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imported>Mike Schwartz
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{{Short description|Modern calendar era}}  
{{Short description|Modern calendar era}}
{{Redirect|BCE|other uses|BCE (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|BCE|other uses|BCE (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024 |cs1-dates=ll}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024 |cs1-dates=ll}}
<!--NOTE TO CONTRIBUTORS: This article is about "Common Era" and "Before Common Era". It is NOT about the abbreviations CE and BCE, which have a separate article. Please do not add any alternative meanings of CE or BCE to this article. -->
'''Common Era''' ('''CE''') and '''Before the Common Era''' ('''BCE''') <!-- This article is about "Common Era". It is not about the abbreviation "CE". Please do not add any other association with that abbreviation as it will be deleted. --> are year notations for the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]] or [[Julian calendar]], and are exactly equivalent to the [[Anno Domini|Anno Domini (AD) and Before Christ (BC)]] notations. The expressions "{{CURRENTYEAR}} CE" and "AD {{CURRENTYEAR}}" each equally describe the current year; "400 BCE" and "400 BC" are the same year too.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url = http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/Anno%20Domini |title = Anno Domini |encyclopedia = Merriam Webster Online Dictionary |year = 2003 |publisher = Merriam-Webster |quote = Etymology: Medieval Latin, in the year of the Lord |access-date = 4 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/ce.htm |title=Controversy over the use of the "CE/BCE" and "AD/BC" dating notation/ |publisher=Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance|access-date=12 November 2011 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000303115803/http://www.religioustolerance.org/ce.htm |archive-date=March 3, 2000}}</ref> BCE/CE are primarily used to avoid religious connotations,<ref>{{cite web |title=Year dating conventions |first=Fred |last=Espenak | publisher= [[NASA]] | date=25 February 2008 |url=https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/dates.html |access-date=24 August 2021}}</ref> by not referring to [[Jesus]] as {{lang|la|[[Dominus (title)|Dominus]]}} [Lord].<ref>{{cite news |author=Herrmann |first=Andrew |date=27 May 2006 |title=BCE date designation called more sensitive |newspaper=Chicago Sun-Times |url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1620546.html |url-status=dead |access-date=18 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810211537/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1620546.html |archive-date=10 August 2017 |quote=The changes – showing up at museums, in academic circles and in school textbooks – have been touted as more sensitive to people of faiths outside of Christianity. ... The use of BCE and CE have rankled some Christians}}</ref><ref>{{Cite dictionary |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UJ9PYdzKf90C&pg=PA41 41] |title=Westminster dictionary of theological terms |entry=C. E. |first=Donald K |last=McKim |year=1996 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-25511-4}}</ref>{{efn |name="nostri"|AD is shortened from {{lang|la|anno Domini nostri Jesu Christi}} ("in the year of Our Lord Jesus Christ").<ref name=Irvin />}}


'''Common Era''' ('''CE''') and '''Before the Common Era''' ('''BCE''') <!-- This article is about "Common Era". It is not about the abbreviation "CE". Please do not add any other association with that abbreviation as it will be deleted. --> are year notations for the [[Gregorian calendar]] (and its predecessor, the [[Julian calendar]]), the world's most widely used [[calendar era]]. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the original [[Anno Domini|Anno Domini (AD) and Before Christ (BC)]] notations used for the same calendar era. The two notation systems are numerically equivalent: "{{CURRENTYEAR}} CE" and "AD {{CURRENTYEAR}}" each describe the current year; "400 BCE" and "400 BC" are the same year.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url = http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/Anno%20Domini |title = Anno Domini |encyclopedia = Merriam Webster Online Dictionary |year = 2003 |publisher = Merriam-Webster |quote = Etymology: Medieval Latin, in the year of the Lord |access-date = 4 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/ce.htm |title=Controversy over the use of the "CE/BCE" and "AD/BC" dating notation/ |publisher=Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance|access-date=12 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000303115803/http://www.religioustolerance.org/ce.htm |archive-date=March 3, 2000}}</ref>
== History ==
<!--NOTE TO CONTRIBUTORS: This article is about "Common Era" and "Before Common Era". It is NOT about the abbreviations CE and BCE, which have a separate article. Please do not add any alternative meanings of CE or BCE to this article. -->


The expression can be traced back to 1615, when it first appears in a book by [[Johannes Kepler]] as the {{langx|la|annus aerae nostrae vulgaris}} ({{transliteration|la|year of our common era}}),<ref>{{cite web|last1=Coolman|first1=Robert|title=Keeping Time: The Origin of B.C. & A.D.|url=https://www.livescience.com/45510-anno-domini.html|website=Live Science|access-date=11 November 2017}}</ref><ref name=VulgarisAerae1 /> and to 1635 in English as "[[wikt:vulgar|Vulgar]] Era".{{efn|From the Latin word {{lang|la|[[wikt:vulgus|vulgus]]}}, the common people{{snd}} to contrast it with the [[regnal year]] system of dating used by the government.}} The term "Common Era" can be found in English as early as 1708,<ref name=1708CommonInEnglish /> and became more widely used in the mid-19th century by [[Judaism|Jewish religious]] scholars. Since the late 20th century, BCE and CE have become popular in academic and scientific publications on the grounds that BCE and CE are religiously neutral terms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Year dating conventions |first=Fred |last=Espenak | publisher= [[NASA]] | date=25 February 2008 |url=https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/dates.html |access-date=24 August 2021}}</ref>{{efn|Two other systems that also do not use religious titles, the [[Astronomical year numbering|astronomical system]] and the [[ISO 8601]] standard, do use a [[year zero]]. The year 1 BCE (identical to the year 1 BC) is represented as 0 in the astronomical system, and as 0000 in ISO 8601. Presently, ISO 8601 dating requires use of the Gregorian calendar for all dates, however, whereas astronomical dating and Common Era dating allow use of either the Gregorian or Julian calendars.}} They have been promoted as more sensitive to non-Christians by not referring to [[Jesus]], the central figure of [[Christianity]], especially via the religious terms "[[Christ (title)|Christ]]" and {{lang|la|[[Dominus (title)|Dominus]]}} ("Lord") used by the other abbreviations.<ref>{{cite news |author=Herrmann |first=Andrew |date=27 May 2006 |title=BCE date designation called more sensitive |newspaper=Chicago Sun-Times |url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1620546.html |url-status=dead |access-date=18 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810211537/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1620546.html |archive-date=10 August 2017 |quote=The changes – showing up at museums, in academic circles and in school textbooks – have been touted as more sensitive to people of faiths outside of Christianity. ... The use of BCE and CE have rankled some Christians}}</ref><ref>{{Cite dictionary |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UJ9PYdzKf90C&pg=PA41 41] |title=Westminster dictionary of theological terms |entry=C. E. |first=Donald K |last=McKim |year=1996 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-25511-4}}</ref>{{efn |name="nostri"|AD is shortened from {{lang|la|anno Domini nostri Jesu Christi}} ("in the year of Our Lord Jesus Christ").<ref name=Irvin />}} Nevertheless, its [[epoch]] remains the same as [[Anno Domini#History|that used for the Anno Domini]] era.
=== Anno Domini ===
<!--NOTE TO CONTRIBUTORS: This article is about "Common Era" and "Before Common Era". It is NOT about the abbreviations CE and BCE, which have a separate article. Please do not add any alternative meanings of CE or BCE to this article. -->


== History ==
Around the year 525, the Christian monk [[Dionysius Exiguus]] devised the principle of taking  the moment that he believed to be the [[Date of birth of Jesus#According to Dionysius|date of the incarnation of Jesus]] to be the point from which years are numbered (the [[epoch]]) of the Christian [[ecclesiastical calendar]].<ref name=Pedersen /><ref>Doggett, L.E., (1992), [http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/calendars.html "Calendars"] in Seidelmann, P.K., ''The Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac'', Sausalito CA: University Science Books, 2.1</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BW_1mt4oebQC&q=jesus+birth+year+before&pg=PA686 686]|title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia |first=Geoffrey W. |last=Bromiley |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1995 |isbn= 978-0-8028-3781-3}}</ref> Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as "{{Lang|la|[[Anno Domini|Anni Domini]] Nostri Jesu Christi}}" (the years of our Lord Jesus Christ).<ref name=Pedersen />{{rp|52}} He did this to replace the [[Era of the Martyrs]] system (then used for some [[date of Easter|Easter tables]]) because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.<ref name=Pedersen />{{rp|50}}
=== Origins ===
{{See also|Anno Domini}}
Around the year 525, the Christian monk [[Dionysius Exiguus]] devised the principle of taking  the moment that he believed to be the [[Date of birth of Jesus#According to Dionysius|date of the incarnation of Jesus]] to be the point from which years are numbered (the [[epoch]]) of the Christian [[ecclesiastical calendar]].<ref name=Pedersen /><ref>Doggett, L.E., (1992), [http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/calendars.html "Calendars"] in Seidelmann, P.K., ''The Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac'', Sausalito CA: University Science Books, 2.1</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BW_1mt4oebQC&q=jesus+birth+year+before&pg=PA686 686]|title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia |first=Geoffrey W. |last=Bromiley |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1995 |isbn= 978-0-8028-3781-3}}</ref> Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as "{{Lang|la|Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi}}" (the years of our Lord Jesus Christ).<ref name=Pedersen />{{rp|52}} He did this to replace the [[Era of the Martyrs]] system (then used for some [[date of Easter|Easter tables]]) because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.<ref name=Pedersen />{{rp|50}}


