Essenes: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 19:34, 3 November 2025

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The Essenes (Template:IPAc-en; Hebrew: <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />אִסִּיִים‎, Script error: No such module "Lang".; Greek: Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang"., or Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang".) or Essenians were a mystic Jewish community during the Second Temple period that flourished from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE.^[1]

The Essene movement likely originated as a distinct group among Jews during Jonathan Apphus's time, driven by disputes over Jewish law and the belief that Jonathan's high priesthood was illegitimate.^[2] Most scholars think the Essenes seceded from the Zadokite priests.^[3] They attributed their interpretation of the Torah to their early leader, the Teacher of Righteousness, possibly a legitimate high priest. Embracing a conservative approach to Jewish law, they observed a strict hierarchy favoring priests (the Sons of Zadok) over laypeople, emphasized ritual purity, and held a dualistic worldview.^[2]

According to Jewish writers Josephus and Philo, the Essenes numbered around four thousand, and resided in various settlements throughout Judaea. Conversely, Roman writer Pliny the Elder positioned them somewhere above Ein Gedi, on the west side of the Dead Sea.^[4]^[5] Pliny relates in a few lines that the Essenes possess no money, had existed for thousands of generations, and that their priestly class ("contemplatives") did not marry. Josephus gave a detailed account of the Essenes in The Jewish War (Template:C.), with a shorter description in Antiquities of the Jews (Template:C.) and The Life of Flavius Josephus (Template:C.). Claiming firsthand knowledge, he lists the Essenoi as one of the three sects of Jewish philosophy^[6] alongside the Pharisees and Sadducees. He relates the same information concerning piety, celibacy; the absence of personal property and of money; the belief in communality; and commitment to a strict observance of Sabbath. He further adds that the Essenes ritually immersed in water every morning (a practice similar to the use of the mikveh for daily immersion found among some contemporary Hasidim), ate together after prayer, devoted themselves to charity and benevolence, forbade the expression of anger, studied the books of the elders, preserved secrets, and were very mindful of the names of the angels kept in their sacred writings.

The Essenes have gained fame in modern times as a result of the discovery of an extensive group of religious documents known as the Dead Sea Scrolls, which are commonly believed to be the Essenes' library. The scrolls were found at Qumran, an archaeological site situated along the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, believed to have been the dwelling place of an Essene community. These documents preserve multiple copies of parts of the Hebrew Bible along with deuterocanonical and sectarian manuscripts, including writings such as the Community Rule, the Damascus Document, and the War Scroll.

According to the conventional view, the Essenes disappeared after the First Jewish–Roman War, which also witnessed the destruction of the settlement at Qumran.^[2] Scholars have noted the absence of direct sources supporting this claim, raising the possibility of their endurance or the survival of related groups in the following centuries.^[7] Some researchers suggest that Essene teachings could have influenced other religious traditions, such as Mandaeism and Christianity.^[8]^[9]

Etymology

Josephus uses the name Essenes in his two main accounts, The Jewish War 2.119, 158, 160 and Antiquities of the Jews, 13.171–2, but some manuscripts read here Essaion ("holding the Essenes in honour";^[10] "a certain Essene named Manaemus";^[11] "to hold all Essenes in honor";^[12] "the Essenes").^[13]^[14]^[15]

In several places, however, Josephus has Essaios, which is usually assumed to mean Essene ("Judas of the Essaios race";^[16] "Simon of the Essaios race";^[17] "John the Essaios";^[18] "those who are called by us Essaioi";^[19] "Simon a man of the Essaios race").^[20] Josephus identified the Essenes as one of the three major Jewish sects of that period.^[21]

Philo's usage is Essaioi, although he admits this Greek form of the original name, that according to his etymology signifies "holiness", to be inexact.^[22] Pliny's Latin text has Esseni.^[4]^[23]

Gabriele Boccaccini implies that a convincing etymology for the name Essene has not been found, but that the term applies to a larger group within Judea that also included the Qumran community.^[24]

It was proposed before the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered that the name came into several Greek spellings from a Hebrew self-designation later found in some Dead Sea Scrolls, ʻosey haTorah, "'doers' or 'makers' of Torah".^[25] Although dozens of etymology suggestions have been published, this is the only etymology published before 1947 that was confirmed by Qumran text self-designation references, and it is gaining acceptance among scholars.^[26] It is recognized as the etymology of the form Ossaioi (and note that Philo also offered an O spelling) and Essaioi and Esseni spelling variations have been discussed by VanderKam, Goranson, and others. In medieval Hebrew (e.g., Sefer Yosippon) Hassidim "the Pious" replaces "Essenes". While this Hebrew name is not the etymology of Essaioi/Esseni, the Aramaic equivalent Hesi'im known from Eastern Aramaic texts has been suggested.^[27] Others suggest that Essene is a transliteration of the Hebrew word ḥiṣonim (ḥiṣon "outside"), which the Mishnah (e.g., Megillah 4:8^[28]) uses to describe various sectarian groups. Another theory is that the name was borrowed from a cult of devotees to Artemis in Anatolia, whose demeanor and dress somewhat resembled those of the group in Judea.^[29]

Flavius Josephus in Chapter 8 of "The Jewish War" states:

2.(119)For there are three philosophical sects among the Jews. The followers of the first of which are the Pharisees; of the second, the Sadducees; and the third sect, which pretends to a severer discipline, are called Essenes. These last are Jews by birth, and seem to have a greater affection for each other than other sects have.^[30]

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Location

File:QumranLivingQuarters.jpg

Remains of part of the main building at Qumran

According to Josephus, the Essenes had settled "not in one city" but "in large numbers in every town".^[31] Philo speaks of "more than four thousand" Essaioi living in "Palestine and Syria",^[32] more precisely, "in many cities of Judaea and in many villages and grouped in great societies of many members".^[33]

Pliny locates them "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast ... [above] the town of Engeda".^[23]

Some modern scholars and archeologists have argued that Essenes inhabited the settlement at Qumran, a plateau in the Judean Desert along the Dead Sea, citing Pliny the Elder in support and giving credence that the Dead Sea Scrolls are the product of the Essenes.^[34] This theory, though not yet conclusively proven, has come to dominate the scholarly discussion and public perception of the Essenes.^[35]

In the same area along the Dead Sea shore there are also the sites of Ein Feshkha and Ain el-Ghuweir that have been linked with the Qumran settlement. In particular, the cemetery at Ain el-Ghuweir is somewhat similar, although it also includes the burials of women and children.^[36]

Individual burials found at the Qumran cemeteries are different from the practice found elsewhere in Israel.

"The old Jewish tradition of burying the dead with their ancestors was not followed by the Qumran community, where individual burial was stressed."

This seems to testify "that the residents of Qumran were not families and that it was a community cemetery."^[37]

Rules, customs, theology, and beliefs

The accounts by Josephus and Philo show that the Essenes led a strictly communal life—often compared to later Christian monasticism.^[38] Many of the Essene groups appear to have been celibate, but Josephus speaks also of another "order of Essenes" that observed the practice of being engaged for three years and then becoming married.^[39] According to Josephus, they had customs and observances such as collective ownership,^[40]^[41] electing a leader to attend to the interests of the group, and obedience to the orders from their leader.^[42] Also, they were forbidden from swearing oaths^[43] and from sacrificing animals.^[44] They controlled their tempers and served as channels of peace,^[43] carrying weapons only for protection against robbers.^[45] The Essenes chose not to possess slaves but served each other^[46] and, as a result of communal ownership, did not engage in trading.^[47] Josephus and Philo provide lengthy accounts of their communal meetings, meals, and religious celebrations. This communal living has led some scholars to view the Essenes as a group practicing social and material egalitarianism.^[48]^[49]^[50]

Despite their prohibition on swearing oaths, after a three-year probationary period,^[51] new members would take an oath that included a commitment to practice piety to God and righteousness toward humanity; maintain a pure lifestyle; abstain from criminal and immoral activities; transmit their rules uncorrupted; and preserve the books of the Essenes and the names of the angels.^[52] Their theology included belief in the immortality of the soul and that they would receive their souls back after death.^[14]^[53] Part of their activities included purification by water rituals which was supported by rainwater catchment and storage. According to the Community Rule, repentance was a prerequisite to water purification.^[54]

Ritual purification was a common practice among the peoples of Judea during this period and was thus not specific to the Essenes. A ritual bath or mikveh was found near many synagogues of the period continuing into modern times.^[55] Purity and cleanliness was considered so important to the Essenes that they would refrain from defecation on the Sabbath.^[56]

According to Joseph Lightfoot, the Church Father Epiphanius (writing in the 4th century CE) seems to make a distinction between two main groups within the Essenes:^[27] "Of those that came before his [Elxai, an Ossaean prophet] time and during it, the Ossaeans and the Nasaraeans." Template:Usurped^[57] Epiphanius describes each group as following:

The Nasaraean—they were Jews by nationality—originally from Gileaditis, Bashanitis and the Transjordan ... They acknowledged Moses and believed that he had received laws—not this law, however, but some other. And so, they were Jews who kept all the Jewish observances, but they would not offer sacrifice or eat meat. They considered it unlawful to eat meat or make sacrifices with it. They claim that these Books are fictions, and that none of these customs were instituted by the fathers. This was the difference between the Nasaraean and the others ...^[58]

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After this Nasaraean sect in turn comes another closely connected with them, called the Ossaeans. These are Jews like the former ... originally came from Nabataea, Ituraea, Moabitis, and Arielis, the lands beyond the basin of what sacred scripture called the Salt Sea ... Though it is different from the other six of these seven sects, it causes schism only by forbidding the books of Moses like the Nasaraean.^[57]

Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".We do not know much about the canon of the Essenes, and what their attitude was towards the apocryphal writings. However, the Essenes perhaps did not esteem the book of Esther highly as manuscripts of Esther are completely absent in Qumran, likely because of their opposition to mixed marriages and the use of different calendars.^[59]^[60]

The Essenes were unique for their time for being against the practice of slave-ownership, which they regarded as unjust and ungodly, believing that all men are born equal.^[61]^[62]

Involvement in the First Jewish–Roman War

At the outset of the First Jewish–Roman War in 66 CE, as Roman advances were anticipated, command over parts of western Judea was assigned to John the Essene (or Essaean), who was placed in charge of the toparchy of Thamna. This region encompassed Lydda, Joppa, and Emmaus.^[63]

