limited powers or a largely ceremonial role. The King is head of the [[Church of England]] (the established church of England), while the other 14 realms do not have a [[state religion]].
[[Charles III|King Charles III]] is, separately, monarch of fifteen [[Commonwealth realm]]s ([[Antigua and Barbuda]], the [[Australia|Commonwealth of Australia]], the [[The Bahamas|Commonwealth of the Bahamas]], [[Belize]], [[Canada]], [[Grenada]], [[Jamaica]], [[New Zealand]], the [[Papua New Guinea|Independent State of Papua New Guinea]], the [[Saint Kitts and Nevis|Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Tuvalu]] and the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]). They evolved out of the [[British Empire]] into fully independent states within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] that retain the King as head of state.<ref>{{cite web | title=Realms and Commonwealth | website=The Royal Family | url=https://www.royal.uk/clarencehouse/features/realms-and-commonwealth }}</ref>


=== Other European constitutional monarchies ===
=== Other European constitutional monarchies ===
The [[Andorra|Principality of Andorra]], the [[Belgium|Kingdom of Belgium]], the [[Danish Realm|Kingdom of Denmark]], the [[Luxembourg|Grand Duchy of Luxembourg]], the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], the [[Norway|Kingdom of Norway]], the [[Spain|Kingdom of Spain]], and the [[Sweden|Kingdom of Sweden]] are fully democratic states in which the monarch has a limited or largely ceremonial role. Some countries have established a Christian religion as the official church. This is the Lutheran form of [[Protestantism]] in Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, while Andorra is a [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] country. Spain, Belgium, and the Netherlands have no official state religion. Luxembourg, which is predominantly Roman Catholic, has five so-called ''officially recognized cults of national importance'' (Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Greek Orthodoxy, Judaism, and Islam), a status which gives those religions some privileges like the payment of a state salary to their priests.
The [[Andorra|Principality of Andorra]], the [[Belgium|Kingdom of Belgium]], the [[Danish Realm|Kingdom of Denmark]], the [[Luxembourg|Grand Duchy of Luxembourg]], the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], the [[Norway|Kingdom of Norway]], the [[Spain|Kingdom of Spain]], and the [[Sweden|Kingdom of Sweden]] are fully democratic states in which the monarch has a limited or largely ceremonial role.<ref name="FH">{{cite web | title=Andorra: Freedom in the World 2024 Country Report | url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/andorra/freedom-world/2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Belgium – EU country profile &#124; European Union | url=https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/eu-countries/belgium_en }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Denmark - Politics, Constitution, Monarchy &#124; Britannica | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Denmark/Political-process }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Spain &#124; History, Map, Flag, Population, Currency, Climate, & Facts &#124; Britannica | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain }}</ref>


Andorra is unique among all existing monarchies, as it is a [[diarchy]], with the co-princes being shared by the [[president of France]] and the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Urgell|bishop of Urgell]]. This situation, based on historical precedence, has created a peculiar situation among monarchies, as:
Andorra is unique among all existing monarchies, as it is a [[diarchy]], with the co-princes being shared by the [[president of France]] and the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Urgell|bishop of Urgell]].<ref name="FH"/>
* neither of the co-princes is of Andorran descent;
* one is elected by citizens of a foreign country (France), but not by Andorrans as they cannot vote in the French presidential elections; and
* the other, the bishop of Urgell, is appointed by a foreign head of state, the pope.


===European semi-constitutional monarchies===
===European semi-constitutional monarchies===
A [[Constitutional monarchy|semi-constitutional monarchy]] is a monarchy where the monarch rules according to a democratic constitution but still retains substantial powers. The [[Liechtenstein|Principality of Liechtenstein]] and the [[Monaco|Principality of Monaco]] are European semi-constitutional monarchies. For example, the [[2003 Liechtenstein constitutional referendum|2003 Constitution referendum]] gave the [[Monarchy of Liechtenstein|Prince of Liechtenstein]] the power to veto any law that the ''[[Landtag]]'' (parliament) proposes, while the Landtag can veto any law that the Prince tries to pass. The prince can appoint or dismiss any elective member or government employee. However, he is not an absolute monarch, as the people can call for a referendum to end the monarch's reign. When Hereditary Prince Alois threatened to veto a referendum to legalize abortion in 2011, it came as a surprise because the prince had not vetoed any law for over 30 years.{{NoteTag |In the end, this referendum failed to make it to a vote.}} The [[Monarchy of Monaco|prince of Monaco]] has simpler powers; he cannot appoint or dismiss any elective member or government employee to or from his or her post, but he can elect the [[Minister of State (Monaco)|minister of state]], [[Politics of Monaco|government council]] and judges. Both [[Albert II, Prince of Monaco]], and [[Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein]], are theoretically very powerful within their small states, but they have very limited power compared to the Islamic monarchs (see below). They also own huge tracts of land and are shareholders in many companies.
A [[Constitutional monarchy|semi-constitutional monarchy]] is a monarchy where the monarch rules according to a democratic constitution but still retains substantial powers. The [[Liechtenstein|Principality of Liechtenstein]] and the [[Monaco|Principality of Monaco]] are European semi-constitutional monarchies.<ref>Bertolini, E. (2024, December 23). Europe’s microstates: The medieval monarchies that survive in our midst. The Conversation.</ref> For example, the [[2003 Liechtenstein constitutional referendum|2003 Constitution referendum]] gave the [[Monarchy of Liechtenstein|Prince of Liechtenstein]] the power to veto any law that the ''[[Landtag]]'' (parliament) proposes, while the Landtag can veto any law that the Prince tries to pass.<ref>Bertolini, E. (2024, December 23). Europe’s microstates: The medieval monarchies that survive in our midst. The Conversation.</ref> The prince can appoint or dismiss any elective member or government employee. The [[Monarchy of Monaco|prince of Monaco]] has simpler powers; he cannot appoint or dismiss any elective member or government employee to or from his or her post, but he can elect the [[Minister of State (Monaco)|minister of state]], [[Politics of Monaco|government council]] and judges.<ref>Bertolini, E. (2024, December 23). Europe’s microstates: The medieval monarchies that survive in our midst. The Conversation.</ref>