This way of numbering years became more widespread in Europe, with its use by [[Bede]] in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before what he supposed to have been  the year of birth of Jesus,{{efn|Bede wrote of the Incarnation of Jesus, but treated it as synonymous with birth.<ref> Blackburn, B & Holford-Strevens, L, (2003), ''The Oxford Companion to the Year'', Oxford University Press, 778.</ref>}} without a [[year zero]].{{efn|As noted in [[History of zero|History of the zero]], the use of zero in Western civilization was uncommon before the twelfth century.}}
This way of numbering years became more widespread in Europe, with its use by [[Bede]] in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before 1 backwards, without a [[year zero]]{{efn|As noted in the [[history of zero]], the use of zero in Western civilization was uncommon before the twelfth century. Two other systems that also do not use religious titles, the [[Astronomical year numbering|astronomical system]] and the [[ISO 8601]] standard, do use zero. The year 1 BCE (or BC) is represented as 0 in the astronomical system, and as 0000 in ISO 8601.}} though the name "BC" for this era did not happen until much later.{{when|date=November 2025}}


=== Vulgar Era ===
=== Vulgar Era ===
{{wikt|vulgar}}
{{wikt|vulgar}}
[[File:JKepler.jpg|thumb|[[Johannes Kepler]] (1571{{ndash}}1630), the German [[astronomer]], [[German mathematician|mathematician]], [[astrologer]], [[Natural philosophy|natural philosopher]] and writer on music<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Jeans |first=Susi |author-link=Susi Jeans |others=Revised by [[H. Floris Cohen]] |year=2013 |orig-year=2001 |encyclopedia=[[Grove Music Online]] |title=Kepler [Keppler], Johannes |chapter=Kepler &#91;Keppler&#93;, Johannes |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |access-date=26 September 2021 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.14903 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000014903 }} {{Grove Music subscription}}</ref>]]
[[File:JKepler.jpg|thumb|[[Johannes Kepler]] (1571{{ndash}}1630), the German [[astronomer]], [[German mathematician|mathematician]], [[astrologer]], [[Natural philosophy|natural philosopher]] and writer on music<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Jeans |first=Susi |author-link=Susi Jeans |others=Revised by [[H. Floris Cohen]] |year=2013 |orig-year=2001 |encyclopedia=[[Grove Music Online]] |title=Kepler [Keppler], Johannes |chapter=Kepler &#91;Keppler&#93;, Johannes |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |access-date=26 September 2021 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.14903 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000014903 }} {{Grove Music subscription}}</ref>]]
The term "Common Era" is traced back in English to its appearance as "Vulgar Era" to distinguish years of the Anno Domini era, which was in popular use, from dates of the [[regnal year]] (the year of the reign of a sovereign) typically used in national law.<ref>{{Cite web| last = Weatherall| first = Claire| title = Library: Archival Skills: Historical dates| access-date = 21 September 2024| url = https://libguides.hull.ac.uk/archival-skills/historical-dates |website=University of Hull |date = 18 May 2023}}</ref> (The word 'vulgar' originally meant 'of the ordinary people', with no derogatory associations.<ref name="OED vulgar"/>)


The first use of the Latin term {{lang|la|anno aerae nostrae vulgaris}}{{Efn|name=VulgarisAerae0|In Latin, 'Common Era' is written as {{lang|la|Aera Vulgaris}}. It also occasionally appears, in Latin declination, as {{lang|la|æræ vulgaris}}, {{lang|la|aerae vulgaris}}, {{lang|la|aeram vulgarem}}, {{lang|la|anni vulgaris}}, {{lang|la|vulgaris aerae Christianae}}, and {{lang|la|anni vulgatae nostrae aerae Christianas}}.}} may be in a 1615 book by [[Johannes Kepler]].<ref name=VulgarisAerae1 /> Kepler uses it again, as {{lang|la|ab Anno vulgaris aerae}}, in a 1616 table of [[Ephemeris|ephemerides]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Ephemerides novae motuum caelestium, ab Ānno vulgaris aerae MDCXVII en observationibus potissimum Tychonis Brahei hypothesibus physicis, et tabulis Rudolphinis... |first=Johann |last=Kepler |publisher=Plancus |year=1616 <!--|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0kElSQAACAAJ&q=vulgaris+aerae |url-status=dead --> }}</ref> and again, as {{lang|la|ab anno vulgaris aerae}}, in 1617.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ephemerides novae motuum coelestium, ab anno vulgaris aerae MDCXVII[-XXXVI]... |quote=Part 3 has title: Tomi L Ephemeridvm Ioannis Kepleri pars tertia, complexa annos à M.DC.XXIX. in M.DC.XXXVI. In quibus & tabb. Rudolphi jam perfectis, et sociâ operâ clariss. viri dn. Iacobi Bartschii ... Impressa Sagani Silesiorvm, in typographeio Ducali, svmptibvs avthoris, anno M.DC.XXX. |author-link=Johannes Kepler|first1=Johannes |last1=Keppler |first2=Jakob |last2=Bartsch |publisher=Johannes Plancus |year=1617 |trans-title= (per 1635 English edition): ''New Ephemerids for the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeeres of the Vulgar Era 1617–1636''}} (His third use of "vulgaris aerae" (Latin for Common Era) (1617))</ref> An English edition of that book from 1635 may contain the earliest known use of "Vulgar Era" in its title page.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ephemerides of the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeers of the Vulgar Era 1633&nbsp;... |author1=Johann Kepler |author2=Adriaan Vlacq |year=1635}}</ref>{{efn|As England did not adopt the Gregorian calendar [[Calendar (New Style) Act 1750|until 1752]], "vulgar" dates were determined according to the [[Julian calendar]].}} A 1701 book edited by John Le Clerc includes the phrase "Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,{{nbsp}}6".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Harmony of the Evangelists |editor-first=John |editor-last=Le Clerc |location=London |publisher=Sam Buckley |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jakGAAAAQAAJ&q=%22vulgar+era%22&pg=PA5-IA4 5] |year=1701 |quote=Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra, 6}}</ref>
The first use of the Latin term {{lang|la|anno aerae nostrae vulgaris}}{{Efn|name=VulgarisAerae0|In Latin, 'Common Era' is written as {{lang|la|Aera Vulgaris}}. It also occasionally appears, in Latin declination, as {{lang|la|æræ vulgaris}}, {{lang|la|aerae vulgaris}}, {{lang|la|aeram vulgarem}}, {{lang|la|anni vulgaris}}, {{lang|la|vulgaris aerae Christianae}}, and {{lang|la|anni vulgatae nostrae aerae Christianas}}.}} may be in a 1615 book by [[Johannes Kepler]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Coolman|first1=Robert|title=Keeping Time: The Origin of B.C. & A.D.|url=https://www.livescience.com/45510-anno-domini.html|website=Live Science|access-date=11 November 2017}}</ref><ref name=VulgarisAerae1 /> to distinguish the Anno Domini era, which was in popular use, from dates of the [[regnal year]] (the year of the reign of a sovereign) typically used in national law.<ref>{{Cite web| last = Weatherall| first = Claire| title = Library: Archival Skills: Historical dates| access-date = 21 September 2024| url = https://libguides.hull.ac.uk/archival-skills/historical-dates |website=University of Hull |date = 18 May 2023}}</ref> The word 'vulgar' originally meant 'of the ordinary people', with no derogatory associations.<ref name="OED vulgar"/> Kepler uses it again, as {{lang|la|ab Anno vulgaris aerae}}, in a 1616 table of [[Ephemeris|ephemerides]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Ephemerides novae motuum caelestium, ab Ānno vulgaris aerae MDCXVII en observationibus potissimum Tychonis Brahei hypothesibus physicis, et tabulis Rudolphinis... |first=Johann |last=Kepler |publisher=Plancus |year=1616 <!--|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0kElSQAACAAJ&q=vulgaris+aerae |url-status=dead --> }}</ref> and again, as {{lang|la|ab anno vulgaris aerae}}, in 1617.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ephemerides novae motuum coelestium, ab anno vulgaris aerae MDCXVII[-XXXVI]... |quote=Part 3 has title: Tomi L Ephemeridvm Ioannis Kepleri pars tertia, complexa annos à M.DC.XXIX. in M.DC.XXXVI. In quibus & tabb. Rudolphi jam perfectis, et sociâ operâ clariss. viri dn. Iacobi Bartschii ... Impressa Sagani Silesiorvm, in typographeio Ducali, svmptibvs avthoris, anno M.DC.XXX. |author-link=Johannes Kepler|first1=Johannes |last1=Keppler |first2=Jakob |last2=Bartsch |publisher=Johannes Plancus |year=1617 |trans-title= (per 1635 English edition): ''New Ephemerids for the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeeres of the Vulgar Era 1617–1636''}} (His third use of "vulgaris aerae" (1617))</ref> An English edition of that book from 1635 may contain the earliest known use of "Vulgar Era" in its title page.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ephemerides of the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeers of the Vulgar Era 1633&nbsp;... |author1=Johann Kepler |author2=Adriaan Vlacq |year=1635}}</ref>{{efn|As England did not adopt the Gregorian calendar [[Calendar (New Style) Act 1750|until 1752]], "vulgar" dates were determined according to the [[Julian calendar]].}} A 1701 book edited by John Le Clerc includes the phrase "Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,{{nbsp}}6".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Harmony of the Evangelists |editor-first=John |editor-last=Le Clerc |location=London |publisher=Sam Buckley |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jakGAAAAQAAJ&q=%22vulgar+era%22&pg=PA5-IA4 5] |year=1701 |quote=Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra, 6}}</ref>