Scholarly discussion

Josephus and Philo discuss the Essenes in detail. Most scholarsScript error: No such module "Unsubst". believe that the community at Qumran that most likely produced the Dead Sea Scrolls was an offshoot of the Essenes. However, this theory has been disputed by some; for example, Norman Golb argues that the primary research on the Qumran documents and ruins (by Father Roland de Vaux, from the École Biblique et Archéologique de Jérusalem) lacked scientific method, and drew wrong conclusions that comfortably entered the academic canon. For Golb, the number of documents is too extensive and includes many different writing styles and calligraphies; the ruins seem to have been a fortress, used as a military base for a very long period of time—including the 1st century—so they therefore could not have been inhabited by the Essenes; and the large graveyard excavated in 1870, just Template:Convert east of the Qumran ruins, was made of over 1200 tombs that included many women and children; Pliny clearly wrote that the Essenes who lived near the Dead Sea "had not one woman, had renounced all pleasure... and no one was born in their race". Golb's book presents observations about de Vaux's premature conclusions and their uncontroverted acceptance by the general academic community. He states that the documents probably stemmed from various libraries in Jerusalem, kept safe in the desert from the Roman invasions.^[64] Other scholars refute these arguments—particularly since Josephus describes some Essenes as allowing marriage.^[65]

Another issue is the relationship between the Essaioi and Philo's Therapeutae and Therapeutrides. He regarded the Therapeutae as a contemplative branch of the Essaioi who, he said, pursued an active life.^[66]

One theory on the formation of the Essenes suggests that the movement was founded by a Jewish high priest, dubbed by the Essenes the Teacher of Righteousness, whose office had been usurped by Jonathan (of priestly but not of Zadokite lineage), labeled the "man of lies" or "false priest".^[67]^[68]Script error: No such module "Unsubst". Others follow this line and a few argue that the Teacher of Righteousness was not only the leader of the Essenes at Qumran, but was also identical to the original Messianic figure about 150 years before the time of the Gospels.^[35] Fred Gladstone Bratton notes that

The Teacher of Righteousness of the Scrolls would seem to be a prototype of Jesus, for both spoke of the New Covenant; they preached a similar gospel; each was regarded as a Savior or Redeemer; and each was condemned and put to death by reactionary factions... We do not know whether Jesus was an Essene, but some scholars feel that he was at least influenced by them.^[69]

Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Lawrence Schiffman has argued that the Qumran community may be called Sadducean, and not Essene, since their legal positions retain a link with Sadducean tradition.^[70]

Connection to other religious traditions

Mandaeism

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File:Genesis apocryphon.jpg

The Genesis Apocryphon, part of the Dead Sea Scrolls

The Haran Gawaita uses the name Nasoraeans for the Mandaeans who fled from Jerusalem, meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.^[71] Scholars such as Kurt Rudolph, Rudolf Macúch, Mark Lidzbarski and Ethel S. Drower connect the Mandaeans with the Nasaraeans described by Epiphanius, a group within the Essenes according to Joseph Lightfoot.^[72]^[73]Template:Rp Template:Sfn^[74]^[75]^[76]^[27] Epiphanius (29:6) says that they existed before Jesus. That is questioned by some, but others accept the pre-Christian origin of the Nasaraeans.^[73]Template:Rp^[77]

Early religious concepts and terminologies recur in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and Yardena (Jordan) has been the name of every baptismal water in Mandaeism.^[78]Template:Rp Mara ḏ-Rabuta (Mandaic for 'Lord of Greatness', which is One of the names for the Mandaean God Hayyi Rabbi) is found in the Genesis Apocryphon II, 4.^[79]Template:RP Another early self-appellation is bhiria zidqa, meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in the Book of Enoch and Genesis Apocryphon II, 4.^[79]Template:RP^[71]^[80]Template:Rp^[81] As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans believe that they constitute the true congregation of bnia nhura, meaning 'Sons of Light', a term used by the Essenes.^[82]Template:Rp^[83] Mandaean scripture affirms that the Mandaeans descend directly from John the Baptist's original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem.^[84]Template:Rp Similar to the Essenes, it is forbidden for a Mandaean to reveal the names of the angels to a gentile.^[85]Template:Rp Essene graves are oriented north–south^[86] and a Mandaean's grave must also be in the north–south direction so that if the dead Mandaean were stood upright, they would face north.^[85]Template:Rp Mandaeans have an oral tradition that some were originally vegetarian^[73]Template:Rp and also similar to the Essenes, they are pacifists.^[87]Template:Rp^[88]

The bit manda (beth manda) is described as biniana rba ḏ-šrara ("the Great building of Truth") and bit tušlima ("house of Perfection") in Mandaean texts such as the Qulasta, Ginza Rabba, and the Mandaean Book of John. The only known literary parallels are in Essene texts from Qumran such as the Community Rule, which has similar phrases such as the "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel" (Community Rule 1QS VIII 9) and "house of Truth in Israel."^[89]

Christianity

File:Saint John the Baptist Preaching in the Wilderness by Anton Raphael.png

John the Baptist was possibly an Essene.^[90]

Rituals of the Essenes and Christianity have much in common; the Dead Sea Scrolls describe a meal of bread and wine that will be instituted by the messiah, both the Essenes and Christians were eschatological communities, where judgement on the world would come at any time.^[91] The New Testament also possibly quotes writings used by the Qumran community. Luke 1:31-35 states " And now you will conceive in your womb and bear a son and you will name him Jesus. He will be great and will be called the son of the Most High ... the son of God" which seems to echo 4Q246, stating: "He will be called great and he will be called Son of God, and they will call him Son of the Most High ... He will judge the earth in righteousness ... and every nation will bow down to him".^[91]

Other similarities include high devotion to the faith even to the point of martyrdom, communal prayer, self denial and a belief in a captivity in a sinful world.^[92]

John the Baptist has also been argued to have been an Essene, as there are numerous parallels between John's mission and the Essenes, which suggests he perhaps was trained by the Essene community.^[90]

In the early church a book called the Odes of Solomon was written. The writer was very likely a convert from the Essene community into Christianity. The book reflects a mixture of mystical ideas of the Essene community with Christian concepts.^[93]

Both the Essenes and Christians practiced voluntary celibacy and prohibited divorce.^[94] Both also used concepts of "light" and "darkness" for good and evil.^[95]

A few have claimed that the Essenes had an idea of a pierced Messiah based on 4Q285; however, the interpretation of the text is ambiguous. Some scholars interpreted it as the Messiah being killed himself, while modern scholars mostly interpret it as the Messiah executing the enemies of Israel in an eschatological war.^[96]

Both the Essenes and Christians practiced a ritual of immersion by water, however the Essenes had it as a regular practice instead of a one-time event.^[9]

Devotional writers associated with the Carmelites, such as Daniel de la Vierge-Marie, made the claim in the 17th century that the Essenes had been proto-Christian and that they were synonymous with the Carmelites since the times of the Prophet Elias.^[97] This was a hotly disputed issue about the antiquity of the Carmelites with their rivals the Bollandists.^[98]

Magarites

The Magharians or Magarites (Template:Langx, 'people of the caves')^[99] were, according to Jacob Qirqisani, a Jewish sect founded in the 1st century BCE. Abraham Harkavy and others identify the Magharians with the Essenes, and their author referred to as the "Alexandrinian" with Philo (whose affinity for the Essenes is well-known), based on the following evidence:Template:R^[100]

The sect's name, which, in his view, does not refer to its books but to its followers who lived in caves or desert areas—an established Essene lifestyle;
The sect's founding date coinciding with that of the Essenes;
The theory that God interacts with humans through an angel aligning with Essene beliefs, as well as Philo's concept of the Logos;
Qirqisani's omission of the Essenes from his list of Jewish sects, which can be explained if he considered the Magharians to be synonymous with the Essenes.

References

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External links

Template:Sister project Template:NIE Poster

Catholic Encyclopedia: Essenes
Jewish Encyclopedia: Essenes
Essenes and Others: argues that the Hebrew original form of the name later spelled "Essenes" is in some Qumran scrolls as a self-designation.
"Jannaeus, His Brother Absalom, and Judah the Essene" Stephen Goranson, identities of Wicked Priest and Teacher of Righteousness, relevant to history of the Essenes
Thematically compiled comparison of the parallels in the ancient sources
The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls/ Essenes

Template:Dead Sea Scrolls Template:Authority control

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↑ Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 18.11.
↑ ^a ^b Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 18.18.
↑ Josephus. The Life of Flavius Josephus. 10.
↑ Josephus. The Wars of the Jews. I.78.
↑ Josephus. The Wars of the Jews. 2.113.
↑ Josephus. The Wars of the Jews. 2.567; 3.11.
↑ Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 15.371.
↑ Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 17.346.
↑ And when I was about sixteen years old, I had a mind to make trial of the several sects that were among us. These sects are three: The first is that of the Pharisees, the second that Sadducees, and the third that of the Essenes, as we have frequently told you The Life of Josephus Flavius, 2.
↑ Philo. Quod Omnis Probus Liber. XII.75–87.
↑ ^a ^b Pliny the Elder. Natural History. 5.73.
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↑ For example, James C. VanderKam, "Identity and History of the Community". In The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment, ed. Peter W. Flint and James C. VanderKam, 2:487–533. Leiden: Brill, 1999. The earliest known proposer of this etymology was P. Melanchthon, in Johann Carion, Chronica, 1532, folio 68 verso. Among the other proposers before 1947, e.g., 1839 Isaak Jost, "Die Essaer," Israelitische Annalen 19, 145–7.
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↑ Whiston and Maier, 1999, "The Jewish War", Chapter 8, p. 736
↑ Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.124.
↑ Philo (Template:C.). Quod Omnis Probus Liber. XII.75.
↑ Philo. Hypothetica. 11.1. in Eusebius. Praeparatio Evangelica. VIII.
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↑ ^a ^b Ellegård, Alvar; Jesus—One Hundred Years Before Christ: A Study in Creative Mythology, (London 1999).
↑ R. Hachlili 2005, Jewish Funerary Customs, Practices and Rites in the Second Temple Period. archive.org p.474
↑ R. Hachlili 2005, Jewish Funerary Customs, Practices and Rites in the Second Temple Period. archive.org p.478
↑ The suggestion apparently goes back to Flinders Petrie's Personal religion in Egypt before Christianity (1909), 62ff; see William Herbert Mackean, Christian Monasticism in Egypt to the Close of the Fourth Century (1920), p. 18.
↑ Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. book II, chap. 8, para. 13.
↑ Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.122.
↑ Josephus (Template:C.). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.20.
↑ Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.123, 134.
↑ ^a ^b Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.135.
↑ Philo, §75: ου ζωα καταθυοντες [= not sacrificing animals]
↑ Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.125.
↑ Philo of Alexandria, Every Good Man is Free, 75-79.
↑ Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.127.
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↑ Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.137–138. Josephus' mention of the three-year duration of the Essene probation may be compared with the phased character of the entrance procedure in the Qumran Rule of the Community [1QS; at least two years plus an indeterminate initial catechetical phase, 1QS VI]. The provisional surrender of property required at the beginning of the last year of the novitiate derives from actual social experience of the difficulties of sharing property in a fully communitarian setting, cf. Brian J. Capper, 'The Interpretation of Acts 5.4', Journal for the Study of the New Testament 19 (1983) pp. 117–131; idem, '"In der Hand des Ananias." Erwägungen zu 1QS VI,20 und der urchristlichen Gütergemeinschaft', Revue de Qumran 12(1986) 223–236; Eyal Regev, "Comparing Sectarian Practice and Organization: The Qumran Sect in Light of the Regulations of the Shakers, Hutterites, Mennonites and Amish", Numen 51 (2004), pp. 146–181.
↑ Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.139–142.
↑ Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.153–158.
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↑ ^a ^b Epiphanius of Salamis (Template:C.). Panarion. 1:19.
↑ Epiphanius of Salamis (Template:C.). Panarion. 1:18.
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↑ Bratton, Fred Gladstone. 1967. A History of the Bible. Boston: Beacon Press, 79-80.
↑ James VanderKam and Peter Flint, The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls, p. 251.
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↑ Lidzbarski, Mark, Ginza, der Schatz, oder das Grosse Buch der Mandaer, Leipzig, 1925
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↑ Macuch, Rudolf A Mandaic Dictionary (with E. S. Drower). Oxford: Clarendon Press 1963.
↑ R. Macuch, "Anfänge der Mandäer. Versuch eines geschichtliches Bildes bis zur früh-islamischen Zeit", chap. 6 of F. Altheim and R. Stiehl, Die Araber in der alten Welt II: Bis zur Reichstrennung, Berlin, 1965.
↑ The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book I (Sects 1–46) Frank Williams, translator, 1987 (E.J. Brill, Leiden) ISBN 90-04-07926-2
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[10] Josephus (Template:C.). Antiquities of the Jews. 15.372.