===Monarchies in the Muslim world===
===Monarchies in the Muslim world===
The monarchies of the [[Bahrain|Kingdom of Bahrain]], the [[Brunei|Brunei Darussalam]], the [[Jordan|Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan]], the [[Kuwait|State of Kuwait]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Morocco|Kingdom of Morocco]], the [[Oman|Sultanate of Oman]], the [[Qatar|State of Qatar]], the [[Saudi Arabia|Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]] generally retain far more powers than their European or Commonwealth counterparts. Brunei Darussalam, Oman, and Saudi Arabia remain absolute monarchies; Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and United Arab Emirates are classified as mixed, meaning there are representative bodies of some kind, but the monarch retains most of his powers. Jordan, Malaysia, and Morocco are constitutional monarchies, but their monarchs still retain more substantial powers than European equivalents.
The monarchies of the [[Bahrain|Kingdom of Bahrain]], the [[Brunei|Brunei Darussalam]], the [[Jordan|Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan]], the [[Kuwait|State of Kuwait]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Morocco|Kingdom of Morocco]], the [[Oman|Sultanate of Oman]], the [[Qatar|State of Qatar]], the [[Saudi Arabia|Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]] generally retain far more powers than their European or Commonwealth counterparts.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Jung | first1=Dietrich | title=Muslim History and Social Theory: A Global Sociology of Modernity | date=March 24, 2017 | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-3-319-52608-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqR6DgAAQBAJ&dq=muslim%20monarchies&pg=PA40 }}</ref> Brunei, Oman, and Saudi Arabia are absolute monarchies;<ref>{{cite web | title=Not all monarchs have lost power. Here are a few countries where royals really rule | website=[[Los Angeles Times]] | date=May 4, 2019 | url=https://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-countries-where-monarchs-still-rule-20190503-story.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=A Visitor's Guide to Oman, the Middle East's Most Welcoming Absolute Monarchy | website=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]] | date=May 5, 2014 | url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/politics/2014/05/extremism-free-middle-east-oman }}</ref> Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and United Arab Emirates are classified as mixed, meaning there are representative bodies but the monarch retains most of his powers. Jordan, Malaysia, and Morocco are constitutional monarchies.


===East and Southeast Asian constitutional monarchies===
===East and Southeast Asian constitutional monarchies===
The [[Bhutan|Kingdom of Bhutan]], the [[Cambodia|Kingdom of Cambodia]], the [[Thailand|Kingdom of Thailand]], and [[Japan]] are constitutional monarchies where the monarch has a limited or merely ceremonial role. Bhutan made the change in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Xavier |first=Constantino |date=2020-07-08 |title=Bhutan's democratic transition and ties to India |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2020/07/08/bhutans-democratic-transition-and-ties-to-india/ |access-date=2022-04-16 |website=Brookings |language=en-US}}</ref> Cambodia had its own monarchy after independence from the [[French colonial empire]], but it was deposed after the [[Khmer Rouge]] came into power. The monarchy was subsequently restored in the peace agreement of 1993. Thailand transitioned into a constitutional monarchy over the course of the 20th century. Japan has had a monarchy, an [[Emperor of Japan|emperor]], according to legend, since Emperor Jimmu (reigned 660–585 BCE), making it the world's oldest existing monarchy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Emperor of Japan |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Emperor_of_Japan/ |access-date=2022-04-16 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref> After their defeat in the [[World War II|Second World War]], Japan was forced into limiting the power of the Emperor, giving almost all of it to the [[National Diet]].
The [[Bhutan|Kingdom of Bhutan]], the [[Cambodia|Kingdom of Cambodia]], the [[Thailand|Kingdom of Thailand]], and [[Japan]] are constitutional monarchies where the monarch has a limited or merely ceremonial role. Bhutan made the change in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Xavier |first=Constantino |date=2020-07-08 |title=Bhutan's democratic transition and ties to India |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2020/07/08/bhutans-democratic-transition-and-ties-to-india/ |access-date=2022-04-16 |website=Brookings |language=en-US}}</ref> Cambodia had its own monarchy after independence from the [[French colonial empire]], but it was deposed after the [[Khmer Rouge]] came into power. The monarchy was subsequently restored in the peace agreement of 1993. Thailand transitioned into a constitutional monarchy over the course of the 20th century. Japan has had a monarchy, an [[Emperor of Japan|emperor]], according to legend, since Emperor Jimmu (reigned 660–585 BCE), making it the world's oldest existing monarchy.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Cartwright |first1=Mark |title=Emperor of Japan |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Emperor_of_Japan/ |access-date=2022-04-16 |website=World History Encyclopedia |date=July 10, 2019 |language=en}}</ref> After their defeat in the [[World War II|Second World War]], Japan was forced into limiting the power of the Emperor, giving almost all of it to the [[National Diet]].