The [[Merriam-Webster Dictionary]] gives 1716 as the date of first use of the term "vulgar era" (which it defines as "Christian era").<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vulgarera |title=Merriam Webster Online entry for ''Vulgar Era'' | access-date=18 May 2011}}</ref>{{efn|The probable source is a 1716 book in English by Dean [[Humphrey Prideaux]] which refers to, "...the vulgar Æra of Christ's incarnation and not from the true time of it."<ref>{{cite book |title=The Old and New Testament Connected in the History of the Jews and Neighbouring Nations |author=Humphrey Prideaux, D.D.|author-link=Humphrey Prideaux |location=London  
The [[Merriam-Webster Dictionary]] gives 1716 as the date of first use of the term "vulgar era" (which it defines as "Christian era").<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vulgarera |title=Merriam Webster Online entry for ''Vulgar Era'' | access-date=18 May 2011}}</ref>{{efn|The probable source is a 1716 book in English by Dean [[Humphrey Prideaux]] which refers to, "...the vulgar Æra of Christ's incarnation and not from the true time of it."<ref>{{cite book |title=The Old and New Testament Connected in the History of the Jews and Neighbouring Nations |author=Humphrey Prideaux, D.D.|author-link=Humphrey Prideaux |location=London  
|page=[https://archive.org/details/bim_eighteenth-century_the-old-and-new-testamen_prideaux-humphrey_1716/page/n7/mode/1up? ii] |volume=1|year=1716 |edition=Second}}</ref> This citation is given in the 1933 edition of Oxford English Dictionary but without any assertion of first use.<ref name="OED vulgar">{{cite dictionary |title=Oxford English Dictionary |page=326 |entry=Vulgar |entry-url=https://archive.org/details/the-oxford-english-dictionary-1933-all-volumes/The%20Oxford%20English%20Dictionary%20Volume%2012%20-%20Variant/page/n329/mode/1up? |volume=12 |date=1933}}</ref>}}  
|page=[https://archive.org/details/bim_eighteenth-century_the-old-and-new-testamen_prideaux-humphrey_1716/page/n7/mode/1up? ii] |volume=1|year=1716 |edition=Second}}</ref> This citation is given in the 1933 edition of Oxford English Dictionary but without any assertion of first use.<ref name="OED vulgar">{{cite dictionary |title=Oxford English Dictionary |page=326 |entry=Vulgar |entry-url=https://archive.org/details/the-oxford-english-dictionary-1933-all-volumes/The%20Oxford%20English%20Dictionary%20Volume%2012%20-%20Variant/page/n329/mode/1up? |volume=12 |date=1933}}</ref>}}


The first published use of "Christian Era" may be the Latin phrase {{lang|la|annus aerae christianae}} on the title page of a 1584 theology book, {{lang|la|De Eucharistica controuersia}}.<ref>{{cite book |title={{lang|fr|Lire demain}}; Reading tomorrow  |chapter=Common Era 2.0 |last=Clivaz |first=Claire |page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=EbtYKIc0_Q4C&pg=PA38 38] |quote=... the expression "Christian era" appears in Latin in a 1584 theology book ([[Johann Jakob Grynaeus|Grynaeus]] and Beumler 1584) |publisher= EPFL Press |date=2012 |isbn=9782889141494}}</ref> In 1649, the Latin phrase {{lang|la|annus æræ Christianæ}} appeared in the title of an English almanac.<ref>{{cite book |title=Speculum uranicum, anni æræ Christianæ, 1649, or, An almanack and prognosication for the year of our Lord, 1649 being the first from bissextile or leap-year, and from the creation of the world 5598, wherein is contained many useful, pleasant and necessary observations, and predictions&nbsp;...&nbsp;: calculated (according to art) for the meridian and latitude of the ancient borough town of Stamford in Lincolnshire&nbsp;... and without sensible errour may serve the 3. kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. |last=WING |first=Vincent |year=1649 |location=London |publisher=J.L. for the Company of Stationers |quote=anni æræ Christianæ, 1649}}</ref> A 1652 ephemeris may be the first instance of the English use of "Christian Era".<ref>{{cite book |title=A celestiall glasse, or, Ephemeris for the year of the Christian era 1652 being the bissextile or leap-year: contayning the lunations, planetary motions, configurations & ecclipses for this present year&nbsp;...&nbsp;: with many other things very delightfull and necessary for most sorts of men: calculated exactly and composed for&nbsp;... Rochester |author=Sliter, Robert |year=1652 |publisher=Printed for the Company of Stationers |location=London}}</ref>
=== Christian Era ===


The English phrase "Common Era" appears at least as early as 1708,<ref name=1708CommonInEnglish>{{cite book |title=The History of the Works of the Learned |volume=10 |number=9 |location=London |date=January 1708 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sim_history-of-the-works-of-the-learned_1708-09_10_9/page/n10/mode/1up 513] |quote=... to the fourth century of the Common Era}} (Possibly the first use of ''common era'' in English (1708))</ref> and in a 1715 book on astronomy, it is used interchangeably with "Christian Era" and "Vulgar Era".<ref>{{cite book |first=David|last=Gregory |title=The Elements of Astronomy, Physical and Geometrical |author2=John Nicholson|author3-link=John Morphew |author3= John Morphew |year=1715 |quote=Some say the World was created 3950 Years before the common Æra of Christ |page=[https://archive.org/details/elementsofastron00greg/page/252/mode/2up 252] |publisher=J. Nicholson |location=London |volume=1 }} ''Before Christ'' and ''Christian Era'' appear on the same page 252, while ''Vulgar Era'' appears on [https://archive.org/details/elementsofastron00greg/page/250/mode/2up page 250]</ref> A 1759 history book uses ''common æra'' in a generic sense to refer to "the common era of the Jews".<ref>{{cite book |title=An Universal History: From the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time |first=George|last=Sale|author-link=George Sale |author2=Psalmanazar, George |author3=Bower, Archibald |author4=Shelvocke, George |author5=Campbell, John |author6= Swinton, John |year=1759 |quote=And it doth not appear, that they began to reckon from the creation till after their ''[[Gemarrah]]'' was finished;at which time they fixed that for their common era |publisher=C. Bathurst [etc.] |location=London |volume=13| page=[https://archive.org/details/anuniversalhist28swingoog/page/n145 130] |title-link=An Universal History: From the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time}} [In this case, ''their'' refers to the Jews.]</ref> The phrase "before the common era" may have first appeared in a 1770 work that also uses ''common era'' and ''vulgar era'' as synonyms in a translation of a book originally written in German. <ref>{{cite book |last=Hooper|first=William |author2=Bielfeld, Jacob Friedrich |title=The Elements of Universal Erudition: Containing an Analytical Abridgment of the Sciences, Polite Arts, and Belles Lettres |volume=3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/elementsofuniver03bieluoft/page/63/mode/1up 63], [https://archive.org/details/elementsofuniver03bieluoft/page/105/mode/1up?view=theater 105] |year=1770 |publisher=J Robson and B. Law  |location=London |quote=The Spanish era began with the year of the world 3966, and 38 years before the common era (p63); 1796 years before the common era [...] 776 before the vulgar era. (p105) }} [Possibly the first English use of "before the common era", with "vulgar era" synonymous with "common era" (1770)]</ref> The 1797 edition of the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] uses the terms ''vulgar era'' and ''common era'' synonymously.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=W3xMAAAAMAAJ&q=%22vulgar+era%22&pg=RA1-PA228 228] |entry=Peter |quote=St Peter died in the 66th year of the vulgar era  |date=1797 |publisher=A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar |author1=MacFarquhar, Colin |author2=Gleig, George}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=W3xMAAAAMAAJ&q=%22common+era%22&pg=PA50 50]|entry=Paul |quote=This happened in the 33rd year of the common era, some time after our Saviour's death. |date=1797 |publisher=A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar |author1=MacFarquhar, Colin |author2=Gleig, George }}</ref>  
The first published use of "Christian Era" may be the Latin phrase {{lang|la|annus aerae christianae}} on the title page of a 1584 theology book, {{lang|la|De Eucharistica controuersia}}.<ref>{{cite book |title={{lang|fr|Lire demain}}; Reading tomorrow  |chapter=Common Era 2.0 |last=Clivaz |first=Claire |page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=EbtYKIc0_Q4C&pg=PA38 38] |quote=... the expression "Christian era" appears in Latin in a 1584 theology book ([[Johann Jakob Grynaeus|Grynaeus]] and Beumler 1584) |publisher= EPFL Press |date=2012 |isbn=9782889141494}}</ref> In 1649, the Latin phrase {{lang|la|annus æræ Christianæ}} appeared in the title of an English almanac.<ref>{{cite book |title=Speculum uranicum, anni æræ Christianæ, 1649, or, An almanack and prognosication for the year of our Lord, 1649 being the first from bissextile or leap-year, and from the creation of the world 5598, wherein is contained many useful, pleasant and necessary observations, and predictions&nbsp;...&nbsp;: calculated (according to art) for the meridian and latitude of the ancient borough town of Stamford in Lincolnshire&nbsp;... and without sensible errour may serve the 3. kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. |last=WING |first=Vincent |year=1649 |location=London |publisher=J.L. for the Company of Stationers |quote=anni æræ Christianæ, 1649}}</ref> A 1652 ephemeris may be the first instance of the English use of "Christian Era".<ref>{{cite book |title=A celestiall glasse, or, Ephemeris for the year of the Christian era 1652 being the bissextile or leap-year: contayning the lunations, planetary motions, configurations & ecclipses for this present year&nbsp;...&nbsp;: with many other things very delightfull and necessary for most sorts of men: calculated exactly and composed for&nbsp;... Rochester |author=Sliter, Robert |year=1652 |publisher=Printed for the Company of Stationers |location=London}}</ref> It is possible this influenced the wording choice of "Common Era" to have the same abbreviation.{{cn|date=November 2025}}
 