[11] Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 15.373.

[12] Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 15.378.

[13] Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 18.11.

[ReferenceB-14] Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 18.18.

[15] Josephus. The Life of Flavius Josephus. 10.

[16] Josephus. The Wars of the Jews. I.78.

[17] Josephus. The Wars of the Jews. 2.113.

[18] Josephus. The Wars of the Jews. 2.567; 3.11.

[19] Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 15.371.

[20] Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 17.346.

[21] And when I was about sixteen years old, I had a mind to make trial of the several sects that were among us. These sects are three: The first is that of the Pharisees, the second that Sadducees, and the third that of the Essenes, as we have frequently told you The Life of Josephus Flavius, 2.

[Philo1-22] Philo. Quod Omnis Probus Liber. XII.75–87.

[Pliny-23] Pliny the Elder. Natural History. 5.73.

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[26] For example, James C. VanderKam, "Identity and History of the Community". In The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment, ed. Peter W. Flint and James C. VanderKam, 2:487–533. Leiden: Brill, 1999. The earliest known proposer of this etymology was P. Melanchthon, in Johann Carion, Chronica, 1532, folio 68 verso. Among the other proposers before 1947, e.g., 1839 Isaak Jost, "Die Essaer," Israelitische Annalen 19, 145–7.

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[30] Whiston and Maier, 1999, "The Jewish War", Chapter 8, p. 736

[31] Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.124.

[quodxii75-32] Philo (Template:C.). Quod Omnis Probus Liber. XII.75.

[33] Philo. Hypothetica. 11.1. in Eusebius. Praeparatio Evangelica. VIII.

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[Ellegard-35] Ellegård, Alvar; Jesus—One Hundred Years Before Christ: A Study in Creative Mythology, (London 1999).

[36] R. Hachlili 2005, Jewish Funerary Customs, Practices and Rites in the Second Temple Period. archive.org p.474

[37] R. Hachlili 2005, Jewish Funerary Customs, Practices and Rites in the Second Temple Period. archive.org p.478

[38] The suggestion apparently goes back to Flinders Petrie's Personal religion in Egypt before Christianity (1909), 62ff; see William Herbert Mackean, Christian Monasticism in Egypt to the Close of the Fourth Century (1920), p. 18.

[39] Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. book II, chap. 8, para. 13.

[40] Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.122.

[41] Josephus (Template:C.). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.20.

[42] Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.123, 134.

[josephus-war-2.135-43] Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.135.

[44] Philo, §75: ου ζωα καταθυοντες [= not sacrificing animals]

[45] Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.125.

[46] Philo of Alexandria, Every Good Man is Free, 75-79.

[47] Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.127.

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[51] Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.137–138. Josephus' mention of the three-year duration of the Essene probation may be compared with the phased character of the entrance procedure in the Qumran Rule of the Community [1QS; at least two years plus an indeterminate initial catechetical phase, 1QS VI]. The provisional surrender of property required at the beginning of the last year of the novitiate derives from actual social experience of the difficulties of sharing property in a fully communitarian setting, cf. Brian J. Capper, 'The Interpretation of Acts 5.4', Journal for the Study of the New Testament 19 (1983) pp. 117–131; idem, '"In der Hand des Ananias." Erwägungen zu 1QS VI,20 und der urchristlichen Gütergemeinschaft', Revue de Qumran 12(1986) 223–236; Eyal Regev, "Comparing Sectarian Practice and Organization: The Qumran Sect in Light of the Regulations of the Shakers, Hutterites, Mennonites and Amish", Numen 51 (2004), pp. 146–181.

[52] Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.139–142.

[53] Josephus (Template:C.). The Wars of the Jews. 2.153–158.

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[panarion1-19-57] Epiphanius of Salamis (Template:C.). Panarion. 1:19.

[58] Epiphanius of Salamis (Template:C.). Panarion. 1:18.

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[66] Philo. De Vita Contemplativa. I.1.

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[69] Bratton, Fred Gladstone. 1967. A History of the Bible. Boston: Beacon Press, 79-80.

[70] James VanderKam and Peter Flint, The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls, p. 251.

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[72] Lidzbarski, Mark, Ginza, der Schatz, oder das Grosse Buch der Mandaer, Leipzig, 1925

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[75] Macuch, Rudolf A Mandaic Dictionary (with E. S. Drower). Oxford: Clarendon Press 1963.

[76] R. Macuch, "Anfänge der Mandäer. Versuch eines geschichtliches Bildes bis zur früh-islamischen Zeit", chap. 6 of F. Altheim and R. Stiehl, Die Araber in der alten Welt II: Bis zur Reichstrennung, Berlin, 1965.

[77] The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book I (Sects 1–46) Frank Williams, translator, 1987 (E.J. Brill, Leiden) ISBN 90-04-07926-2