===Other monarchies===
===Other monarchies===
Four monarchies do not fit into any of the above groups by virtue of geography or class of monarchy: the [[Tonga|Kingdom of Tonga]] in [[Polynesia]]; the [[Eswatini|Kingdom of Eswatini]] and the [[Lesotho|Kingdom of Lesotho]] in Africa and the [[Vatican City|Vatican City State]] in Europe. Of these, Lesotho and Tonga are constitutional monarchies, while Eswatini and the Vatican City are absolute monarchies.
Eswatini is unique among these monarchies, often being considered a [[diarchy]]: the King, or [[Ngwenyama]], rules alongside his mother, the [[Ndlovukati]], as dual heads of state.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1999-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/arbp.1999.36.issue-1 |journal=Africa Research Bulletin: Political, Social and Cultural Series |volume=36 |issue=1 |doi=10.1111/arbp.1999.36.issue-1 |issn=0001-9844|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=BTI 2022 Eswatini Country Report |url=https://bti-project.org/en/reports/country-report?isocode=SWZ&cHash=146c71974628ab13a493684f16c20c20 |access-date=2023-11-12 |website=BTI 2022 |language=en}}</ref> This was originally intended to provide a check on political power. The Ngwenyama, however, is considered the administrative head of state, while the Ndlovukati is considered the spiritual and national head of state, a position which more or less has become symbolic in recent years.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Thom |first1=Liezl |title=Princess Sikhanyiso Dlamini of Eswatini is looking to the future while embracing her roots |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/princess-sikhanyiso-dlamini-eswatini-future-embracing-roots/story?id=77224505 |access-date=8 August 2021 |work=ABC News |date=28 April 2021}}</ref>
Eswatini is unique among these monarchies, often being considered a [[diarchy]]: the King, or [[Ngwenyama]], rules alongside his mother, the [[Ndlovukati]], as dual heads of state.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1999-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/arbp.1999.36.issue-1 |journal=Africa Research Bulletin: Political, Social and Cultural Series |volume=36 |issue=1 |doi=10.1111/arbp.1999.36.issue-1 |issn=0001-9844|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=BTI 2022 Eswatini Country Report |url=https://bti-project.org/en/reports/country-report?isocode=SWZ&cHash=146c71974628ab13a493684f16c20c20 |access-date=2023-11-12 |website=BTI 2022 |language=en}}</ref> This was originally intended to provide a check on political power. The Ngwenyama, however, is considered the administrative head of state, while the Ndlovukati is considered the spiritual and national head of state, a position which more or less has become symbolic in recent years.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Thom |first1=Liezl |title=Princess Sikhanyiso Dlamini of Eswatini is looking to the future while embracing her roots |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/princess-sikhanyiso-dlamini-eswatini-future-embracing-roots/story?id=77224505 |access-date=8 August 2021 |work=ABC News |date=28 April 2021}}</ref>


The [[Pope]] is the absolute monarch of the Vatican City State (a separate entity from the [[Holy See]]) by virtue of his position as head of the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]] and Bishop of Rome; he is an elected rather than a hereditary ruler, and does not have to be a citizen of the territory prior to his election by the cardinals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marans |first=Noam E. |date=2015-04-09 |title=The Pope Francis Effect and Catholic-Jewish Relations |journal=Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.6017/scjr.v10i1.8659 |issn=1930-3777|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Holy See (Vatican City) |date=2023-11-01 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/holy-see-vatican-city/#government |work=The World Factbook |access-date=2023-11-12 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en}}</ref>
The [[Pope]] is the absolute monarch of the Vatican City State (a separate entity from the [[Holy See]]) by virtue of his position as head of the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]] and Bishop of Rome; he is an elected rather than a hereditary ruler, and does not have to be a citizen of the territory prior to his election by the cardinals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marans |first=Noam E. |date=2015-04-09 |title=The Pope Francis Effect and Catholic-Jewish Relations |journal=Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.6017/scjr.v10i1.8659 |issn=1930-3777|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Holy See (Vatican City) |date=2023-11-01 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/holy-see-vatican-city/#government |work=The World Factbook |access-date=2023-11-12 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en}}</ref>
The [[Sovereign Military Order of Malta|Order of Malta]] describes itself as a "sovereign subject" based on its unique history and unusual present circumstances, but its exact status in international law is a subject of debate.