=== Common Era ===
 
The English phrase "Common Era" appears at least as early as 1708,<ref name=1708CommonInEnglish>{{cite book |title=The History of the Works of the Learned |volume=10 |number=9 |location=London |date=January 1708 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sim_history-of-the-works-of-the-learned_1708-09_10_9/page/n10/mode/1up 513] |quote=... to the fourth century of the Common Era}} (Possibly the first use of ''common era'' in English (1708))</ref> and in a 1715 book on astronomy, it is used interchangeably with "Christian Era" and "Vulgar Era".<ref>{{cite book |first=David|last=Gregory |title=The Elements of Astronomy, Physical and Geometrical |author2=John Nicholson|author3-link=John Morphew |author3= John Morphew |year=1715 |quote=Some say the World was created 3950 Years before the common Æra of Christ |page=[https://archive.org/details/elementsofastron00greg/page/252/mode/2up 252] |publisher=J. Nicholson |location=London |volume=1 }} ''Before Christ'' and ''Christian Era'' appear on the same page 252, while ''Vulgar Era'' appears on [https://archive.org/details/elementsofastron00greg/page/250/mode/2up page 250]</ref> A 1759 history book uses ''common æra'' in a generic sense to refer to "the common era of the Jews".<ref>{{cite book |title=An Universal History: From the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time |first=George|last=Sale|author-link=George Sale |author2=Psalmanazar, George |author3=Bower, Archibald |author4=Shelvocke, George |author5=Campbell, John |author6= Swinton, John |year=1759 |quote=And it doth not appear, that they began to reckon from the creation till after their ''[[Gemarrah]]'' was finished;at which time they fixed that for their common era |publisher=C. Bathurst [etc.] |location=London |volume=13| page=[https://archive.org/details/anuniversalhist28swingoog/page/n145 130] |title-link=An Universal History: From the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time}} [In this case, ''their'' refers to the Jews.]</ref> The phrase "before the common era" may have first appeared in a 1770 work that also uses ''common era'' and ''vulgar era'' as synonyms in a translation of a book originally written in German.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hooper|first=William |author2=Bielfeld, Jacob Friedrich |title=The Elements of Universal Erudition: Containing an Analytical Abridgment of the Sciences, Polite Arts, and Belles Lettres |volume=3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/elementsofuniver03bieluoft/page/63/mode/1up 63], [https://archive.org/details/elementsofuniver03bieluoft/page/105/mode/1up?view=theater 105] |year=1770 |publisher=J Robson and B. Law  |location=London |quote=The Spanish era began with the year of the world 3966, and 38 years before the common era (p63); 1796 years before the common era [...] 776 before the vulgar era. (p105) }} [Possibly the first English use of "before the common era", with "vulgar era" synonymous with "common era" (1770)]</ref> The 1797 edition of the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] uses the terms ''vulgar era'' and ''common era'' synonymously.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=W3xMAAAAMAAJ&q=%22vulgar+era%22&pg=RA1-PA228 228] |entry=Peter |quote=St Peter died in the 66th year of the vulgar era  |date=1797 |publisher=A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar |author1=MacFarquhar, Colin |author2=Gleig, George}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=W3xMAAAAMAAJ&q=%22common+era%22&pg=PA50 50]|entry=Paul |quote=This happened in the 33rd year of the common era, some time after our Saviour's death. |date=1797 |publisher=A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar |author1=MacFarquhar, Colin |author2=Gleig, George }}</ref>  
In 1835, in his book ''[[Living Oracles]]'', [[Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement)|Alexander Campbell]] wrote: "The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of Jesus Christ, the first of which was but eight days".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/acampbell/tlo4/TLO400L4.HTM |title=The Living Oracles, Fourth Edition |year=1835 |author=Alexander Campbell |pages=16–20 |access-date=18 May 2011|author-link=Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement) }}</ref> He refers to the ''common era'' as a synonym for ''vulgar era'': "the fact that our Lord was born on the 4th year before the vulgar era, called Anno Domini, thus making (for example) the 42d year from his birth to correspond with the 38th of the common era".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/acampbell/tlo4/TLO400L3.HTM |title=The Living Oracles, Fourth Edition |year=1835 |author=Alexander Campbell |pages=15–16 |access-date=18 May 2011|author-link=Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement) }}</ref> The ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' (1909), in at least one article, reports all three terms (Christian, Vulgar, Common Era) being commonly understood by the early 20th century.<ref>{{cite Encyclopedia |title=Catholic Encyclopedia |entry-url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm#christian |entry=General Chronology |quote=Foremost among these [various eras] is that which is now adopted by all civilized peoples and known as the Christian, Vulgar or Common Era, in the twentieth century of which we are now living}}.</ref>
In 1835, in his book ''[[Living Oracles]]'', [[Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement)|Alexander Campbell]] wrote: "The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of Jesus Christ, the first of which was but eight days".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/acampbell/tlo4/TLO400L4.HTM |title=The Living Oracles, Fourth Edition |year=1835 |author=Alexander Campbell |pages=16–20 |access-date=18 May 2011|author-link=Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement) }}</ref> He refers to the ''common era'' as a synonym for ''vulgar era'': "the fact that our Lord was born on the 4th year before the vulgar era, called Anno Domini, thus making (for example) the 42d year from his birth to correspond with the 38th of the common era".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/acampbell/tlo4/TLO400L3.HTM |title=The Living Oracles, Fourth Edition |year=1835 |author=Alexander Campbell |pages=15–16 |access-date=18 May 2011|author-link=Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement) }}</ref> The ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' (1909), in at least one article, reports all three terms (Christian, Vulgar, Common Era) being commonly understood by the early 20th century.<ref>{{cite Encyclopedia |title=Catholic Encyclopedia |entry-url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm#christian |entry=General Chronology |quote=Foremost among these [various eras] is that which is now adopted by all civilized peoples and known as the Christian, Vulgar or Common Era, in the twentieth century of which we are now living}}.</ref>


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An adapted translation of ''Common Era'' into [[Latin]] as {{lang|la|Era Vulgaris}}{{efn|''era''{{snd}} or, with a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]], {{lang|la|ēra}}{{snd}} being an alternative form of {{lang|la|aera}}; {{lang|la|aera}} is the usual form<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Dictionnaire Illustré Latin-Français]] |author=[[Félix Gaffiot]] |publisher=[[Hachette (publisher)|Hachette]] |date=1934}}</ref>}} was adopted in the 20th century by some followers of [[Aleister Crowley]], and thus the abbreviation "e.v." or "EV" may sometimes be seen as a replacement for AD.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Weiser Concise Guide to Aleister Crowley |first=Richard |last=Kaczynski |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1adnRtKaWakC&pg=PA48 48]  |publisher=Weiser Books |date=1 April 2009}}</ref>
An adapted translation of ''Common Era'' into [[Latin]] as {{lang|la|Era Vulgaris}}{{efn|''era''{{snd}} or, with a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]], {{lang|la|ēra}}{{snd}} being an alternative form of {{lang|la|aera}}; {{lang|la|aera}} is the usual form<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Dictionnaire Illustré Latin-Français]] |author=[[Félix Gaffiot]] |publisher=[[Hachette (publisher)|Hachette]] |date=1934}}</ref>}} was adopted in the 20th century by some followers of [[Aleister Crowley]], and thus the abbreviation "e.v." or "EV" may sometimes be seen as a replacement for AD.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Weiser Concise Guide to Aleister Crowley |first=Richard |last=Kaczynski |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1adnRtKaWakC&pg=PA48 48]  |publisher=Weiser Books |date=1 April 2009}}</ref>


=== History of the use of the CE/BCE abbreviation ===
=== Judaism ===
Although [[Jews]] have the [[Hebrew calendar]], they often use the Gregorian calendar without the AD prefix, as [[Judaism]] does not recognize Jesus as the [[Messiah in Judaism|Messiah]].<ref>{{cite web |quote=Jews do not generally use the words 'A.D.' and 'B.C.' to refer to the years on the Gregorian calendar. 'A.D.' means 'the year of our [[L-rd]],' and we do not believe Jesus is the L-rd. Instead, we use the abbreviations C.E. (Common or Christian Era) and B.C.E. (Before the Common Era). |author=Tracey R Rich |url=http://www.jewfaq.org/calendar.htm#Years | title=Jewish Calendar |website=Judaism 101 | access-date=18 May 2011}}</ref> As early as 1825, the abbreviation VE (for Vulgar Era) was in use among Jews to denote years in the Western calendar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishgen.org/jcr-uk/susser/plymouthinscriptions.htm |title= Plymouth Hoe Old Jewish Cemetery Tombstone Inscriptions 3 |date=2003 |publisher=Jewish Communities & Records, Susser Archive |editor-first1=Bernard |editor-last1=Susser |quote=Here is buried his honour Judah ben his honour Joseph, a prince and honoured amongst philanthropists, who executed good deeds, died in his house in the City of Bath, Tuesday, and was buried here on Sunday, 19 Sivan in the year 5585. In memory of Lyon Joseph Esq (merchant of Falmouth, Cornwall). who died at Bath June AM 5585/VE 1825. Beloved and respected. |access-date=18 May 2011}} [19 Sivan 5585 [[Anno Mundi|AM]] is 5 June 1825. VE is likely an abbreviation for ''Vulgar Era''.]</ref> {{As of|2005}}, Common Era notation has also been in use for Hebrew lessons for more than a century.<ref name=Gormley /> Jews have also used the term '''Current Era'''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/history/history_1.shtml#section_2 | title=History of Judaism 63 BCE – 1086 CE| date=8 February 2005 |author=BBC Team |work=BBC Religion & Ethics |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation | access-date=20 April 2016}}</ref>
Although [[Jews]] have the [[Hebrew calendar]], they often use the Gregorian calendar without the AD prefix, as [[Judaism]] does not recognize Jesus as the [[Messiah in Judaism|Messiah]].<ref>{{cite web |quote=Jews do not generally use the words 'A.D.' and 'B.C.' to refer to the years on the Gregorian calendar. 'A.D.' means 'the year of our [[L-rd]],' and we do not believe Jesus is the L-rd. Instead, we use the abbreviations C.E. (Common or Christian Era) and B.C.E. (Before the Common Era). |author=Tracey R Rich |url=http://www.jewfaq.org/calendar.htm#Years | title=Jewish Calendar |website=Judaism 101 | access-date=18 May 2011}}</ref> As early as 1825, the abbreviation VE (for Vulgar Era) was in use among Jews to denote years in the Western calendar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishgen.org/jcr-uk/susser/plymouthinscriptions.htm |title= Plymouth Hoe Old Jewish Cemetery Tombstone Inscriptions 3 |date=2003 |publisher=Jewish Communities & Records, Susser Archive |editor-first1=Bernard |editor-last1=Susser |quote=Here is buried his honour Judah ben his honour Joseph, a prince and honoured amongst philanthropists, who executed good deeds, died in his house in the City of Bath, Tuesday, and was buried here on Sunday, 19 Sivan in the year 5585. In memory of Lyon Joseph Esq (merchant of Falmouth, Cornwall). who died at Bath June AM 5585/VE 1825. Beloved and respected. |access-date=18 May 2011}} [19 Sivan 5585 [[Anno Mundi|AM]] is 5 June 1825. VE is likely an abbreviation for ''Vulgar Era''.]</ref> ''Common Era'' has been in use for Hebrew lessons since before 1905.<ref name=Gormley /> Jews have also used the term ''Current Era''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/history/history_1.shtml#section_2 | title=History of Judaism 63 BCE – 1086 CE| date=8 February 2005 |author=BBC Team |work=BBC Religion & Ethics |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation | access-date=20 April 2016}}</ref>