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 {{Jews and Judaism sidebar|history}}
-The '''Essenes''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɛ|s|iː|n|z|,_|ɛ|ˈ|s|iː|n|z}}; [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: {{Script/Hebrew|אִסִּיִים}}, ''ʾĪssīyīm''; [[Koine Greek|Greek]]: Ἐσσηνοί, Ἐσσαῖοι, or Ὀσσαῖοι, ''Essenoi, Essaioi, Ossaioi'') or '''Essenians''' were a [[Mysticism|mystic]] [[Jews|Jewish]] [[Jewish religious movements#Sects in the Second Temple period|sect]] during the [[Second Temple period]] that flourished from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cyprus)|first=Saint Epiphanius (Bishop of Constantia in|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IKyxt9kyys8C&pg=PA32|title=The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis: Book I (sects 1-46)|date=2009|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17017-9|page=32|language=en}}</ref>
+The '''Essenes''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɛ|s|iː|n|z|,_|ɛ|ˈ|s|iː|n|z}}; [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: {{Script/Hebrew|אִסִּיִים}}, {{lang|he-Latn|Īssīyīm}}; [[Koine Greek|Greek]]: {{Lang|grc|Ἐσσηνοί}}, {{Lang|grc|Ἐσσαῖοι}}, or {{Lang|grc|Ὀσσαῖοι}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Essenoi, Essaioi, Ossaioi}}) or '''Essenians''' were a [[Mysticism|mystic]] [[Jews|Jewish]] [[Jewish religious movements#Sects in the Second Temple period|community]] during the [[Second Temple period]] that flourished from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cyprus)|first=Saint Epiphanius (Bishop of Constantia in|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IKyxt9kyys8C&pg=PA32|title=The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis: Book I (sects 1-46)|date=2009|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17017-9|page=32|language=en}}</ref>
 The Essene movement likely originated as a distinct group among Jews during [[Jonathan Apphus]]'s time, driven by disputes over Jewish law and the belief that Jonathan's [[High Priest of Israel|high priesthood]] was illegitimate.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |title=T&T Clark Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism |date=2020 |publisher=T&T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-66144-9 |editor-last=Gurtner |editor-first=Daniel M. |series= |volume=2 |location= |pages=250–252 |chapter= |editor-last2=Stuckenbruck |editor-first2=Loren T.}}</ref> Most scholars think the Essenes seceded from the [[Zadok|Zadokite]] priests.<ref>F. F. Bruce, Second Thoughts on the Dead Sea Scrolls. Paternoster Press, 1956.</ref> They attributed their interpretation of the Torah to their early leader, the [[Teacher of Righteousness]], possibly a legitimate high priest. Embracing a conservative approach to Jewish law, they observed a strict hierarchy favoring priests (the [[Sons of Zadok]]) over laypeople, emphasized ritual purity, and held a [[Dualism in cosmology#Theistic dualism|dualistic worldview]].<ref name=":2" />
-According to Jewish writers [[Josephus]] and [[Philo]], the Essenes numbered around four thousand, and resided in various settlements throughout [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]]. Conversely, Roman writer [[Pliny the Elder]] positioned them somewhere above [[Ein Gedi]], on the west side of the Dead Sea.<ref name="Pliny1">{{Cite book |author=Pliny the Elder |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/5*.html |title=Historia Naturalis |volume=V, 17 or 29; in other editions V, (15).73 |quote=Ab occidente litora Esseni fugiunt usque qua nocent, gens sola et in toto orbe praeter ceteras mira, sine ulla femina, omni venere abdicata, sine pecunia, socia palmarum. in diem ex aequo convenarum turba renascitur, large frequentantibus quos vita fessos ad mores eorum fortuna fluctibus agit. ita per saeculorum milia—incredibile dictu—gens aeterna est, in qua nemo nascitur. tam fecunda illis aliorum vitae paenitentia est! infra hos Engada oppidum fuit, secundum ab Hierosolymis fertilitate palmetorumque nemoribus, nunc alterum bustum. inde Masada castellum in rupe, et ipsum haut procul Asphaltite. et hactenus Iudaea est.}} cf. [https://archive.org/stream/plinysnaturalhis00plinrich#page/n281/mode/2up English translation].</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Barthélemy |first1=D. |title=Qumran Cave 1 |last2=Milik |first2=J.T. |last3=de Vaux |first3=Roland |last4=Crowfoot |first4=G.M. |last5=Plenderleith |first5=Harold |last6=Harding |first6=G.L. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1997 |isbn=0-19-826301-5 |location=[[Oxford]] |page=5 |chapter=Introductory: The Discovery |author-link2=Józef Milik |author-link3=Roland de Vaux |author-link5=Harold Plenderleith |access-date=31 March 2009 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVa8BQGO0PIC&pg=PA5 |orig-year=1955}}</ref> Pliny relates in a few lines that the Essenes possess no money, had existed for thousands of generations, and that their priestly class ("contemplatives") [[Celibacy|did not marry]]. Josephus gave a detailed account of the Essenes in ''[[The Jewish War]]'' ({{c.|75 CE|lk=no}}), with a shorter description in ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' ({{c.|94 CE|lk=no}}) and ''[[The Life of Flavius Josephus]]'' ({{c.|97 CE|lk=no}}). Claiming firsthand knowledge, he lists the ''Essenoi'' as one of the three sects of Jewish [[philosophy]]<ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|75|lk=no}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.119.</ref> alongside the [[Pharisees]] and [[Sadducees]]. He relates the same information concerning [[piety]], celibacy; the absence of personal property and of money; the belief in [[communality]]; and commitment to a strict observance of [[Shabbat|Sabbath]]. He further adds that the Essenes [[Ritual purification|ritually immersed]] in water every morning (a practice similar to the use of the [[mikveh]] for daily immersion found among some contemporary [[Hasid|Hasidim]]), ate together after prayer, devoted themselves to [[Charity (practice)|charity]] and benevolence, forbade the expression of anger, studied the books of the elders, preserved secrets, and were very mindful of the names of the [[Angels in Judaism|angels]] kept in their sacred writings.
+According to Jewish writers [[Josephus]] and [[Philo]], the Essenes numbered around four thousand, and resided in various settlements throughout [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]]. Conversely, Roman writer [[Pliny the Elder]] positioned them somewhere above [[Ein Gedi]], on the west side of the Dead Sea.<ref name="Pliny1">{{Cite book |author=Pliny the Elder |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/5*.html |title=Historia Naturalis |volume=V, 17 or 29; in other editions V, (15).73 |quote=Ab occidente litora Esseni fugiunt usque qua nocent, gens sola et in toto orbe praeter ceteras mira, sine ulla femina, omni venere abdicata, sine pecunia, socia palmarum. in diem ex aequo convenarum turba renascitur, large frequentantibus quos vita fessos ad mores eorum fortuna fluctibus agit. ita per saeculorum milia—incredibile dictu—gens aeterna est, in qua nemo nascitur. tam fecunda illis aliorum vitae paenitentia est! infra hos Engada oppidum fuit, secundum ab Hierosolymis fertilitate palmetorumque nemoribus, nunc alterum bustum. inde Masada castellum in rupe, et ipsum haut procul Asphaltite. et hactenus Iudaea est.}} cf. [https://archive.org/stream/plinysnaturalhis00plinrich#page/n281/mode/2up English translation].</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Barthélemy |first1=D. |title=Qumran Cave 1 |last2=Milik |first2=J.T. |last3=de Vaux |first3=Roland |last4=Crowfoot |first4=G.M. |last5=Plenderleith |first5=Harold |last6=Harding |first6=G.L. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1997 |isbn=0-19-826301-5 |location=[[Oxford]] |page=5 |chapter=Introductory: The Discovery |author-link2=Józef Milik |author-link3=Roland de Vaux |author-link5=Harold Plenderleith |access-date=31 March 2009 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVa8BQGO0PIC&pg=PA5 |orig-year=1955}}</ref> Pliny relates in a few lines that the Essenes possess no money, had existed for thousands of generations, and that their priestly class ("contemplatives") [[Celibacy|did not marry]]. Josephus gave a detailed account of the Essenes in ''[[The Jewish War]]'' ({{c.|75 CE}}), with a shorter description in ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' ({{c.|94 CE|lk=no}}) and ''[[The Life of Flavius Josephus]]'' ({{c.|97 CE|lk=no}}). Claiming firsthand knowledge, he lists the ''Essenoi'' as one of the three sects of Jewish [[philosophy]]<ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|75|lk=no}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.119.</ref> alongside the [[Pharisees]] and [[Sadducees]]. He relates the same information concerning [[piety]], celibacy; the absence of personal property and of money; the belief in [[communality]]; and commitment to a strict observance of [[Shabbat|Sabbath]]. He further adds that the Essenes [[Ritual purification|ritually immersed]] in water every morning (a practice similar to the use of the [[mikveh]] for daily immersion found among some contemporary [[Hasid|Hasidim]]), ate together after prayer, devoted themselves to [[Charity (practice)|charity]] and benevolence, forbade the expression of anger, studied the books of the elders, preserved secrets, and were very mindful of the names of the [[Angels in Judaism|angels]] kept in their sacred writings.
-The Essenes have gained fame in modern times as a result of the discovery of an extensive group of religious documents known as the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], which are commonly believed to be the Essenes' library. The scrolls were found at [[Qumran]], an archaeological site situated along the northwestern shore of the [[Dead Sea]], believed to have been the dwelling place of an Essene community. These documents preserve multiple copies of parts of the [[Hebrew Bible]] along with [[Deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] and sectarian manuscripts, including writings such as the [[Community Rule]], the [[Damascus Document]], and the [[War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness|War Scroll]], which provide valuable insights into the communal life, ideology and theology of the Essenes.
+The Essenes have gained fame in modern times as a result of the discovery of an extensive group of religious documents known as the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], which are commonly believed to be the Essenes' library. The scrolls were found at [[Qumran]], an archaeological site situated along the northwestern shore of the [[Dead Sea]], believed to have been the dwelling place of an Essene community. These documents preserve multiple copies of parts of the [[Hebrew Bible]] along with [[Deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] and sectarian manuscripts, including writings such as the [[Community Rule]], the [[Damascus Document]], and the [[War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness|War Scroll]].
-According to the conventional view, the Essenes disappeared after the [[First Jewish–Roman War]], which also witnessed the destruction of the settlement at Qumran.<ref name=":2" /> Scholars have noted the absence of direct sources supporting this claim, raising the possibility of their endurance or the survival of related groups in the following centuries.<ref>{{Citation |last=Goodman |first=M. |title=Sadducees and Essenes after 70 CE |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789047410614/Bej.9789004153097.i-275_014.xml |work=Judaism in the Roman World |pages=153–162 |year=1994 |access-date=2023-08-02 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004153097.i-275.38 |isbn=978-90-474-1061-4|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Some researchers suggest that Essene teachings could have influenced other religious traditions, such as [[Mandaeism]], [[Jewish Christianity]], and small group of [[Assyrians]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hamidović |first=David |year=2010 |title=About the Links between the Dead Sea Scrolls and Mandaean Liturgy |url=https://poj.peeters-leuven.be/secure/POJ/downloadpdf.php?ticket_id=607cb5ef1eb49 |journal=ARAM Periodical |volume=22 |pages=441–451 |doi=10.2143/ARAM.22.0.2131048}}</ref><ref name=":3" />