In [[Samoa]], the position of head of state is described in Part III of the 1960 [[Constitution of Samoa|Samoan constitution]]. At the time the constitution was adopted, it was anticipated that future heads of state would be chosen from among the four Tama a 'Aiga "royal" paramount chiefs. However, this is not required by the constitution, and, for this reason, Samoa can be considered a republic rather than a [[constitutional monarchy]]. However, each member of the [[Legislative Assembly of Samoa|Samoan parliament]], except for the two seats reserved for non-Samoans, must be a ''matai'', a member of the hereditary political system known as the [[Faʻamatai]].<ref name="usp">{{cite book
In [[Samoa]], the position of head of state is described in Part III of the 1960 [[Constitution of Samoa|Samoan constitution]]. At the time the constitution was adopted, it was anticipated that future heads of state would be chosen from among the four Tama a 'Aiga "royal" paramount chiefs. However, this is not required by the constitution, and, for this reason, Samoa can be considered a republic rather than a [[constitutional monarchy]]. However, each member of the [[Legislative Assembly of Samoa|Samoan parliament]], except for the two seats reserved for non-Samoans, must be a ''matai'', a member of the hereditary political system known as the [[Faʻamatai]].<ref name="usp">{{cite book
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}}</ref>
}}</ref>


The [[Kim family (North Korea)|ruling Kim family]] in [[North Korea]] ([[Kim Il Sung]], [[Kim Jong Il]] and [[Kim Jong Un]]) has been described as a ''de facto'' [[absolute monarchy]]<ref name=":0">Young W. Kihl, Hong Nack Kim. ''North Korea: The Politics of Regime Survival''. Armonk, New York, USA: M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 2006. Pp 56.</ref><ref name=":1">Robert A. Scalapino, Chong-Sik Lee. ''The Society''. University of California Press, 1972. Pp. 689.</ref><ref name=":2">Bong Youn Choy. A history of the Korean reunification movement: its issues and prospects. Research Committee on Korean Reunification, Institute of International Studies, Bradley University, 1984. Pp. 117.</ref> or a "hereditary dictatorship".<ref name="DPRKMonarch">{{Cite news |last=Sheridan |first=Michael |date=16 September 2007 |title=A tale of two dictatorships: The links between North Korea and Syria |work=[[The Times]] |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article2452356.ece |url-status=dead |access-date=9 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219000655/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article2452356.ece |archive-date=19 February 2008}}</ref> In 2013, Clause 2 of Article 10 of the new edited Ten Fundamental Principles of the [[Workers' Party of Korea|Korean Workers' Party]] states that the party and revolution must be carried "eternally" by the "[[Paektu Mountain|Baekdu]] (Kim's) bloodline".<ref name=":3">[http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2013/08/13/2013081301558.html The Twisted Logic of the N.Korean Regime], Chosun Ilbo, 2013-08-13, Accessed date: 2017-01-11</ref> This though does not mean it is a ''de jure'' absolute monarchy, as the country's official name is the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. The [[al-Assad family]], which ruled [[Syria]] from 1971 to 2024, was similarly categorised as such.<ref name="DPRKMonarch" />
The [[Kim family (North Korea)|ruling Kim family]] in [[North Korea]] ([[Kim Il Sung]], [[Kim Jong Il]] and [[Kim Jong Un]]) has been described as a ''de facto'' [[absolute monarchy]]<ref name=":0">Young W. Kihl, Hong Nack Kim. ''North Korea: The Politics of Regime Survival''. Armonk, New York, USA: M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 2006. Pp 56.</ref><ref name=":1">Robert A. Scalapino, Chong-Sik Lee. ''The Society''. University of California Press, 1972. Pp. 689.</ref><ref name=":2">Bong Youn Choy. A history of the Korean reunification movement: its issues and prospects. Research Committee on Korean Reunification, Institute of International Studies, Bradley University, 1984. Pp. 117.</ref> or a "hereditary dictatorship".<ref name="DPRKMonarch">{{Cite news |last=Sheridan |first=Michael |date=16 September 2007 |title=A tale of two dictatorships: The links between North Korea and Syria |work=[[The Times]] |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article2452356.ece |url-status=dead |access-date=9 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219000655/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article2452356.ece |archive-date=19 February 2008}}</ref> In 2013, Clause 2 of Article 10 of the new edited [[Ten Principles for the Establishment of a Monolithic Ideological System|Ten Fundamental Principles]] of the [[Workers' Party of Korea|Korean Workers' Party]] states that the party and revolution must be carried "eternally" by the "[[Paektu Mountain|Baekdu]] (Kim's) bloodline".<ref name=":3">[http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2013/08/13/2013081301558.html The Twisted Logic of the N.Korean Regime], Chosun Ilbo, 2013-08-13, Accessed date: 2017-01-11</ref> This though does not mean it is a ''de jure'' absolute monarchy, as the country's official name is the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. The [[al-Assad family]], which ruled [[Syria]] from 1971 to 2024, was similarly categorised as such.<ref name="DPRKMonarch" />
 