== Contemporary usage ==
== Contemporary usage ==
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===United States===
===United States===
In the United States, the use of the BCE/CE notation in [[textbook]]s was reported in 2005 to be growing.<ref name=Gormley /> Some publications have transitioned to using it exclusively. For example, the 2007 [[World Almanac]] was the first edition to switch to BCE/CE, ending a period of 138 years in which the traditional BC/AD dating notation was used. BCE/CE is used by the [[College Board]] in its history tests,<ref>{{cite web |title= AP: World History |url=http://www.collegeboard.com/student/testing/ap/history_world/topic.html?worldhist |access-date=18 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505010633/http://www.collegeboard.com/student/testing/ap/history_world/topic.html?worldhist |archive-date= 5 May 2011 |url-status= dead}}</ref> and by the [[Norton Anthology of English Literature]]. Others have taken a different approach. The US-based [[History (U.S. TV channel)|History Channel]] uses BCE/CE notation in articles on non-Christian religious topics such as [[Religious significance of Jerusalem#Jerusalem, Jews and Judaism|Jerusalem and Judaism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/topics/jerusalem |title=Jerusalem Timeline |publisher=History Channel |access-date=18 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520111303/http://www.history.com/topics/jerusalem |archive-date=20 May 2011 }};{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/topics/jerusalem |title=Jerusalem: Biographies |publisher=History Channel |access-date=18 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520111303/http://www.history.com/topics/jerusalem |archive-date=20 May 2011 }}</ref> The 2006 style guide for the Episcopal Diocese ''Maryland Church News'' says that BCE and CE should be used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ang-md.org/mcn/style_guide.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060620230309/http://ang-md.org/mcn/style_guide.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 June 2006 |title=Maryland Church News Submission Guide & Style Manual |work=Maryland Church News |date=1 April 2005 |access-date=18 May 2011 }}</ref>
In the United States, the use of the BCE/CE notation in [[textbook]]s was reported in 2005 to be growing.<ref name=Gormley /> Some publications have transitioned to using it exclusively. For example, the 2007 [[World Almanac]] was the first edition to switch to BCE/CE, ending a period of 138 years in which the traditional BC/AD dating notation was used. BCE/CE is used by the [[College Board]] in its history tests,<ref>{{cite web |title= AP: World History |url=http://www.collegeboard.com/student/testing/ap/history_world/topic.html?worldhist |access-date=18 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505010633/http://www.collegeboard.com/student/testing/ap/history_world/topic.html?worldhist |archive-date= 5 May 2011 |url-status= dead}}</ref> and by the [[Norton Anthology of English Literature]]. Others have taken a different approach. The US-based [[History (U.S. TV channel)|History Channel]] uses BCE/CE notation in articles on non-Christian religious topics such as [[Religious significance of Jerusalem#Jerusalem, Jews and Judaism|Jerusalem and Judaism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/topics/jerusalem |title=Jerusalem Timeline |publisher=History Channel |access-date=18 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520111303/http://www.history.com/topics/jerusalem |archive-date=20 May 2011 }};{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/topics/jerusalem |title=Jerusalem: Biographies |publisher=History Channel |access-date=18 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520111303/http://www.history.com/topics/jerusalem |archive-date=20 May 2011 }}</ref> The 2006 style guide for the Episcopal Diocese ''Maryland Church News'' says that BCE and CE should be used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ang-md.org/mcn/style_guide.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060620230309/http://ang-md.org/mcn/style_guide.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 June 2006 |title=Maryland Church News Submission Guide & Style Manual |work=Maryland Church News |date=1 April 2005 |access-date=18 May 2011 }}</ref> The US-based [[Society of Biblical Literature]] style guide for academic texts on religion prefers BCE/CE to BC/AD.<ref>''SBL Handbook of Style'' [[Society of Biblical Literature]] 1999 "8.1.2 ERAS – The preferred style is B.C.E. and C.E. (with periods). If you use A.D. and B.C., remember that A.D. precedes the date and B.C. follows it. (For the use of these abbreviations in titles, see §&nbsp;7.1.3.2.)"</ref>


In June 2006, in the United States, the Kentucky State School Board reversed its decision to use BCE and CE in the state's new Program of Studies, leaving education of students about these concepts a matter of local discretion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tffky.org/articles/Press%20Releases/prs%2006-14-06%20MC.html |title=State School Board reverses itself on B.C./A.D. controversy |publisher=Family Foundation of Kentucky |access-date=18 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427032052/http://www.tffky.org/articles/Press%20Releases/prs%2006-14-06%20MC.html |archive-date=27 April 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://legacy.kctcs.edu/todaysnews/index.cfm?tn_date=2006-06-16#5119 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710123618/http://legacy.kctcs.edu/todaysnews/index.cfm?tn_date=2006-06-16#5119 |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 July 2009 |title=School board keeps traditional historic designations |author=Joe Biesk |newspaper=Louisville Courier-Journal |date=15 June 2006 |access-date=18 May 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://cpe.ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/5F08162C-899F-47FE-9367-1DDD82DE74E6/0/6_CommissionerofEdReport.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060926165947/http://cpe.ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/5F08162C-899F-47FE-9367-1DDD82DE74E6/0/6_CommissionerofEdReport.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 September 2006|title=Kentucky Board of Education Report |publisher=Kentucky Board of Education Report |date=10 June 2006 |access-date=18 May 2011}}</ref>
In June 2006, in the United States, the Kentucky State School Board reversed its decision to use BCE and CE in the state's new Program of Studies, leaving education of students about these concepts a matter of local discretion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tffky.org/articles/Press%20Releases/prs%2006-14-06%20MC.html |title=State School Board reverses itself on B.C./A.D. controversy |publisher=Family Foundation of Kentucky |access-date=18 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427032052/http://www.tffky.org/articles/Press%20Releases/prs%2006-14-06%20MC.html |archive-date=27 April 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://legacy.kctcs.edu/todaysnews/index.cfm?tn_date=2006-06-16#5119 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710123618/http://legacy.kctcs.edu/todaysnews/index.cfm?tn_date=2006-06-16#5119 |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 July 2009 |title=School board keeps traditional historic designations |author=Joe Biesk |newspaper=Louisville Courier-Journal |date=15 June 2006 |access-date=18 May 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://cpe.ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/5F08162C-899F-47FE-9367-1DDD82DE74E6/0/6_CommissionerofEdReport.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060926165947/http://cpe.ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/5F08162C-899F-47FE-9367-1DDD82DE74E6/0/6_CommissionerofEdReport.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 September 2006|title=Kentucky Board of Education Report |publisher=Kentucky Board of Education Report |date=10 June 2006 |access-date=18 May 2011}}</ref>
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Critics note the fact that there is no difference in the [[epoch]] of the two systems—chosen to be close to the [[date of birth of Jesus]]. Since the year numbers are the same, BCE and CE dates should be equally offensive to other religions as BC and AD.<ref name="Pollick-2024">{{Cite web |title=What is the Difference Between AD, BC, BCE, and CE in Identifying Historical Dates? |url=http://www.historicalindex.org/what-is-the-difference-between-ad-bc-bce-and-ce-in-identifying-historical-dates.htm |website=Historical Index |first=Michael |last=Pollick |date= 23 May 2024 |access-date=21 August 2024}}</ref> [[Roman Catholic]] priest and writer on interfaith issues [[Raimon Panikkar]] argued that the BCE/CE usage is the less inclusive option since they are still using the Christian calendar numbers and forcing it on other nations.<ref name=Panikkar>{{Cite book |first=Raimon |last=Panikkar |author-link=Raimon Panikkar |title=Christophany: The Fullness of Man |location=Maryville, NY |publisher=Orbis Books |year=2004 |page=173|quote=To call our age 'the Common Era,' even though for the Jews, the Chinese, the Tamil, the Muslims, and many others it is not a common era, constitutes the acme of colonialism.|isbn=978-1-57075-564-4}}</ref> In 1993, the English-language expert [[Kenneth G. Wilson (author)|Kenneth G. Wilson]] speculated a [[slippery slope]] scenario in his style guide that, "if we do end by casting aside the AD/BC convention, almost certainly some will argue that we ought to cast aside as well the conventional numbering system [that is, the method of numbering years] itself, given its Christian basis."<ref name=Wilson />
Critics note the fact that there is no difference in the [[epoch]] of the two systems—chosen to be close to the [[date of birth of Jesus]]. Since the year numbers are the same, BCE and CE dates should be equally offensive to other religions as BC and AD.<ref name="Pollick-2024">{{Cite web |title=What is the Difference Between AD, BC, BCE, and CE in Identifying Historical Dates? |url=http://www.historicalindex.org/what-is-the-difference-between-ad-bc-bce-and-ce-in-identifying-historical-dates.htm |website=Historical Index |first=Michael |last=Pollick |date= 23 May 2024 |access-date=21 August 2024}}</ref> [[Roman Catholic]] priest and writer on interfaith issues [[Raimon Panikkar]] argued that the BCE/CE usage is the less inclusive option since they are still using the Christian calendar numbers and forcing it on other nations.<ref name=Panikkar>{{Cite book |first=Raimon |last=Panikkar |author-link=Raimon Panikkar |title=Christophany: The Fullness of Man |location=Maryville, NY |publisher=Orbis Books |year=2004 |page=173|quote=To call our age 'the Common Era,' even though for the Jews, the Chinese, the Tamil, the Muslims, and many others it is not a common era, constitutes the acme of colonialism.|isbn=978-1-57075-564-4}}</ref> In 1993, the English-language expert [[Kenneth G. Wilson (author)|Kenneth G. Wilson]] speculated a [[slippery slope]] scenario in his style guide that, "if we do end by casting aside the AD/BC convention, almost certainly some will argue that we ought to cast aside as well the conventional numbering system [that is, the method of numbering years] itself, given its Christian basis."<ref name=Wilson />