+According to the conventional view, the Essenes disappeared after the [[First Jewish–Roman War]], which also witnessed the destruction of the settlement at Qumran.<ref name=":2" /> Scholars have noted the absence of direct sources supporting this claim, raising the possibility of their endurance or the survival of related groups in the following centuries.<ref>{{Citation |last=Goodman |first=M. |title=Sadducees and Essenes after 70 CE |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789047410614/Bej.9789004153097.i-275_014.xml |work=Judaism in the Roman World |pages=153–162 |year=1994 |access-date=2023-08-02 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004153097.i-275.38 |isbn=978-90-474-1061-4|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Some researchers suggest that Essene teachings could have influenced other religious traditions, such as [[Mandaeism]] and [[Christianity]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hamidović |first=David |year=2010 |title=About the Links between the Dead Sea Scrolls and Mandaean Liturgy |url=https://poj.peeters-leuven.be/secure/POJ/downloadpdf.php?ticket_id=607cb5ef1eb49 |journal=ARAM Periodical |volume=22 |pages=441–451 |doi=10.2143/ARAM.22.0.2131048}}</ref><ref name=":3" />
 == Etymology ==
@@ Line 42: / Line 42: @@
 Gabriele Boccaccini implies that a convincing etymology for the name Essene has not been found, but that the term applies to a larger group within [[Judea]] that also included the [[Qumran]] community.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Gabriele |last=Boccaccini |title=Beyond the Essene hypothesis: the parting of the ways between Qumran and Enochic Judaism |publisher=[[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company]] |location=[[Grand Rapids, Michigan]] |year=1998 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AnAiz6fB2X8C&pg=PA47 47] |isbn=0-8028-4360-3 |oclc=37837643}}</ref>
-It was proposed before the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] were discovered that the name came into several [[Greek language|Greek]] spellings from a Hebrew [[self-designation]] later found in some Dead Sea Scrolls, ''ʻosey haTorah'', "'doers' or 'makers' of [[Torah]]".<ref>{{Cite book|first=Stephen |last=Goranson |chapter=Others and Intra-Jewish Polemic as Reflected in Qumran Texts |editor=Peter W. Flint |editor2=James C. VanderKam |year=1999 |title=The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment |volume=2 |pages=534–551 |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=90-04-11061-5 |oclc=230716707}}</ref> Although dozens of etymology suggestions have been published, this is the only etymology published before 1947 that was confirmed by [[Qumran]] text self-designation references, and it is gaining acceptance among scholars.<ref>For example, James C. VanderKam, "Identity and History of the Community". In The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment, ed. Peter W. Flint and James C. VanderKam, 2:487–533. Leiden: Brill, 1999. The earliest known proposer of this etymology was P. Melanchthon, in [[Johann Carion]], ''Chronica'', 1532, folio 68 verso. Among the other proposers before 1947, e.g., 1839 Isaak Jost, "Die Essaer," Israelitische Annalen 19, 145–7.</ref> It is recognized as the etymology of the form ''Ossaioi'' (and note that Philo also offered an O spelling) and ''Essaioi'' and ''Esseni'' spelling variations have been discussed by VanderKam, Goranson, and others. In medieval Hebrew (e.g., ''[[Josippon|Sefer Yosippon]]'') ''Hassidim'' "the Pious" replaces "Essenes". While this Hebrew name is not the etymology of ''Essaioi''/''Esseni'', the Aramaic equivalent ''Hesi'im'' known from [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic]] texts has been suggested.<ref name=lightfoot1875>{{Cite book|first=Joseph Barber |last=Lightfoot |author-link=Joseph Barber Lightfoot |chapter=On Some Points Connected with the Essenes |title=St. Paul's epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon: a revised text with introductions, notes, and dissertations |year=1875 |url=https://archive.org/details/stpaulsepistles00lighgoog |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]] |location=London |oclc=6150927 }}</ref> Others suggest that Essene is a transliteration of the Hebrew word ''ḥiṣonim'' (''ḥiṣon'' "outside"), which the [[Mishnah]] (e.g., [[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]] 4:8<ref>{{cite web |title=Mishnah Megillah 4:8 |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Megillah.4.8?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en |website=sefaria.org |publisher=Sefaria}}</ref>) uses to describe various sectarian groups. Another theory is that the name was borrowed from a cult of devotees to [[Artemis]] in [[Anatolia]], whose demeanor and dress somewhat resembled those of the group in [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schiffman |first1=Lawrence H. |title=Discovery and Acquisition, 1947–1956, Lawrence H. Schiffman, Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls, Jewish Publication Society, Philadelphia, 1994. |url=http://cojs.org/discovery-and-acquisition-1947-1956-lawrence-h-schiffman-reclaiming-the-dead-sea-scrolls-jewish-publication-society-philadelphia-1994/ |website=Center for Online Judaic Studies |access-date=16 April 2020 |date=27 July 2015}}</ref>
+It was proposed before the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] were discovered that the name came into several [[Greek language|Greek]] spellings from a Hebrew [[self-designation]] later found in some Dead Sea Scrolls, ''ʻosey haTorah'', "'doers' or 'makers' of [[Torah]]".<ref>{{Cite book|first=Stephen |last=Goranson |chapter=Others and Intra-Jewish Polemic as Reflected in Qumran Texts |editor=Peter W. Flint |editor2=James C. VanderKam |year=1999 |title=The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment |volume=2 |pages=534–551 |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=90-04-11061-5 |oclc=230716707}}</ref> Although dozens of etymology suggestions have been published, this is the only etymology published before 1947 that was confirmed by [[Qumran]] text self-designation references, and it is gaining acceptance among scholars.<ref>For example, James C. VanderKam, "Identity and History of the Community". In The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment, ed. Peter W. Flint and James C. VanderKam, 2:487–533. Leiden: Brill, 1999. The earliest known proposer of this etymology was P. Melanchthon, in [[Johann Carion]], ''Chronica'', 1532, folio 68 verso. Among the other proposers before 1947, e.g., 1839 Isaak Jost, "Die Essaer," Israelitische Annalen 19, 145–7.</ref> It is recognized as the etymology of the form ''Ossaioi'' (and note that Philo also offered an O spelling) and ''Essaioi'' and ''Esseni'' spelling variations have been discussed by VanderKam, Goranson, and others. In medieval Hebrew (e.g., ''[[Josippon|Sefer Yosippon]]'') ''Hassidim'' "the Pious" replaces "Essenes". While this Hebrew name is not the etymology of ''Essaioi''/''Esseni'', the Aramaic equivalent ''Hesi'im'' known from [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic]] texts has been suggested.<ref name=lightfoot1875>{{Cite book|first=Joseph Barber |last=Lightfoot |author-link=Joseph Barber Lightfoot |chapter=On Some Points Connected with the Essenes |title=St. Paul's epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon: a revised text with introductions, notes, and dissertations |year=1875 |url=https://archive.org/details/stpaulsepistles00lighgoog |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]] |location=London |oclc=6150927 }}</ref> Others suggest that Essene is a transliteration of the Hebrew word ''ḥiṣonim'' (''ḥiṣon'' "outside"), which the [[Mishnah]] (e.g., [[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]] 4:8<ref>{{cite web |title=Mishnah Megillah 4:8 |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Megillah.4.8?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en |website=sefaria.org |publisher=Sefaria}}</ref>) uses to describe various sectarian groups. Another theory is that the name was borrowed from a cult of devotees to [[Artemis]] in [[Anatolia]], whose demeanor and dress somewhat resembled those of the group in [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schiffman |first1=Lawrence H. |title=Discovery and Acquisition, 1947–1956, Lawrence H. Schiffman, Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls, Jewish Publication Society, Philadelphia, 1994. |url=https://cojs.org/discovery-and-acquisition-1947-1956-lawrence-h-schiffman-reclaiming-the-dead-sea-scrolls-jewish-publication-society-philadelphia-1994/ |website=Center for Online Judaic Studies |access-date=16 April 2020 |date=27 July 2015}}</ref>
 [[Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] in Chapter 8 of "[[The Jewish War]]" states:
@@ Line 49: / Line 49: @@
 ==Location==
-[[File:QumranLivingQuarters.jpg|thumb|Remains of part of the main building at Qumran.]]
+[[File:QumranLivingQuarters.jpg|thumb|Remains of part of the main building at Qumran]]
 According to [[Josephus]], the Essenes had settled "not in one city" but "in large numbers in every town".<ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.124.</ref> Philo speaks of "more than four thousand" ''Essaioi'' living in "Palestine and [[Roman Syria|Syria]]",<ref name=quodxii75>[[Philo]] ({{c.|lk=no|20–54}}). ''[http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book33.html Quod Omnis Probus Liber]''. XII.75.</ref> more precisely, "in many cities of Judaea and in many villages and grouped in great societies of many members".<ref>[[Philo]]. ''[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book37.html Hypothetica]''. 11.1. in [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]]. ''[[Praeparatio Evangelica]]''. VIII.</ref>
@@ Line 66: / Line 66: @@
 ==Rules, customs, theology, and beliefs==
-The accounts by Josephus and [[Philo]] show that the Essenes led a strictly communal life—often compared to later [[Christian monasticism]].<ref>The suggestion apparently goes back to [[Flinders Petrie]]'s ''Personal religion in Egypt before Christianity'' (1909), 62ff; see William Herbert Mackean, ''Christian Monasticism in Egypt to the Close of the Fourth Century'' (1920), p. 18.</ref> Many of the Essene groups appear to have been [[Celibacy|celibate]], but Josephus speaks also of another "''order'' of Essenes" that observed the practice of being engaged for three years and then becoming married.<ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. book II, chap. 8, para. 13.</ref> According to Josephus, they had customs and observances such as collective ownership,<ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.122.</ref><ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|94}}). ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]''. 18.20.</ref> electing a leader to attend to the interests of the group, and obedience to the orders from their leader.<ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.123, 134.</ref> Also, they were forbidden from [[Oath|swearing oaths]]<ref name="josephus-war-2.135">[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.135.</ref> and from [[animal sacrifice|sacrificing animals]].<ref>Philo, §75: ου ζωα καταθυοντες [= not sacrificing animals]</ref> They controlled their tempers and served as channels of peace,<ref name="josephus-war-2.135"/> carrying [[weapon]]s only for protection against robbers.<ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.125.</ref> The Essenes chose not to possess [[slavery|slaves]] but served each other<ref>Philo of Alexandria, ''Every Good Man is Free'', 75-79.</ref> and, as a result of communal ownership, did not engage in [[trade|trading]].<ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.127.</ref> Josephus and Philo provide lengthy accounts of their communal meetings, meals, and religious celebrations. This [[Religious communism|communal living]] has led some scholars to view the Essenes as a group practicing social and material egalitarianism.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Service|first=Robert|title=Comrades: A History of World Communism|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0674046993|location=Cambridge|pages=14–15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://anarchyinaction.org/index.php?title=Essenes|title =Essenes|access-date=12 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5867-essenes#anchor10|title=Jewish Encyclopedia - Essenes|date=1906|author=Kaufmann Kohler}}</ref>