=== Long form titles for the country ===
 
* Kingdom: {{flag|Bahrain}}, {{flag|Belgium}}, {{flag|Bhutan}}, {{flag|Cambodia}}, {{flag|Kingdom of Denmark}}, {{flag|Eswatini}}, {{flag|Jordan}}, {{flag|Lesotho}}, {{flag|Morocco}}, {{flag|Kingdom of the Netherlands}}, {{flag|Norway}}, {{flag|Saudi Arabia}}, {{flag|Spain}}, {{flag|Sweden}}, {{flag|Thailand}}, {{flag|Tonga}}, {{flag|United Kingdom}}
* State: {{flag|Kuwait}}, {{flag|Qatar}}, ''{{flag|Japan}} (de facto)'', {{flag|Vatican City}}
* Principality: {{flag|Andorra}}, {{flag|Liechtenstein}}, {{flag|Monaco}}
* Federation: {{flag|Saint Kitts and Nevis}}, ''{{flag|Malaysia}} (de facto)''
* Commonwealth: {{flag|Australia}}, {{flag|Bahamas}}
* Sultanate: {{flag|Oman}}
* Nation: {{flag|Brunei Darussalam}}
* Grand Duchy: {{flag|Luxembourg}}
* Independent State: {{flag|Papua New Guinea}}
* Emirate: {{flag|United Arab Emirates}},
* None: {{flag|Antigua and Barbuda}}, {{flag|Belize}}, {{flag|Canada}}, {{flag|Grenada}}, {{flag|Jamaica}}, {{flag|Japan}}, {{flag|Malaysia}}, {{flag|New Zealand}}, {{flag|Saint Lucia}}, {{flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}, {{flag|Solomon Islands}}, {{flag|Tuvalu}}


== See also ==
== See also ==
Line 255: Line 144:
* [[Abolition of monarchy]]
* [[Abolition of monarchy]]
* [[Autocracy]]
* [[Autocracy]]
* [[Cloistered rule]]
* [[Criticism of monarchy]]
* [[Criticism of monarchy]]
* [[Diarchy]]
* [[Diarchy]]
Line 268: Line 156:
* [[List of monarchies]]
* [[List of monarchies]]
* [[List of monarchs by nickname]]
* [[List of monarchs by nickname]]
* [[List of royalty by net worth]]
* [[List of usurpers]]
* [[List of usurpers]]
* [[Monarchism]]
* [[Monarchism]]
* [[Order of succession]]
* [[Order of succession]]
* [[President for life]]
* [[Pretender]]
* [[Pretender]]
* [[Personal union]]
* [[Royal family]]
* [[Royal Family]]
* [[Royal and noble ranks]]
* [[Royal and noble ranks]]
* [[Universal monarchy]]
* [[Universal monarchy]]
{{div col end}}
{{div col end}}


== Notes and references ==
== References ==
 
=== Notes ===
{{NoteFoot}}
 
=== References ===
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Reflist|30em}}


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[[Category:Constitutional state types]]
[[Category:Constitutional state types]]
[[Category:Political systems]]
[[Category:Political systems]]
[[Category:Political terminology]]

Latest revision as of 07:14, 19 November 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "other uses". Template:Use mdy dates Template:CS1 config Template:Monarchism

A monarchy is a hereditary form of government in which political power is legally passed on to the family members of the monarch, a head of state who rules for life.[1][2] While monarchs gain their power depending on specific succession laws, they can also gain their authority via election.[3]

Monarchies were the most common form of government until the 20th century, when republics replaced many monarchies, notably at the end of World War I.[4][5] Template:As of, forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a monarch, including fifteen Commonwealth realms that share King Charles III as their head of state. Other than that, there is a range of sub-national monarchical entities. Most of the modern monarchies are constitutional monarchies, retaining under a constitution unique legal and ceremonial roles for monarchs exercising limited or no political power, similar to heads of state in a parliamentary republic.[5]

Etymology

Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote". The word monarch first appeared in the mid-15th century as monark, meaning “a supreme governor for life, a sole or autocratic ruler of a state.” It comes from the Old French monarche (14th century, Modern French monarque) and directly from the Late Latin monarcha, which in turn derives from the Greek monarkhēs, meaning “one who rules alone” (see monarchy).[6] The term monarchy dates back to the mid-14th century, when it referred to a kingdom or territory ruled by a monarch, and by the late 14th century it also meant rule by a single person with supreme power. It comes from Old French monarchie (13th century), meaning “sovereignty” or “absolute power,” which was borrowed from Late Latin monarchia and ultimately from Greek monarkhia, “absolute rule,” literally “ruling of one,” from monos (“alone”) and arkhein (“to rule”).[7]

History

File:Sumerian King List, 1800 BC, Larsa, Iraq.jpg
The Weld-Blundell Prism, inscribed with the Sumerian King List

The similar form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric. Chiefdoms provided the concept of state formation, which started with civilizations such as Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley civilization.[8] In some parts of the world, chiefdoms became monarchies.[9] Some of the oldest recorded and evidenced monarchies were Narmer, Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt Template:Circa, and Enmebaragesi, a Sumerian King of Kish Template:Circa.