Some [[Christians]] are offended by the removal of the reference to Jesus,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20061202/ai_n16891064|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012132926/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20061202/ai_n16891064|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 October 2007|last=Whitney|first=Susan|title=Altering history? Changes have some asking 'Before what?'|newspaper=The Deseret News|date=2 December 2006|quote='I find this attempt to restructure history offensive,' Lori Weintz wrote, in a letter to National Geographic publishers.&nbsp;... 'The forward to your book says B.C. and A.D. were removed so as to "not impose the standards of one culture on others."&nbsp;... It's 2006 this year for anyone on Earth that is participating in day-to-day world commerce and communication. Two thousand six years since what? Most people know, regardless of their belief system, and aren't offended by a historical fact.'|access-date=18 May 2011}}</ref> including the [[Southern Baptist Convention]].<ref name="SBC" />
Some [[Christians]] are offended by the removal of the reference to Jesus.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20061202/ai_n16891064|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012132926/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20061202/ai_n16891064|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 October 2007|last=Whitney|first=Susan|title=Altering history? Changes have some asking 'Before what?'|newspaper=The Deseret News|date=2 December 2006|quote='I find this attempt to restructure history offensive,' Lori Weintz wrote, in a letter to National Geographic publishers.&nbsp;... 'The forward to your book says B.C. and A.D. were removed so as to "not impose the standards of one culture on others."&nbsp;... It's 2006 this year for anyone on Earth that is participating in day-to-day world commerce and communication. Two thousand six years since what? Most people know, regardless of their belief system, and aren't offended by a historical fact.'|access-date=18 May 2011}}</ref>


== Conventions in style guides ==
== Conventions in style guides ==
The abbreviation BCE, just as with BC, always follows the year number. Unlike AD, which still often precedes the year number, CE always follows the year number (if context requires that it be written at all).<ref>{{cite book | title = Chicago Manual of Style | edition = 17th | isbn = 978-0-226-28705-8 | date = 2017 | publisher = University of Chicago Press | at = ¶ 9.34  }}</ref> Thus, the current year is written as {{CURRENTYEAR}} in both notations (or, if further clarity is needed, as {{CURRENTYEAR}} CE, or as AD {{CURRENTYEAR}}), and the year that [[Socrates]] died is represented as 399 BCE (the same year that is represented by 399 BC in the BC/AD notation). The abbreviations are sometimes written with small capital letters, or with [[Full stop|periods]] (e.g., "<span style="font-size:87%;">B.C.E.</span>" or "C.E.").<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/about15_rules.html |title=Major Rule Changes in The Chicago Manual of Style, Fifteenth Edition |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |quote=Certain abbreviations traditionally set in small caps are now in full caps (AD, BCE, and the like), with small caps an option. |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070909071543/http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/about15_rules.html|archive-date=9 September 2007|access-date=26 May 2015}}</ref> The US-based [[Society of Biblical Literature]] style guide for academic texts on religion prefers BCE/CE to BC/AD.<ref>''SBL Handbook of Style'' [[Society of Biblical Literature]] 1999 "8.1.2 ERAS – The preferred style is B.C.E. and C.E. (with periods). If you use A.D. and B.C., remember that A.D. precedes the date and B.C. follows it. (For the use of these abbreviations in titles, see §&nbsp;7.1.3.2.)"</ref>
The abbreviation BCE, just as with BC, always follows the year number. Unlike AD, which still often precedes the year number, CE always follows the year number (if context requires that it be written at all).<ref>{{cite book | title = Chicago Manual of Style | edition = 17th | isbn = 978-0-226-28705-8 | date = 2017 | publisher = University of Chicago Press | at = ¶ 9.34  }}</ref> Thus, the current year is written as {{CURRENTYEAR}} in both notations (or, if further clarity is needed, as {{CURRENTYEAR}} CE, or as AD {{CURRENTYEAR}}), and the year that [[Socrates]] died is represented as 399 BCE (the same year that is represented by 399 BC in the BC/AD notation). The abbreviations are sometimes written with small capital letters, or with [[Full stop|periods]] (e.g., "<span style="font-size:87%;">B.C.E.</span>" or "C.E.").<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/about15_rules.html |title=Major Rule Changes in The Chicago Manual of Style, Fifteenth Edition |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |quote=Certain abbreviations traditionally set in small caps are now in full caps (AD, BCE, and the like), with small caps an option. |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070909071543/http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/about15_rules.html|archive-date=9 September 2007|access-date=26 May 2015}}</ref>


== Similar conventions in other languages ==
== Similar conventions in other languages ==
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<ref name="Pedersen">{{cite book |title= Gregorian Reform of the Calendar: Proceedings of the Vatican Conference to commemorate its 400th anniversary |url=https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?journal=grc..&year=1983&volume=book&letter=.&db_key=PRE&page_ind=66&plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_GIF&classic=YES |last=Pedersen |first=O. |date=1983 |chapter=The Ecclesiastical Calendar and the Life of the Church |chapter-url=https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?journal=grc..&year=1983&volume=book&letter=.&db_key=PRE&page_ind=34&plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_GIF&classic=YES |editor=Coyne, G.V. |display-editors= et al. |page=[http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?journal=grc..&year=1983&volume=book&letter=.&db_key=PRE&page_ind=66&plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_GIF&classic=YES 50] |publisher=Vatican Observatory |access-date=18 May 2011 |via=SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)}}</ref>
<ref name="Pedersen">{{cite book |title= Gregorian Reform of the Calendar: Proceedings of the Vatican Conference to commemorate its 400th anniversary |url=https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?journal=grc..&year=1983&volume=book&letter=.&db_key=PRE&page_ind=66&plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_GIF&classic=YES |last=Pedersen |first=O. |date=1983 |chapter=The Ecclesiastical Calendar and the Life of the Church |chapter-url=https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?journal=grc..&year=1983&volume=book&letter=.&db_key=PRE&page_ind=34&plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_GIF&classic=YES |editor=Coyne, G.V. |display-editors= et al. |page=[http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?journal=grc..&year=1983&volume=book&letter=.&db_key=PRE&page_ind=66&plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_GIF&classic=YES 50] |publisher=Vatican Observatory |access-date=18 May 2011 |via=SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)}}</ref>
<ref name="Gormley">{{cite news |first=Michael |last=Gormley |title=Use of B.C. and A.D. faces changing times |newspaper=[[Houston Chronicle]] |date=24 April 2005 |url=https://www.chron.com/news/nation-world/article/Use-of-B-C-and-A-D-faces-changing-times-1643198.php |page=A–13 |access-date=18 May 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="Gormley">{{cite news |first=Michael |last=Gormley |title=Use of B.C. and A.D. faces changing times |newspaper=[[Houston Chronicle]] |date=24 April 2005 |url=https://www.chron.com/news/nation-world/article/Use-of-B-C-and-A-D-faces-changing-times-1643198.php |page=A–13 |access-date=18 May 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="RelTolrnc">{{cite web |url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/ceintro.htm |title=Comments on the use of CE and BCE to identify dates in history |publisher=ReligiousTolerance.com |access-date=18 May 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="RelTolrnc">{{cite web |url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/ceintro.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130113090752/http://www.religioustolerance.org/ceintro.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-date=13 January 2013 |title=Comments on the use of CE and BCE to identify dates in history |publisher=ReligiousTolerance.com |access-date=18 May 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="Wilson">{{cite book |title=The Columbia Guide to Standard American English – A.D., B.C., (A.)C.E., B.C.E. |first=Kenneth G. |last=Wilson |date=16 December 1993 |quote=A.D. appears either before or after the number of the year&nbsp;... although conservative use has long preferred before only; B.C. always follows the number of the year.&nbsp;... Common era (C.E.) itself needs a good deal of further justification, in view of its clearly Christian numbering. Most conservatives still prefer A.D. and B.C. Best advice: don't use B.C.E., C.E., or A.C.E. to replace B.C. and A.D. without translating the new terms for the very large number of readers who will not understand them. Note too that if we do end by casting aside the A.D./B.C. convention, almost certainly some will argue that we ought to cast aside as well the conventional numbering system itself, given its Christian basis. |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-06989-2}}</ref>
<ref name="Wilson">{{cite book |title=The Columbia Guide to Standard American English – A.D., B.C., (A.)C.E., B.C.E. |first=Kenneth G. |last=Wilson |date=16 December 1993 |quote=A.D. appears either before or after the number of the year&nbsp;... although conservative use has long preferred before only; B.C. always follows the number of the year.&nbsp;... Common era (C.E.) itself needs a good deal of further justification, in view of its clearly Christian numbering. Most conservatives still prefer A.D. and B.C. Best advice: don't use B.C.E., C.E., or A.C.E. to replace B.C. and A.D. without translating the new terms for the very large number of readers who will not understand them. Note too that if we do end by casting aside the A.D./B.C. convention, almost certainly some will argue that we ought to cast aside as well the conventional numbering system itself, given its Christian basis. |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-06989-2}}</ref>
<ref name="SBC">{{cite web |url=https://www.sbc.net/resource-library/resolutions/on-retaining-the-traditional-method-of-calendar-dating-b-c-a-d/ |title=On Retaining The Traditional Method Of Calendar Dating (B.C./A.D.) |publisher=[[Southern Baptist Convention]] |date=June 2000 |quote=This practice [of BCE/CE] is the result of the secularization, anti-supernaturalism, religious pluralism, and political correctness pervasive in our society&nbsp;... retention [of BC/AD] is a reminder to those in this secular age of the importance of Christ's life and mission and emphasizes to all that history is ultimately His Story.|access-date=18 May 2011}}</ref>
}}
}}