+The accounts by Josephus and [[Philo]] show that the Essenes led a strictly communal life—often compared to later [[Christian monasticism]].<ref>The suggestion apparently goes back to [[Flinders Petrie]]'s ''Personal religion in Egypt before Christianity'' (1909), 62ff; see William Herbert Mackean, ''Christian Monasticism in Egypt to the Close of the Fourth Century'' (1920), p. 18.</ref> Many of the Essene groups appear to have been [[Celibacy|celibate]], but Josephus speaks also of another "''order'' of Essenes" that observed the practice of being engaged for three years and then becoming married.<ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. book II, chap. 8, para. 13.</ref> According to Josephus, they had customs and observances such as collective ownership,<ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.122.</ref><ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|94}}). ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]''. 18.20.</ref> electing a leader to attend to the interests of the group, and obedience to the orders from their leader.<ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.123, 134.</ref> Also, they were forbidden from [[Oath|swearing oaths]]<ref name="josephus-war-2.135">[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.135.</ref> and from [[animal sacrifice|sacrificing animals]].<ref>Philo, §75: ου ζωα καταθυοντες [= not sacrificing animals]</ref> They controlled their tempers and served as channels of peace,<ref name="josephus-war-2.135"/> carrying [[weapon]]s only for protection against robbers.<ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.125.</ref> The Essenes chose not to possess [[slavery|slaves]] but served each other<ref>Philo of Alexandria, ''Every Good Man is Free'', 75-79.</ref> and, as a result of communal ownership, did not engage in [[trade|trading]].<ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.127.</ref> Josephus and Philo provide lengthy accounts of their communal meetings, meals, and religious celebrations. This [[Religious communism|communal living]] has led some scholars to view the Essenes as a group practicing social and material egalitarianism.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Service|first=Robert|title=Comrades: A History of World Communism|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0674046993|location=Cambridge|pages=14–15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://anarchyinaction.org/index.php?title=Essenes|title =Essenes|access-date=12 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5867-essenes#anchor10|title=Jewish Encyclopedia - Essenes|date=1906|author=Kaufmann Kohler}}</ref>
 Despite their prohibition on swearing oaths, after a three-year [[Probation (workplace)|probationary]] period,<ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.137–138. Josephus' mention of the three-year duration of the Essene probation may be compared with the phased character of the entrance procedure in the Qumran Rule of the Community [1QS; at least two years plus an indeterminate initial catechetical phase, 1QS VI]. The provisional surrender of property required at the beginning of the last year of the novitiate derives from actual social experience of the difficulties of sharing property in a fully communitarian setting, cf. Brian J. Capper, 'The Interpretation of Acts 5.4', Journal for the Study of the New Testament 19 (1983) pp. 117–131; idem, '"In der Hand des Ananias." Erwägungen zu 1QS VI,20 und der urchristlichen Gütergemeinschaft', ''Revue de Qumran'' 12(1986) 223–236; Eyal Regev, "Comparing Sectarian Practice and Organization: The Qumran Sect in Light of the Regulations of the [[Shakers]], [[Hutterites]], [[Mennonites]] and [[Amish]]", ''Numen'' 51 (2004), pp. 146–181.</ref> new members would take an oath that included a commitment to practice piety to God and righteousness toward humanity; maintain a pure lifestyle; abstain from criminal and immoral activities; transmit their rules uncorrupted; and preserve the books of the Essenes and the names of the angels.<ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.139–142.</ref> Their theology included belief in the immortality of the [[Soul (spirit)|soul]] and that they would receive their souls back after death.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref>[[Josephus]] ({{c.|lk=no|75}}). ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]''. 2.153–158.</ref> Part of their activities included purification by [[Mikveh|water rituals]] which was supported by rainwater catchment and storage. According to the [[Community Rule]], [[repentance]] was a prerequisite to water purification.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Furstenberg |first1=Yair |title=Initiation and the Ritual Purification from Sin: Between Qumran and the Apostolic Tradition |journal=Dead Sea Discoveries |date=8 November 2016 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=365–394 |doi=10.1163/15685179-12341409}}</ref>
@@ Line 75: / Line 75: @@
 {{Blockquote|The Nasaraean—they were Jews by nationality—originally from Gileaditis, Bashanitis and the Transjordan&nbsp;... They acknowledged Moses and believed that he had received laws—not this law, however, but some other. And so, they were Jews who kept all the Jewish observances, but they would not offer sacrifice or eat meat. They considered it unlawful to eat meat or make sacrifices with it. They claim that these Books are fictions, and that none of these customs were instituted by the fathers. This was the difference between the Nasaraean and the others&nbsp;...<ref>[[Epiphanius of Salamis]] ({{c.|lk=no|378}}). ''[[Panarion]]''. 1:18.</ref>}}
-{{Blockquote|After this Nasaraean sect in turn comes another closely connected with them, called the Ossaeans. These are Jews like the former&nbsp;... originally came from Nabataea, Ituraea, Moabitis, and Arielis, the lands beyond the basin of what sacred scripture called the Salt Sea&nbsp;... Though it is different from the other six of these seven sects, it causes schism only by forbidding the books of Moses like the Nasaraean.<ref name="panarion1-19"/>}}We do not know much about the canon of the Essenes, and what their attitude was towards the apocryphal writings, however the Essenes perhaps did not esteem the book of Esther highly as manuscripts of Esther are completely absent in Qumran, likely because of their opposition to mixed marriages and the use of different calendars.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mulder |first=Martin-Jan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6eZ5DwAAQBAJ&dq=Essenes+canon&pg=PA70 |title=The Literature of the Jewish People in the Period of the Second Temple and the Talmud, Volume 1 Mikra: Text, Translation, Reading and Interpretation of the Hebrew Bible in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity |date=1988-01-01 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-27510-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fitzmyer |first=Joseph A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlwB8K0hiLIC&dq=Essenes+canon&pg=PA54 |title=The Impact of the Dead Sea Scrolls |date=2009 |publisher=Paulist Press |isbn=978-0-8091-4615-4 |language=en}}</ref>
+{{Blockquote|After this Nasaraean sect in turn comes another closely connected with them, called the Ossaeans. These are Jews like the former&nbsp;... originally came from Nabataea, Ituraea, Moabitis, and Arielis, the lands beyond the basin of what sacred scripture called the Salt Sea&nbsp;... Though it is different from the other six of these seven sects, it causes schism only by forbidding the books of Moses like the Nasaraean.<ref name="panarion1-19"/>}}We do not know much about the canon of the Essenes, and what their attitude was towards the apocryphal writings. However, the Essenes perhaps did not esteem the book of Esther highly as manuscripts of Esther are completely absent in Qumran, likely because of their opposition to mixed marriages and the use of different calendars.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mulder |first=Martin-Jan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6eZ5DwAAQBAJ&dq=Essenes+canon&pg=PA70 |title=The Literature of the Jewish People in the Period of the Second Temple and the Talmud, Volume 1 Mikra: Text, Translation, Reading and Interpretation of the Hebrew Bible in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity |date=1988-01-01 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-27510-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fitzmyer |first=Joseph A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlwB8K0hiLIC&dq=Essenes+canon&pg=PA54 |title=The Impact of the Dead Sea Scrolls |date=2009 |publisher=Paulist Press |isbn=978-0-8091-4615-4 |language=en}}</ref>
-The Essenes were unique for their time for being against the practice of slave-ownership, and slavery, which they regarded as unjust and ungodly, regarding all men as having been born equal.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Essenes in Judaean Society: The sectarians of the Dead Sea Scrolls|last=Lim |first=Timothy |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press's Academic Insights for the Thinking World}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://blog.oup.com/2021/01/essenes-in-judaean-society-the-sectarians-of-the-dead-sea-scrolls/ | title=Essenes in Judaean Society: The sectarians of the Dead Sea Scrolls | date=17 January 2021 }}</ref>
+The Essenes were unique for their time for being against the practice of slave-ownership, which they regarded as unjust and ungodly, believing that all men are born equal.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Essenes in Judaean Society: The sectarians of the Dead Sea Scrolls|last=Lim |first=Timothy |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press's Academic Insights for the Thinking World}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://blog.oup.com/2021/01/essenes-in-judaean-society-the-sectarians-of-the-dead-sea-scrolls/ | title=Essenes in Judaean Society: The sectarians of the Dead Sea Scrolls | date=17 January 2021 }}</ref>
 == Involvement in the First Jewish–Roman War ==
-At the outset of the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] in 66 CE, as Roman advances were anticipated, command over parts of western Judea was assigned to John the Essene (or Essaean), who was placed in charge of the [[Toparches|toparchy]] of [[Khirbet Tibnah|Thamna]]. This region encompassed [[Lod|Lydda]], [[Jaffa|Joppa]], and [[Emmaus]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Rogers |first=Guy MacLean |title=For the Freedom of Zion: the Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66-74 CE |date=2021 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-24813-5 |location=New Haven |pages=186}}</ref>
+At the outset of the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] in 66&nbsp;CE, as Roman advances were anticipated, command over parts of western Judea was assigned to John the Essene (or Essaean), who was placed in charge of the [[Toparches|toparchy]] of [[Khirbet Tibnah|Thamna]]. This region encompassed [[Lod|Lydda]], [[Jaffa|Joppa]], and [[Emmaus]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Rogers |first=Guy MacLean |title=For the Freedom of Zion: the Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66-74 CE |date=2021 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-24813-5 |location=New Haven |pages=186}}</ref>
 == Scholarly discussion ==
@@ Line 96: / Line 96: @@
 {{see also|Mandaeans#Origin}}
 [[File:Genesis apocryphon.jpg|thumb|The [[Genesis Apocryphon]], part of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]]]
-The [[Haran Gawaita]] uses the name [[Nazarene (sect)#Nasoraean Mandaeans|Nasoraeans]] for the [[Mandaeans]] arriving from Jerusalem, meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.<ref name=RudolphEI>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Rudolph|first=Kurt|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/mandaeans-2-religion |title=Mandaeans ii. The Mandaean Religion |access-date=3 January 2022|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica|date=7 April 2008}}</ref> Scholars such as [[Kurt Rudolph]], [[Rudolf Macúch]], [[Mark Lidzbarski]] and [[E. S. Drower|Ethel S. Drower]] connect the Mandaeans with the [[Essenes#Rules, customs, theology, and beliefs|Nasaraeans]] described by [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]], a group within the Essenes according to [[Joseph Lightfoot]].<ref>Lidzbarski, Mark, Ginza, der Schatz, oder das Grosse Buch der Mandaer, Leipzig,
+The [[Haran Gawaita]] uses the name [[Nazarene (sect)#Nasoraean Mandaeans|Nasoraeans]] for the [[Mandaeans]] who fled from Jerusalem, meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.<ref name=RudolphEI>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Rudolph|first=Kurt|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/mandaeans-2-religion |title=Mandaeans ii. The Mandaean Religion |access-date=3 January 2022|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica|date=7 April 2008}}</ref> Scholars such as [[Kurt Rudolph]], [[Rudolf Macúch]], [[Mark Lidzbarski]] and [[E. S. Drower|Ethel S. Drower]] connect the Mandaeans with the Nasaraeans described by [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]], a group within the Essenes according to [[Joseph Lightfoot]].<ref>Lidzbarski, Mark, Ginza, der Schatz, oder das Grosse Buch der Mandaer, Leipzig,