From earliest records, monarchs could be directly hereditary, while others were elected from among eligible members. With the Egyptian, Chinese, Indian,[10] Mesopotamian, Sudanic,[11] reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion, and others, the monarch held sacral functions directly connected to sacrifice and was sometimes identified with having divine ancestry, possibly establishing a notion of the divine right of kings.

Polybius identified monarchy as one of three "benign" basic forms of government (monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy), opposed to the three "malignant" basic forms of government (tyranny, oligarchy, and ochlocracy). The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as "king" or "ruler" (translating archon, basileus, rex, tyrannos, etc.) or as "queen" (basilinna, basilissa, basileia or basilis;[12] regina). Polybius originally understood monarchy as a component of republics, but since antiquity monarchy has contrasted with forms of republic, where executive power is wielded by free citizens and their assemblies.[13] The 4th-century BCE Hindu text Arthasastra laid out the ethics of monarchism.[14] In antiquity, some monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome (Roman Republic, 509 BCE), and Athens (Athenian democracy, 500 BCE).

File:Europe map 1648.PNG
Map of monarchies and republics in Europe, 1648

By the 17th century, monarchy was challenged by evolving parliamentarism e.g. through regional assemblies (such as the Icelandic Commonwealth, the Swiss Landsgemeinde and later Tagsatzung, and the High Medieval communal movement linked to the rise of medieval town privileges) and by modern anti-monarchism e.g. of the temporary overthrow of the English monarchy by the Parliament of England in 1649, the American Revolution of 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789. One of many opponents of that trend was Elizabeth Dawbarn, whose anonymous Dialogue between Clara Neville and Louisa Mills, on Loyalty (1794) features "silly Louisa, who admires liberty, Tom Paine and the US, [who is] lectured by Clara on God's approval of monarchy" and on the influence women can exert on men.[15]

Since then advocacy of the abolition of a monarchy or respectively of republics has been called republicanism, while the advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. As such republics have become the opposing and alternative form of government to monarchy,[16][17][18] despite some having seen infringements through lifelong or even hereditary heads of state, such as in North Korea.[19]

With the rise of republicanism, a diverse division between republicanism developed in the 19th-century politics (such as anti-monarchist radicalism) and conservative or even reactionary monarchism. In the following 20th century many countries abolished the monarchy and became republics, especially in the wake of World War I and World War II.

Today forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a monarch, including fifteen Commonwealth realms that have Charles III as the head of state. Most modern monarchs are constitutional monarchs, who retain a unique legal and ceremonial role but exercise limited or no political power under a constitution. Many are so-called crowned republics, surviving particularly in small states.[20]

In some nations, however, such as Morocco, Qatar, Liechtenstein, and Thailand, the hereditary monarch has more political influence than any other single source of authority in the state.[21][22][23][24]

According to a 2020 study, monarchy arose as a system of governance because of an efficiency in governing large populations and expansive territories during periods when coordinating such populations was difficult. The authors argue that monarchy declined as an efficient regime type with innovations in communications and transportation technology, as the efficiency of monarchy relative to other regime types declined.[25]

According to a 2023 study, monarchy has persisted as a regime type because it can accommodate demands for democratization better than other forms of autocratic rule: "Monarchies can democratize without destabilizing the leadership through transitioning to a democratic constitutional monarchy. The prospect of retaining the ruler appeals to opposition groups who value both democracy and stability, but it also has implications for their ability to organize and sustain mass protest."[26]

Characteristics and role

File:Allan Ramsay - King George III in coronation robes - Google Art Project.jpg
King George III of the United Kingdom, coronation portrait by Allan Ramsay, 1762

Monarchies are associated with hereditary reign, in which monarchs reign for life and the responsibilities and power of the position pass to their child or another member of their family when they die. Most monarchs, both historically and in the modern-day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, the centre of the royal household and court. Growing up in a royal family (called a dynasty when it continues for several generations), future monarchs are often trained for their expected future responsibilities as monarch.[27]

Different systems of hereditary succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority (Salic law). While most monarchs in history have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned.[28] The term "queen regnant" refers to a ruling monarch, while "queen consort" refers to the wife of a reigning king. Rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy: there have been some family dictatorships (and also political families) in many democracies.