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{{Wiktionary|Common_Era#Translations}}
{{Wiktionary|Common_Era#Translations}}
* {{Cite magazine |title= From Our Readers: Ancient Manuscripts—How Are They Dated? |url=https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/102009094 |magazine=Awake! |publisher=[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] |date=2009 |quote=Although A.D. (Anno Domini, meaning 'in the year of our Lord') and B.C. (before Christ) are used in lands where professed Christianity predominates, we have chosen to use the terms C.E. (Common Era) and B.C.E. (Before the Common Era).}}
* {{Cite magazine |title= From Our Readers: Ancient Manuscripts—How Are They Dated? |url=https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/102009094 |magazine=Awake! |publisher=[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] |date=2009 |quote=Although A.D. (Anno Domini, meaning 'in the year of our Lord') and B.C. (before Christ) are used in lands where professed Christianity predominates, we have chosen to use the terms C.E. (Common Era) and B.C.E. (Before the Common Era).}}
 
{{external media
||video1={{YouTube|7pPMUuwNTlI|BC vs AD, BCE vs CE; What's the difference?}} //
Archaeology News — 2023, July 15
}}
{{Calendars}}
{{Calendars}}
{{Time Topics}}
{{Time Topics}}

Latest revision as of 01:45, 9 November 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "redirect hatnote". Template:Use dmy dates Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian or Julian calendar, and are exactly equivalent to the Anno Domini (AD) and Before Christ (BC) notations. The expressions "2025 CE" and "AD 2025" each equally describe the current year; "400 BCE" and "400 BC" are the same year too.[1][2] BCE/CE are primarily used to avoid religious connotations,[3] by not referring to Jesus as Script error: No such module "Lang". [Lord].[4][5]Template:Efn

History

Anno Domini

Around the year 525, the Christian monk Dionysius Exiguus devised the principle of taking the moment that he believed to be the date of the incarnation of Jesus to be the point from which years are numbered (the epoch) of the Christian ecclesiastical calendar.[6][7][8] Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as "Script error: No such module "Lang"." (the years of our Lord Jesus Christ).[6]Template:Rp He did this to replace the Era of the Martyrs system (then used for some Easter tables) because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.[6]Template:Rp

This way of numbering years became more widespread in Europe, with its use by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before 1 backwards, without a year zeroTemplate:Efn though the name "BC" for this era did not happen until much later.Template:When

Vulgar Era

Template:Sister project

File:JKepler.jpg
Johannes Kepler (1571Template:Ndash1630), the German astronomer, mathematician, astrologer, natural philosopher and writer on music[9]

The first use of the Latin term Script error: No such module "Lang".Template:Efn may be in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler.[10][11] to distinguish the Anno Domini era, which was in popular use, from dates of the regnal year (the year of the reign of a sovereign) typically used in national law.[12] The word 'vulgar' originally meant 'of the ordinary people', with no derogatory associations.[13] Kepler uses it again, as Script error: No such module "Lang"., in a 1616 table of ephemerides,[14] and again, as Script error: No such module "Lang"., in 1617.[15] An English edition of that book from 1635 may contain the earliest known use of "Vulgar Era" in its title page.[16]Template:Efn A 1701 book edited by John Le Clerc includes the phrase "Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,Template:Nbsp6".[17]

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary gives 1716 as the date of first use of the term "vulgar era" (which it defines as "Christian era").[18]Template:Efn

Christian Era

The first published use of "Christian Era" may be the Latin phrase Script error: No such module "Lang". on the title page of a 1584 theology book, Script error: No such module "Lang"..[19] In 1649, the Latin phrase Script error: No such module "Lang". appeared in the title of an English almanac.[20] A 1652 ephemeris may be the first instance of the English use of "Christian Era".[21] It is possible this influenced the wording choice of "Common Era" to have the same abbreviation.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Common Era

The English phrase "Common Era" appears at least as early as 1708,[22] and in a 1715 book on astronomy, it is used interchangeably with "Christian Era" and "Vulgar Era".[23] A 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense to refer to "the common era of the Jews".[24] The phrase "before the common era" may have first appeared in a 1770 work that also uses common era and vulgar era as synonyms in a translation of a book originally written in German.[25] The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era and common era synonymously.[26][27] In 1835, in his book Living Oracles, Alexander Campbell wrote: "The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of Jesus Christ, the first of which was but eight days".[28] He refers to the common era as a synonym for vulgar era: "the fact that our Lord was born on the 4th year before the vulgar era, called Anno Domini, thus making (for example) the 42d year from his birth to correspond with the 38th of the common era".[29] The Catholic Encyclopedia (1909), in at least one article, reports all three terms (Christian, Vulgar, Common Era) being commonly understood by the early 20th century.[30]

The phrase "common era", in lower case, also appeared in the 19th century in a "generic" sense, not necessarily to refer to the Christian Era, but to any system of dates in everyday use throughout a civilization. Thus, "the common era of the Jews",[31][32] "the common era of the Mahometans",[33] "common era of the world",[34] or "the common era of the foundation of Rome".[35] When it did refer to the Christian Era, it was sometimes qualified (e.g., "common era of the Incarnation",[36] "common era of the Nativity",[37] or "common era of the birth of Christ").[38]

An adapted translation of Common Era into Latin as Script error: No such module "Lang".Template:Efn was adopted in the 20th century by some followers of Aleister Crowley, and thus the abbreviation "e.v." or "EV" may sometimes be seen as a replacement for AD.[39]

Judaism

Although Jews have the Hebrew calendar, they often use the Gregorian calendar without the AD prefix, as Judaism does not recognize Jesus as the Messiah.[40] As early as 1825, the abbreviation VE (for Vulgar Era) was in use among Jews to denote years in the Western calendar.[41] Common Era has been in use for Hebrew lessons since before 1905.[42] Jews have also used the term Current Era.[43]

Contemporary usage

Some academics in the fields of theology, education, archaeology and history have adopted CE and BCE notation despite some disagreement.[44] A study conducted in 2014 found that the BCE/CE notation is not growing at the expense of BC and AD notation in the scholarly literature, and that both notations are used in a relatively stable fashion.[45]

Australia

In 2011, media reports suggested that the BC/AD notation in Australian school textbooks would be replaced by BCE/CE notation.[46] The change drew opposition from some politicians and church leaders. Weeks after the story broke, the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority denied the rumours and stated that the BC/AD notation would remain, with CE and BCE as an optional suggested learning activity.[47]

Canada

In 2013, the Canadian Museum of Civilization (now the Canadian Museum of History) in Gatineau (opposite Ottawa), which had previously switched to BCE/CE, decided to change back to BC/AD in material intended for the public while retaining BCE/CE in academic content.[48]

Nepal

The notation is in particularly common use in Nepal in order to disambiguate dates from the local (Indian or Hindu) calendar, Bikram or Vikram Sambat. Disambiguation is needed because the era of the Hindu calendar is quite close to the Common Era.

United Kingdom

In 2002, an advisory panel for the religious education syllabus for England and Wales recommended introducing BCE/CE dates to schools,[49] and by 2018 some local education authorities were using them.[50]

In 2018, the National Trust said it would continue to use BC/AD as its house style.[50] English Heritage explains its era policy thus: "It might seem strange to use a Christian calendar system when referring to British prehistory, but the BC/AD labels are widely used and understood."[51] Some parts of the BBC use BCE/CE, but some presenters have said they will not.[50] As of October 2019, the BBC News style guide has entries for AD and BC, but not for CE or BCE.[52] The style guide for The Guardian says, under the entry for CE/BCE: "some people prefer CE (common era, current era, or Christian era) and BCE (before common era, etc.) to AD and BC, which, however, remain our style".[53]

United States

In the United States, the use of the BCE/CE notation in textbooks was reported in 2005 to be growing.[42] Some publications have transitioned to using it exclusively. For example, the 2007 World Almanac was the first edition to switch to BCE/CE, ending a period of 138 years in which the traditional BC/AD dating notation was used. BCE/CE is used by the College Board in its history tests,[54] and by the Norton Anthology of English Literature. Others have taken a different approach. The US-based History Channel uses BCE/CE notation in articles on non-Christian religious topics such as Jerusalem and Judaism.[55] The 2006 style guide for the Episcopal Diocese Maryland Church News says that BCE and CE should be used.[56] The US-based Society of Biblical Literature style guide for academic texts on religion prefers BCE/CE to BC/AD.[57]

In June 2006, in the United States, the Kentucky State School Board reversed its decision to use BCE and CE in the state's new Program of Studies, leaving education of students about these concepts a matter of local discretion.[58][59][60]

Rationales

Support

The use of CE in Jewish scholarship was historically motivated by the desire to avoid the implicit "Our Lord" in the abbreviation AD.Template:Efn Although other aspects of dating systems are based in Christian origins, AD is a direct reference to Jesus as Lord.[61][62][63] Proponents of the Common Era notation assert that the use of BCE/CE shows sensitivity to those who use the same year numbering system as the one that originated with and is currently used by Christians, but who are not themselves Christian.[64] Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan has argued:[65]

<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />

[T]he Christian calendar no longer belongs exclusively to Christians. People of all faiths have taken to using it simply as a matter of convenience. There is so much interaction between people of different faiths and cultures – different civilizations, if you like – that some shared way of reckoning time is a necessity. And so the Christian Era has become the Common Era.[66]