 </ref><ref name=Drower1960>{{Cite book | last =Drower | first =Ethel Stephana | author-link =E. S. Drower | date =1960 | title =The secret Adam, a study of Nasoraean gnosis | location =London UK | publisher =Clarendon Press | no-pp =true| url=http://holybooks.lichtenbergpress.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Secret-Adam-A-Study-of-Nasoraen-Gnosis.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306132110/http://holybooks.lichtenbergpress.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Secret-Adam-A-Study-of-Nasoraen-Gnosis.pdf|archive-date=6 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|xiv}}{{sfn|Rudolph|1977|p=4}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Richard |title=The Israelite Origins of the Mandaean People |journal=Studia Antiqua |date=29 January 2016 |volume=5 |issue=2 |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/studiaantiqua/vol5/iss2/4/ }}</ref><ref>Macuch, Rudolf A Mandaic Dictionary (with E. S. Drower). Oxford: Clarendon Press 1963.</ref><ref>R. Macuch, "Anfänge der Mandäer. Versuch eines geschichtliches Bildes bis zur früh-islamischen Zeit", chap. 6 of F. Altheim and R. Stiehl, ''Die Araber in der alten Welt II: Bis zur Reichstrennung'', Berlin, 1965.</ref><ref name=lightfoot1875/> Epiphanius (29:6) says that they existed before Jesus. That is questioned by some, but others accept the pre-Christian origin of the Nasaraeans.<ref name=Drower1960/>{{rp|xiv}}<ref>The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book I (Sects 1–46) Frank Williams, translator, 1987 (E.J. Brill, Leiden) ISBN 90-04-07926-2</ref>
-Early religious concepts and terminologies recur in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], and ''[[yardna|Yardena]]'' [[River Jordan|(Jordan)]] has been the name of every baptismal water in [[Mandaeism]].<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=chWcZcYcyeQC}}|title=Iconography of Religions: An Introduction|editor-last=Moore|editor-first=Albert C.|date=1977|publisher=Chris Robertson|isbn=9780800604882|last=Rudolph|first=Kurt|author-link=Kurt Rudolph|chapter=Mandaeism|volume=21|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/iconographyofrel0000moor}}</ref>{{rp|5}} ''Mara ḏ-Rabuta'' ([[Mandaic language|Mandaic]] for 'Lord of Greatness', which is One of the names for the Mandaean God [[Hayyi Rabbi]]) is found in the [[Genesis Apocryphon]] II, 4.<ref name="Rudolph 1964">{{cite journal|last=Rudolph|first=Kurt|title=War Der Verfasser Der Oden Salomos Ein "Qumran-Christ"? Ein Beitrag zur Diskussion um die Anfänge der Gnosis|journal=Revue de Qumrân|date=April 1964|volume=4|number=16|pages=523–555|publisher=Peeters}}</ref>{{RP|552-553}} Another early self-appellation is ''bhiria zidqa'', meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in the [[Book of Enoch]] and [[Genesis Apocryphon]] II, 4.<ref name="Rudolph 1964"/>{{RP|552-553}}<ref name=RudolphEI/><ref name="Aldihisi 2008">{{cite thesis|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1444088/|last=Aldihisi|first=Sabah|year=2008|title=The story of creation in the Mandaean holy book in the Ginza Rba|type=PhD|publisher=University College London}}</ref>{{rp|18}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coughenour|first=Robert A.|title=The Wisdom Stance of Enoch's Redactor|publisher=Brill|page=52| journal=Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period|volume=13|issue=1–2|date=Dec 1982|doi=10.1163/157006382X00035 }}</ref> As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans believe that they constitute the true congregation of ''bnia nhura'', meaning 'Sons of Light', a term used by the Essenes.<ref name=BSN>{{cite web|author=Brikhah S. Nasoraia|title=Sacred Text and Esoteric Praxis in Sabian Mandaean Religion|year=2012|url=http://isamveri.org/pdfdrg/D201813/2012_I/2012_I_NASORAIAB.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|50}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-War-of-the-Sons-of-Light-Against-the-Sons-of-Darkness|title=The War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref> Mandaean scripture affirms that the Mandaeans descend directly from [[John the Baptist]]'s original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem.<ref name=HG>{{cite book|last=Drower|first=Ethel Stefana|title=The Haran Gawaita and the Baptism of Hibil-Ziwa|publisher=Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana|year=1953}}</ref>{{rp|vi, ix}} Similar to the Essenes, it is forbidden for a Mandaean to reveal the names of the angels to a gentile.<ref name="auto2">{{cite book|last=Drower|first=Ethel Stefana|title=The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran|publisher=Oxford at the Clarendon Press|year=1937}}</ref>{{rp|94}} Essene graves are oriented north–south<ref>{{cite book|last=Hachlili|first=Rachel|title=Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Land of Israel|publisher=E. J. Brill|place=Leiden, The Netherlands|year=1988|page=101|isbn=9004081151|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JswUAAAAIAAJ&dq=essene+burial&pg=PA101}}</ref> and a Mandaean's grave must also be in the north–south direction so that if the dead Mandaean were stood upright, they would face north.<ref name="auto2"/>{{rp|184}} Mandaeans have an oral tradition that some were originally vegetarian<ref name=Drower1960/>{{rp|32}} and also similar to the Essenes, they are [[pacifist]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Newman|first=Hillel|title=Proximity to Power and Jewish Sectarian Groups of the Ancient Period|date=2006|publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV|isbn=9789047408352 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mhJYEAAAQBAJ&q=Proximity+to+Power+and+Jewish+Sectarian+Groups+of+the+Ancient+Period}}</ref>{{rp|47}}<ref name="DEUTSCH2">{{cite web|last=Deutsch|first=Nathaniel|date=6 October 2007|title=Save the Gnostics|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/06/opinion/06deutsch.html|website=The New York Times|access-date=13 May 2022}}</ref>
+Early religious concepts and terminologies recur in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], and ''[[yardna|Yardena]]'' [[River Jordan|(Jordan)]] has been the name of every baptismal water in [[Mandaeism]].<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=chWcZcYcyeQC}}|title=Iconography of Religions: An Introduction|editor-last=Moore|editor-first=Albert C.|date=1977|publisher=Chris Robertson|isbn=9780800604882|last=Rudolph|first=Kurt|author-link=Kurt Rudolph|chapter=Mandaeism|volume=21|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/iconographyofrel0000moor}}</ref>{{rp|5}} ''Mara ḏ-Rabuta'' ([[Mandaic language|Mandaic]] for 'Lord of Greatness', which is One of the names for the Mandaean God [[Hayyi Rabbi]]) is found in the [[Genesis Apocryphon]] II, 4.<ref name="Rudolph 1964">{{cite journal|last=Rudolph|first=Kurt|title=War Der Verfasser Der Oden Salomos Ein "Qumran-Christ"? Ein Beitrag zur Diskussion um die Anfänge der Gnosis|journal=Revue de Qumrân|date=April 1964|volume=4|number=16|pages=523–555|publisher=Peeters}}</ref>{{RP|552-553}} Another early self-appellation is ''bhiria zidqa'', meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in the [[Book of Enoch]] and [[Genesis Apocryphon]] II, 4.<ref name="Rudolph 1964"/>{{RP|552-553}}<ref name=RudolphEI/><ref name="Aldihisi 2008">{{cite thesis|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1444088/|last=Aldihisi|first=Sabah|year=2008|title=The story of creation in the Mandaean holy book in the Ginza Rba|type=PhD|publisher=University College London}}</ref>{{rp|18}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coughenour|first=Robert A.|title=The Wisdom Stance of Enoch's Redactor|publisher=Brill|page=52| journal=Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period|volume=13|issue=1–2|date=Dec 1982|doi=10.1163/157006382X00035 }}</ref> As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans believe that they constitute the true congregation of ''bnia nhura'', meaning 'Sons of Light', a term used by the Essenes.<ref name=BSN>{{cite web|author=Brikhah S. Nasoraia|title=Sacred Text and Esoteric Praxis in Sabian Mandaean Religion|year=2012|url=https://isamveri.org/pdfdrg/D201813/2012_I/2012_I_NASORAIAB.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|50}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-War-of-the-Sons-of-Light-Against-the-Sons-of-Darkness|title=The War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref> Mandaean scripture affirms that the Mandaeans descend directly from [[John the Baptist]]'s original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem.<ref name=HG>{{cite book|last=Drower|first=Ethel Stefana|title=The Haran Gawaita and the Baptism of Hibil-Ziwa|publisher=Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana|year=1953}}</ref>{{rp|vi, ix}} Similar to the Essenes, it is forbidden for a Mandaean to reveal the names of the angels to a gentile.<ref name="auto2">{{cite book|last=Drower|first=Ethel Stefana|title=The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran|publisher=Oxford at the Clarendon Press|year=1937}}</ref>{{rp|94}} Essene graves are oriented north–south<ref>{{cite book|last=Hachlili|first=Rachel|title=Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Land of Israel|publisher=E. J. Brill|place=Leiden, The Netherlands|year=1988|page=101|isbn=9004081151|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JswUAAAAIAAJ&dq=essene+burial&pg=PA101}}</ref> and a Mandaean's grave must also be in the north–south direction so that if the dead Mandaean were stood upright, they would face north.<ref name="auto2"/>{{rp|184}} Mandaeans have an oral tradition that some were originally vegetarian<ref name=Drower1960/>{{rp|32}} and also similar to the Essenes, they are [[pacifist]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Newman|first=Hillel|title=Proximity to Power and Jewish Sectarian Groups of the Ancient Period|date=2006|publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV|isbn=9789047408352 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mhJYEAAAQBAJ&q=Proximity+to+Power+and+Jewish+Sectarian+Groups+of+the+Ancient+Period}}</ref>{{rp|47}}<ref name="DEUTSCH2">{{cite web|last=Deutsch|first=Nathaniel|date=6 October 2007|title=Save the Gnostics|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/06/opinion/06deutsch.html|website=The New York Times|access-date=13 May 2022}}</ref>
 The ''bit manda'' ([[beth manda]]) is described as ''biniana rba ḏ-šrara'' ("the Great building of Truth") and ''bit tušlima'' ("house of Perfection") in [[Mandaean texts]] such as the ''[[Qulasta]]'', ''[[Ginza Rabba]]'', and the ''[[Mandaean Book of John]]''. The only known literary parallels are in Essene texts from [[Qumran]] such as the ''[[Community Rule]]'', which has similar phrases such as the "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel" (''Community Rule'' 1QS VIII 9) and "house of Truth in Israel."<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://poj.peeters-leuven.be/secure/POJ/downloadpdf.php?ticket_id=607cb5ef1eb49|title=About the Links between the Dead Sea Scrolls and Mandaean Liturgy|last=Hamidović|first=David|journal=ARAM Periodical|volume=22|year=2010|pages=441–451|doi=10.2143/ARAM.22.0.2131048}}</ref>
@@ Line 105: / Line 105: @@
 === Christianity ===
 [[File:Saint John the Baptist Preaching in the Wilderness by Anton Raphael.png|thumb|John the Baptist was possibly an Essene.<ref name=":0" />|190x190px]]
-Rituals of the Essenes and [[Christianity]] have much in common; the Dead Sea Scrolls describe a meal of bread and wine that will be instituted by the [[messiah]], both the Essenes and Christians were eschatological communities, where judgement on the world would come at any time.<ref name="jpost.com">{{Cite news |title=The Essenes and the origins of Christianity |url=https://www.jpost.com/jerusalem-report/the-essenes-and-the-origins-of-christianity-562442 |access-date=2022-04-12 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post &#124; Jpost.com |language=en-US}}</ref> The New Testament also possibly quotes writings used by the Qumran community. Luke 1:31-35 states ''" And now you will conceive in your womb and bear a son and you will name him Jesus. He will be great and will be called the son of the Most High&nbsp;... the son of God"'' which seems to echo [[4Q246|4Q 246]], stating: ''"He will be called great and he will be called Son of God, and they will call him Son of the Most High&nbsp;... He will judge the earth in righteousness&nbsp;... and every nation will bow down to him".''<ref name="jpost.com"/>
+Rituals of the Essenes and [[Christianity]] have much in common; the Dead Sea Scrolls describe a meal of bread and wine that will be instituted by the [[messiah]], both the Essenes and Christians were eschatological communities, where judgement on the world would come at any time.<ref name="jpost.com">{{Cite news |title=The Essenes and the origins of Christianity |url=https://www.jpost.com/jerusalem-report/the-essenes-and-the-origins-of-christianity-562442 |access-date=2022-04-12 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post &#124; Jpost.com |language=en-US}}</ref> The New Testament also possibly quotes writings used by the Qumran community. Luke 1:31-35 states " And now you will conceive in your womb and bear a son and you will name him Jesus. He will be great and will be called the son of the Most High&nbsp;... the son of God" which seems to echo [[4Q246]], stating: "He will be called great and he will be called Son of God, and they will call him Son of the Most High&nbsp;... He will judge the earth in righteousness&nbsp;... and every nation will bow down to him".<ref name="jpost.com"/>