Some monarchies are not hereditary. In an elective monarchy, monarchs are elected or appointed by some body (an electoral college) for life or a defined period. Four elective monarchies exist today: Cambodia, Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates are 20th-century creations, while one (the papacy) is ancient.[29]

A self-proclaimed monarchy is established when a person claims the monarchy without any historical ties to a previous dynasty. There are examples of republican leaders who have proclaimed themselves monarchs: Napoleon I of France declared himself Emperor of the French and ruled the First French Empire after having held the title of First Consul of the French Republic for five years from his seizing power in the coup of 18 Brumaire. President Jean-Bédel Bokassa of the Central African Republic declared himself Emperor of the Central African Empire in 1976.[30] Yuan Shikai, the first formal President of the Republic of China, crowned himself Emperor of the short-lived "Empire of China" a few years after the Republic of China was founded.[31]

Powers of the monarch

File:Salman of Saudi Arabia - 2020 (49563590728) (cropped).jpg
King Salman of Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarch.
  • In an absolute monarchy, the monarch rules with absolute power over the state and government.
  • In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch's power is subject to a constitution. In most current constitutional monarchies, the monarch is mainly a ceremonial figurehead symbol of national unity and state continuity.
    • Semi-constitutional monarchies exhibit fewer parliamentary powers or simply monarchs with more authority.[32] The term "parliamentary monarchy" may be used to differentiate from semi-constitutional monarchies.

Succession

Hereditary monarchies

Political Map of Europe with Monarchical states colour-coded
Current European monarchies by succession method: <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Absolute primogeniture
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  Male-preference cognatic primogeniture, to be changed to absolute primogeniture
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  Male-preference cognatic primogeniture
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  Agnatic primogeniture
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  Elective

In a hereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary order of succession, usually within one royal family tracing its origin through a historical dynasty or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession.[33][34]

Primogeniture, in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically "agnatic primogeniture" or "patrilineal primogeniture" was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or head of family, with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their male issue, to the total exclusion of females and descendants through females from succession.[35] This complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the Salic law. Another variation on agnatic primogeniture was the so-called semi-Salic law, or "agnatic-cognatic primogeniture", which allowed women to succeed only at the extinction of all the male descendants in the male line of the particular legislator.[35][36]

Before primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for a time there would be two kings in coregency—a senior king and a junior king. Examples were Henry the Young King of England and the early Direct Capetians in France. Sometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line.

File:NICAISE Leopold ANV.jpg
King Leopold I, an elected founder of the hereditary monarchy of Belgium

In 1980, Sweden became the first monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne.[37] Other kingdoms (such as the Netherlands in 1983, Norway in 1990, Belgium in 1991, Denmark in 2009, and Luxembourg[38] in 2011) have since followed suit. The United Kingdom adopted absolute (equal) primogeniture (subject to the claims of existing heirs) on April 25, 2013, following agreement by the prime ministers of the sixteen Commonwealth Realms at the 22nd Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.[39]

Other hereditary systems of succession included tanistry, which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and Agnatic seniority. In some monarchies, such as Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority). On June 21, 2017, King Salman of Saudi Arabi revolted against this style of monarchy and elected his son to inherit the throne.[40][41]

Elective monarchies

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File:Pope Francis Korea Haemi Castle 19.jpg
Pope Francis, Sovereign of the Vatican City State from 2013 to 2025

In an elective monarchy, monarchs are elected or appointed by somebody (an electoral college) for life or a defined period, but then reign like any other monarch. There is no popular vote involved in elective monarchies, as the elective body usually consists of a small number of eligible people. Historical examples of elective monarchy are the Holy Roman Emperors (chosen by prince-electors but often coming from the same dynasty) and the free election of kings of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. For example, Pepin the Short (father of Charlemagne) was elected King of the Franks by an assembly of Frankish leading men;[42] nobleman Stanisław August Poniatowski of Poland was an elected king, as was Frederick I of Denmark. Gallic and Germanic peoples also had elective monarchies.

The Pope of the Roman Catholic Church (who rules as Sovereign of the Vatican City State) is elected for life by the College of Cardinals.[43] In the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, the Prince and Grand Master is elected for life tenure by the Council Complete of State from within its members. In Malaysia, the federal king, called the Yang di-Pertuan Agong or Paramount Ruler, is elected for a five-year term from among and by the hereditary rulers (mostly sultans) of nine of the federation's constitutive states, all on the Malay peninsula.[44] The United Arab Emirates also chooses its federal leaders from among emirs of the federated states. Furthermore, Andorra has a unique constitutional arrangement as one of its heads of state is the President of the French Republic in the form of a Co-Prince.[45] In New Zealand, the Maori King, head of the Kingitanga Movement, is elected by a council of Maori elders at the funeral of their predecessor, which is also where their coronation takes place. All of the Heads of the Maori King Movement have been descendants of the first Maori King, Potatau Te Wherowhero, who was elected and became King in June 1858.

Usurpation

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Another way monarchs have historically gained royal power is by seizing it, either by force or other illegitimate measures. Historically usurpation has usually happened via a coup or by fraudulently claiming be a descendant of a ruler that they may or may not be related to. According to Herodotus, this was done by someone impersonating Smerdis in order to seize the throne of Cyrus the Great after his death.[46]

Other ways of succession

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By accession

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This is especially employed to legitimize and settle disputed successions, changes in ways of succession, status of a monarch (e.g. as in the case of the privilegium maius deed) or new monarchies altogether (e.g. as in the case of the coronation of Napoleon I).