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Adena K. Berkowitz, in her application to argue before the United States Supreme Court, opted to use BCE and CE because, "Given the multicultural society that we live in, the traditional Jewish designationsTemplate:SndB.C.E. and C.E.Template:Snd cast a wider net of inclusion."[67] In the World History Encyclopedia, Joshua J. Mark wrote "Non-Christian scholars, especially, embraced [CE and BCE] because they could now communicate more easily with the Christian community. Jewish, Islamic, Hindu and Buddhist scholars could retain their [own] calendar but refer to events using the Gregorian Calendar as BCE and CE without compromising their own beliefs about the divinity of Jesus of Nazareth."[68] In History Today, Michael Ostling wrote: "BC/AD Dating: In the year of whose Lord? The continuing use of AD and BC is not only factually wrong but also offensive to many who are not Christians."[63]

Opposition

Critics note the fact that there is no difference in the epoch of the two systems—chosen to be close to the date of birth of Jesus. Since the year numbers are the same, BCE and CE dates should be equally offensive to other religions as BC and AD.[69] Roman Catholic priest and writer on interfaith issues Raimon Panikkar argued that the BCE/CE usage is the less inclusive option since they are still using the Christian calendar numbers and forcing it on other nations.[70] In 1993, the English-language expert Kenneth G. Wilson speculated a slippery slope scenario in his style guide that, "if we do end by casting aside the AD/BC convention, almost certainly some will argue that we ought to cast aside as well the conventional numbering system [that is, the method of numbering years] itself, given its Christian basis."[71]

Some Christians are offended by the removal of the reference to Jesus.[72]

Conventions in style guides

The abbreviation BCE, just as with BC, always follows the year number. Unlike AD, which still often precedes the year number, CE always follows the year number (if context requires that it be written at all).[73] Thus, the current year is written as 2025 in both notations (or, if further clarity is needed, as 2025 CE, or as AD 2025), and the year that Socrates died is represented as 399 BCE (the same year that is represented by 399 BC in the BC/AD notation). The abbreviations are sometimes written with small capital letters, or with periods (e.g., "B.C.E." or "C.E.").[74]

Similar conventions in other languages

  • In Germany, Jews in Berlin seem to have already been using words translating to "(before the) common era" in the 18th century, while others like Moses Mendelssohn opposed this usage as it would hinder the integration of Jews into German society.[75] The formulation seems to have persisted among German Jews in the 19th century in forms like Script error: No such module "Lang". (before the common chronology).[76][77] In 1938 Nazi Germany, the use of this convention was also prescribed by the National Socialist Teachers League.[78] However, it was soon discovered that many German Jews had been using the convention ever since the 18th century, and Time magazine found it ironic to see "Aryans following Jewish example nearly 200 years later".[75]
  • In Spanish, common forms used for "BC" are Script error: No such module "Lang". and Script error: No such module "Lang". (for "Script error: No such module "Lang".", "before Christ"), with variations in punctuation and sometimes the use of Script error: No such module "Lang". (Script error: No such module "Lang".) instead of Script error: No such module "Lang".. The Script error: No such module "Lang". also acknowledges the use of Script error: No such module "Lang". (Template:Langx) and Script error: No such module "Lang". (Template:Langx).[79] In scholarly writing, Script error: No such module "Lang". is the equivalent of the English "BCE", "Script error: No such module "Lang"." or "Before the Common Era".[80]
  • In Welsh, OC can be expanded to equivalents of both AD (Script error: No such module "Lang".) and CE (Script error: No such module "Lang".); for dates before the Common Era, CC (traditionally, Script error: No such module "Lang".) is used exclusively.
  • In Russian since the October Revolution (1917) Script error: No such module "Lang"., lit. before our era) and Script error: No such module "Lang". lit. of our era) are used almost universally. Within Christian churches Script error: No such module "Lang"., i.e. before/after the birth of Christ, equivalent to Template:Langx) remains in use.
  • In Polish, "p.n.e." (Script error: No such module "Lang"., lit. before our era) and "n.e." (Script error: No such module "Lang"., lit. of our era) are commonly used in historical and scientific literature. Script error: No such module "Lang". (before Christ) and Script error: No such module "Lang". (after Christ) see sporadic usage, mostly in religious publications.
  • In China, upon the foundation of the Republic of China, the Government in Nanking adopted the Republic of China calendar with 1912 designated as year 1, but used the Western calendar for international purposes. The translated term was Template:Lang-zh (Script error: No such module "Lang"., "Western Era"), which is still used in Taiwan in formal documents. In 1949, the People's Republic of China adopted Script error: No such module "Lang". (Script error: No such module "Lang"., "Common Era") for both internal and external affairs in mainland China. This notation was extended to Hong Kong in 1997 and Macau in 1999 (de facto extended in 1966) through Annex III of Hong Kong Basic Law and Macau Basic Law, thus eliminating the ROC calendar in these areas. BCE is translated into Chinese as Script error: No such module "Lang". (Script error: No such module "Lang"., "Before the Common Era").
  • In Czech, the "n. l." (Script error: No such module "Lang". which translates as of our year count) and "př. n. l." or "před n. l." (Script error: No such module "Lang". meaning before our year count) is used, always after the year number. The direct translation of AD (Script error: No such module "Lang"., abbreviated as L. P.) or BC (Script error: No such module "Lang"., abbreviated as př. Kr.) is seen as archaic.[81]
  • In Croatian the common form used for BC and AD are pr. Kr. (prije Krista, "before Christ")[82] and p. Kr. (poslije Krista, after Christ).[83] The abbreviations pr. n. e. (prije nove ere, before new era)[84] and n. e. (nove ere, (of the) new era)[85] have also recently been introduced.
  • In Danish, "f.v.t." (Script error: No such module "Lang"., before our time reckoning) and "e.v.t." (Script error: No such module "Lang"., after our time reckoning) are used as BCE/CE are in English. Also commonly used are "f.Kr." (Script error: No such module "Lang"., before Christ) and "e.Kr." (Script error: No such module "Lang"., after Christ), which are both placed after the year number in contrast with BC/AD in English.
  • In Macedonian, the terms "п.н.е." (пред нашата ера "before our era") and "н.е." (наша ера "our era") are used in every aspect.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
  • In Estonian, "e.m.a." (Script error: No such module "Lang"., before our time reckoning) and "m.a.j." (Script error: No such module "Lang"., according to our time reckoning) are used as BCE and CE, respectively. Also in use are terms "eKr" (Script error: No such module "Lang"., before Christ) and "pKr" (Script error: No such module "Lang"., after Christ). In all cases, the abbreviation is written after the year number.
  • In Finnish, "eaa." (Script error: No such module "Lang"., before time reckoning) and "jaa." (Script error: No such module "Lang"., after the start of time reckoning) are used as BCE and CE, respectively. Also (decreasingly) in use are terms "eKr", (Script error: No such module "Lang"., before Christ) and "jKr". (Script error: No such module "Lang"., after Christ). In all cases, the abbreviation is written after the year number.

See also

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Explanatory notes

Template:Notelist

References

Template:Reflist

External links

Template:Sister project

Template:External media Template:Calendars Template:Time Topics Script error: No such module "Navbox".

  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Template:Cite dictionary
  6. ↑ a b c Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Pedersen
  7. ↑ Doggett, L.E., (1992), "Calendars" in Seidelmann, P.K., The Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, Sausalito CA: University Science Books, 2.1
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". Template:Grove Music subscription
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named VulgarisAerae1
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named OED vulgar
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". (His third use of "vulgaris aerae" (1617))
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". (Possibly the first use of common era in English (1708))
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". Before Christ and Christian Era appear on the same page 252, while Vulgar Era appears on page 250
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". [In this case, their refers to the Jews.]
  25. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". [Possibly the first English use of "before the common era", with "vulgar era" synonymous with "common era" (1770)]
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Template:Cite Encyclopedia.
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  32. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  34. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  35. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  36. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  37. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  38. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  39. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  40. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  41. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". [19 Sivan 5585 AM is 5 June 1825. VE is likely an abbreviation for Vulgar Era.]
  42. ↑ a b Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Gormley
  43. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  44. ↑ See, for example, the Society for Historical Archaeology states in its more recent style guide "Do not use CE (common era), BP (before present), or BCE; convert these expressions to AD and BC." (In section I 5 the Society explains how to use "years BP" in connection with radiocarbon ages.) Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". whereas the American Anthropological Association style guide takes a different approach, supporting the use of "CE" and "BCE." Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  45. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  46. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  47. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  48. ↑ "Museum of Civilization putting the 'Christ' back in history as BC and AD return", by Sean Kilpatrick/The Canadian Press, National Post, 27 February 2013
  49. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  50. ↑ a b c "National Trust tells properties to stop dropping BC and AD out of fear it might offend non-Christians", The Daily Telegraph, by Henry Bodkin, 12 November 2018
  51. ↑ Stonehenge glossary, "BC and AD" English Heritage
  52. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  53. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  54. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  55. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".;Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  56. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  57. ↑ SBL Handbook of Style Society of Biblical Literature 1999 "8.1.2 ERAS – The preferred style is B.C.E. and C.E. (with periods). If you use A.D. and B.C., remember that A.D. precedes the date and B.C. follows it. (For the use of these abbreviations in titles, see § 7.1.3.2.)"
  58. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  59. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  60. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  61. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  62. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  63. ↑ a b Template:Cite magazine
  64. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named RelTolrnc
  65. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  66. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  67. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  68. ↑ Template:Cite Encyclopedia
  69. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  70. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  71. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Wilson
  72. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  73. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  74. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  75. ↑ a b Template:Cite magazine
  76. ↑ Script error: No such module "Lang". (19 May 1838). See page 175 in Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums: Ein unpartheiisches Organ für alles jüdische Interesse in Betreff von Politik, Religion, Literatur, Geschichte, Sprachkunde und Belletristik, Volume 2 (Leipzig 1838).
  77. ↑ <templatestyles src="smallcaps/styles.css"/>Julius Fürst, Script error: No such module "Lang". (Leipzig 1862–1869).
  78. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  79. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  80. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  81. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  82. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  83. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  84. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  85. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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