 Other similarities include high devotion to the faith even to the point of martyrdom, communal prayer, self denial and a belief in a captivity in a sinful world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC - History - Ancient History in depth: Lost and Hidden Christianity |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/losthiddenchristianity_article_01.shtml |access-date=2022-05-11 |publisher=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref>
@@ Line 111: / Line 111: @@
 [[John the Baptist]] has also been argued to have been an Essene, as there are numerous parallels between John's mission and the Essenes, which suggests he perhaps was trained by the Essene community.<ref name=":0">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=St. John the Baptist - Possible relationship with the Essenes {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-John-the-Baptist/Possible-relationship-with-the-Essenes |access-date=2022-04-12 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>
-In the early church a book called the [[Odes of Solomon]] was written. The writer was likely a very early convert from the Essene community into Christianity. The book reflects a mixture of mystical ideas of the Essene community with Christian concepts.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Denzer |first=Pam |title=Odes of Solomon: Early Hymns of the Jewish Christian Mystical Tradition |url=https://www.academia.edu/4440268}}</ref>
+In the early church a book called the [[Odes of Solomon]] was written. The writer was very likely a convert from the Essene community into Christianity. The book reflects a mixture of mystical ideas of the Essene community with Christian concepts.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Denzer |first=Pam |title=Odes of Solomon: Early Hymns of the Jewish Christian Mystical Tradition |url=https://www.academia.edu/4440268}}</ref>
 Both the Essenes and Christians practiced voluntary celibacy and prohibited divorce.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The Essenes and the origins of Christianity |url=https://www.jpost.com/jerusalem-report/the-essenes-and-the-origins-of-christianity-562442 |access-date=2022-06-19 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post &#124; Jpost.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Both also used concepts of "light" and "darkness" for good and evil.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fitzmyer |first=Joseph A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlwB8K0hiLIC&dq=Paul+and+Essenes+Habakkuk&pg=PA101 |title=The Impact of the Dead Sea Scrolls |date=2009 |publisher=Paulist Press |isbn=978-0-8091-4615-4 |language=en}}</ref>
@@ Line 117: / Line 117: @@
 A few have claimed that the Essenes had an idea of a pierced Messiah based on [[The War of the Messiah|4Q285]]; however, the interpretation of the text is ambiguous. Some scholars interpreted it as the Messiah being killed himself, while modern scholars mostly interpret it as the Messiah executing the enemies of Israel in an eschatological war.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Stuckenbruck |first1=Loren T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1E6_DwAAQBAJ&dq=4Q285+Christianity&pg=PT507 |title=T&T Clark Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism Volume One |last2=Gurtner |first2=Daniel M. |date=2019-12-26 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-567-65813-5 |language=en}}</ref>
-Both the Essenes and Christians practiced a ritual of immersion by water, however the Essenes had it as a regular practice instead of a one time event.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Charlesworth |first=James H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=axIMoFf-D5YC&dq=Baptism+Essenes&pg=PA450 |title=The Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls: The scrolls and Christian origins |date=2006 |publisher=Baylor University Press |isbn=978-1-932792-21-8 |language=en}}</ref>
+Both the Essenes and Christians practiced a ritual of immersion by water, however the Essenes had it as a regular practice instead of a one-time event.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Charlesworth |first=James H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=axIMoFf-D5YC&dq=Baptism+Essenes&pg=PA450 |title=The Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls: The scrolls and Christian origins |date=2006 |publisher=Baylor University Press |isbn=978-1-932792-21-8 |language=en}}</ref>
-Devotional writers associated with the [[Carmelites]], such as [[Daniel de la Vierge-Marie]], made the claim in the 17th century that the Essenes had been proto-Christian and that they were synonymous with the Carmelites since the times of the [[Prophet Elias]].<ref>{{harvsp|Siegfried|1960|p=3}}.</ref> This was a hotly disputed issue about the antiquity of the Carmelites with their rivals the [[Bollandists]].<ref>{{harvsp|Siegfried|1960|p=3}}.</ref>
+Devotional writers associated with the [[Carmelites]], such as [[Daniel de la Vierge-Marie]], made the claim in the 17th century that the Essenes had been proto-Christian and that they were synonymous with the Carmelites since the times of the [[Prophet Elias]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Siegfried |last=Wagner |title=Die Essener in der wissenschaftlichen Diskussion, in Beihefte zur Zeitschrift zur die Altestestamentlichen Wissenschaft |journal=Journal of Old Testament Studies |number=Supplement 79 |location=Berlin |publisher=Töpelmann |date=1960 |page=3}}</ref> This was a hotly disputed issue about the antiquity of the Carmelites with their rivals the [[Bollandists]].<ref>{{harvsp|Wagner|1960|p=3}}</ref>
 ===Magarites===
-The Magharians or [[Magarites]] ({{Langx|ar|Al-Maghariyyah}}, 'people of the caves')<ref name=dss>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/|isbn=978-0-19-508450-4|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls|title=Magharians|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|editor-first=Lawrence H.|editor-last=Schiffman|editor2-first=James C.|editor2-last=VanderKam}}</ref> were, according to [[Jacob Qirqisani]], a [[Judaism|Jewish]] sect founded in the 1st century&nbsp;BCE.
+The Magharians or [[Magarites]] ({{Langx|ar-Latn|Al-Maghariyyah}}, 'people of the caves')<ref name=dss>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/|isbn=978-0-19-508450-4|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls|title=Magharians|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|editor-first=Lawrence H.|editor-last=Schiffman|editor2-first=James C.|editor2-last=VanderKam}}</ref> were, according to [[Jacob Qirqisani]], a [[Judaism|Jewish]] sect founded in the 1st century&nbsp;BCE.
 [[Abraham Harkavy]] and others identify the Magharians with the Essenes, and their author referred to as the "Alexandrinian" with [[Philo]] (whose affinity for the Essenes is well-known), based on the following evidence:{{r|dss}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Abraham|last=Harkavy|chapter=Le-Ḳorot ha-Kittot be-Yisrael|editor-link=Heinrich Graetz|editor-first=Heinrich|editor-last=Grätz|title=Geschichte der Juden|volume=iii|page=496|language=he}}</ref>
 * The sect's name, which, in his view, does not refer to its books but to its followers who lived in caves or desert areas—an established Essene lifestyle;
@@ Line 149: / Line 149: @@
 * {{Cite book|last=Durant |first=Will |author-link=Will Durant |title=Caesar and Christ |publisher=MJF Books |year=1993 |isbn=5-552-12435-9}}
 * {{Cite book|first=Robert H. |last=Eisenman |author-link=Robert Eisenman |title=James, the brother of Jesus: the key to unlocking the secrets of early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls |publisher=[[Viking Press]] |location=New York City |year=1997 |isbn=0-670-86932-5|title-link=James the Brother of Jesus (book) }}
-* {{Cite book|first=Upton Clary |last=Ewing |title=The prophet of the Dead Sea Scrolls: the Essenes and the Early Christians, one and the same holy people: their seven devout practices |publisher=Tree of Life Publications |year=1994 |orig-year=1963 |isbn=0-930852-26-5 |oclc=30358890}}
+* {{Cite book|first=Upton Clary |last=Ewing |author-link=Upton C. Ewing|title=The prophet of the Dead Sea Scrolls: the Essenes and the Early Christians, one and the same holy people: their seven devout practices |publisher=Tree of Life Publications |year=1994 |orig-year=1963 |isbn=0-930852-26-5 |oclc=30358890}}
 * {{Cite book|first=Upton Clary |last=Ewing |title=The Essene Christ |year=1961 |oclc=384703 |publisher=Philosophical Library |location=New York City}}
 * {{Cite book|first=Francis |last=Legge |title=Forerunners and rivals of Christianity, from 330 B.C. to 330 A.D. |url=https://archive.org/details/forerunnersrival00legg |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University Books |location=[[New Hyde Park, New York]] |oclc=381558|lccn=64024125}}
@@ Line 165: / Line 165: @@
 * {{Cite book|first=Hugh J. |last=Schonfield |author-link=Hugh J. Schonfield |title=Those Incredible Christians |publisher=Element Books |location=Tisbury |year=1991 |orig-year=1968 |isbn=0-906540-71-2 |oclc=13536522}}
 * {{Cite book|first=George Bernard |last=Shaw |author-link=George Bernard Shaw |title=Androcles and The Lion |publisher=1st World Library – Literary Society |location=[[Fairfield, Iowa]] |year=2004 |orig-year=1912 |isbn=1-59540-237-3 |oclc=63203922|title-link=Androcles and the Lion (play) }}
-* Siegfried, Wagner, ''Die Essener in der wissenschaftlichen Diskussion, in Beihefte zur Zeitschrift zur die Altestestamentlichen Wissenschaft'', n° 79, Berlin, Töpelmann, 1960.
 * {{Cite journal|first=Enid S. |last=Smith |date=October 1959 |title=The Essenes Who Changed Churchianity |journal=[[Rays from the Rose Cross]]}}
 * {{Cite book|first=Charles P. |last=Vaclavik |title=The vegetarianism of Jesus Christ |publisher=Kaweah Publishing Company |location=[[Three Rivers, California]] |year=1986 |isbn=0-945146-00-0 |oclc=26054343}}
@@ Line 174: / Line 173: @@
 {{wikiquote}}
 {{NIE Poster|year=1905}}
-* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05546a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Essenes]
+* [https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05546a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Essenes]
-* [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=478&letter=E&search=Essenes Jewish Encyclopedia: Essenes]
+* [https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5867-essenes Jewish Encyclopedia: Essenes]
-* [http://www.duke.edu/~goranson/Essenes_&_Others.pdf Essenes and Others]: argues that the Hebrew original form of the name later spelled "Essenes" is in some Qumran scrolls as a self-designation.
+* [https://people.duke.edu/~goranson/Essenes_&_Others.pdf Essenes and Others]: argues that the Hebrew original form of the name later spelled "Essenes" is in some Qumran scrolls as a self-designation.
-* [http://www.duke.edu/~goranson/jannaeus.pdf "Jannaeus, His Brother Absalom, and Judah the Essene"] Stephen Goranson, identities of Wicked Priest and Teacher of Righteousness, relevant to history of the Essenes
+* [https://www.duke.edu/~goranson/jannaeus.pdf "Jannaeus, His Brother Absalom, and Judah the Essene"] Stephen Goranson, identities of Wicked Priest and Teacher of Righteousness, relevant to history of the Essenes
 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081227054921/http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Rs/rak/courses/225/texts/ESSENES Thematically compiled comparison of the parallels in the ancient sources]
 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110929134134/http://dss.collections.imj.org.il/community The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls/ Essenes]

Essenes: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 19:34, 3 November 2025

Contents

Etymology

Location

Rules, customs, theology, and beliefs

Involvement in the First Jewish–Roman War

Scholarly discussion

Connection to other religious traditions

Mandaeism

Christianity

Magarites

See also

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Essenes: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 19:34, 3 November 2025

Etymology

Location

Rules, customs, theology, and beliefs

Involvement in the First Jewish–Roman War

Scholarly discussion

Connection to other religious traditions

Mandaeism

Christianity

Magarites

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References

Further reading

External links

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