Succession crisis

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". In cases of succession challenges, it can be instrumental for pretenders to secure or install legitimacy through the above, for example proof of accession like insignia, through treaties or a claim of a divine mandate to rule (e.g. by Hong Xiuquan and his Taiping Heavenly Kingdom).

Current monarchies

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Currently, there are several countries in the world with a monarch as head of state. They fall roughly into the following categories:

Commonwealth realms

King Charles III is, separately, monarch of fifteen Commonwealth realms (Antigua and Barbuda, the Commonwealth of Australia, the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, Belize, Canada, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, the Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland). They evolved out of the British Empire into fully independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations that retain the King as head of state.[47]

Other European constitutional monarchies

The Principality of Andorra, the Kingdom of Belgium, the Kingdom of Denmark, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Norway, the Kingdom of Spain, and the Kingdom of Sweden are fully democratic states in which the monarch has a limited or largely ceremonial role.[48][49][50][51]

Andorra is unique among all existing monarchies, as it is a diarchy, with the co-princes being shared by the president of France and the bishop of Urgell.[48]

European semi-constitutional monarchies

A semi-constitutional monarchy is a monarchy where the monarch rules according to a democratic constitution but still retains substantial powers. The Principality of Liechtenstein and the Principality of Monaco are European semi-constitutional monarchies.[52] For example, the 2003 Constitution referendum gave the Prince of Liechtenstein the power to veto any law that the Landtag (parliament) proposes, while the Landtag can veto any law that the Prince tries to pass.[53] The prince can appoint or dismiss any elective member or government employee. The prince of Monaco has simpler powers; he cannot appoint or dismiss any elective member or government employee to or from his or her post, but he can elect the minister of state, government council and judges.[54]

Monarchies in the Muslim world

The monarchies of the Kingdom of Bahrain, the Brunei Darussalam, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the State of Kuwait, Malaysia, the Kingdom of Morocco, the Sultanate of Oman, the State of Qatar, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates generally retain far more powers than their European or Commonwealth counterparts.[55] Brunei, Oman, and Saudi Arabia are absolute monarchies;[56][57] Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and United Arab Emirates are classified as mixed, meaning there are representative bodies but the monarch retains most of his powers. Jordan, Malaysia, and Morocco are constitutional monarchies.

East and Southeast Asian constitutional monarchies

The Kingdom of Bhutan, the Kingdom of Cambodia, the Kingdom of Thailand, and Japan are constitutional monarchies where the monarch has a limited or merely ceremonial role. Bhutan made the change in 2008.[58] Cambodia had its own monarchy after independence from the French colonial empire, but it was deposed after the Khmer Rouge came into power. The monarchy was subsequently restored in the peace agreement of 1993. Thailand transitioned into a constitutional monarchy over the course of the 20th century. Japan has had a monarchy, an emperor, according to legend, since Emperor Jimmu (reigned 660–585 BCE), making it the world's oldest existing monarchy.[59] After their defeat in the Second World War, Japan was forced into limiting the power of the Emperor, giving almost all of it to the National Diet.

Other monarchies

Eswatini is unique among these monarchies, often being considered a diarchy: the King, or Ngwenyama, rules alongside his mother, the Ndlovukati, as dual heads of state.[60][61] This was originally intended to provide a check on political power. The Ngwenyama, however, is considered the administrative head of state, while the Ndlovukati is considered the spiritual and national head of state, a position which more or less has become symbolic in recent years.[62]

The Pope is the absolute monarch of the Vatican City State (a separate entity from the Holy See) by virtue of his position as head of the Roman Catholic Church and Bishop of Rome; he is an elected rather than a hereditary ruler, and does not have to be a citizen of the territory prior to his election by the cardinals.[63][64]

In Samoa, the position of head of state is described in Part III of the 1960 Samoan constitution. At the time the constitution was adopted, it was anticipated that future heads of state would be chosen from among the four Tama a 'Aiga "royal" paramount chiefs. However, this is not required by the constitution, and, for this reason, Samoa can be considered a republic rather than a constitutional monarchy. However, each member of the Samoan parliament, except for the two seats reserved for non-Samoans, must be a matai, a member of the hereditary political system known as the Faʻamatai.[65]

The ruling Kim family in North Korea (Kim Il Sung, Kim Jong Il and Kim Jong Un) has been described as a de facto absolute monarchy[66][67][68] or a "hereditary dictatorship".[69] In 2013, Clause 2 of Article 10 of the new edited Ten Fundamental Principles of the Korean Workers' Party states that the party and revolution must be carried "eternally" by the "Baekdu (Kim's) bloodline".[70] This though does not mean it is a de jure absolute monarchy, as the country's official name is the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. The al-Assad family, which ruled Syria from 1971 to 2024, was similarly categorised as such.[69]

See also

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References

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External links

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