Richat Structure: Difference between revisions

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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}


The '''Richat Structure''', or '''''Guelb er Richât''''' ({{langx|ar|قلب الريشات|Qalb ar-Rīšāt}}, {{IPA|mey|galb er.riːʃaːt|lang|LL-Q56231 (mey)-Tidjani Saleh-گلب الريشات.wav}}), is a prominent circular geological feature in the [[Adrar Plateau]] of the [[Sahara]]. It is located near [[Ouadane]] in the [[Adrar Region]] of [[Mauritania]]. In [[Hassaniya Arabic]], ''rīšāt'' means ''feathers'' and it is also known locally in Arabic as ''tagense'', referring to the circular opening of the leather pouch that is used to draw water from local wells.<ref name="Richard-Molard1952a">{{Cite journal |last=Richard-Molard |first=J. |year=1952 |title=The Pseudo-boutonniers of Richat |journal=Gouvernement Général de l'Afrique Occidentale Française Bulletin de la Direction des Mines |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=391–401}}</ref>
The '''Richat Structure''', or '''''Guelb er Richât''''' ({{langx|ar|قلب الريشات|Qalb ar-Rīšāt}}, {{IPA|mey|galb er.riːʃaːt|lang|LL-Q56231 (mey)-Tidjani Saleh-گلب الريشات.wav}}), often called the '''Eye of Africa''',<ref>https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/Earth_from_Space_Eye_of_Africa</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Matton |last2=Jébrak |date=2014 |title=The “eye of Africa” (Richat dome, Mauritania): An isolated Cretaceous alkaline-hydrothermal complex |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X14000971 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2014.04.006|url-access=subscription }}</ref> is a prominent circular geological feature in the [[Adrar Plateau]] of the [[Sahara]]. It is located near [[Ouadane]] in the [[Adrar Region]] of [[Mauritania]]. In [[Hassaniya Arabic]], ''rīšāt'' means ''feathers'' and it is also known locally in Arabic as ''tagense'', referring to the circular opening of the leather pouch that is used to draw water from local wells.<ref name="Richard-Molard1952a">{{Cite journal |last=Richard-Molard |first=J. |year=1952 |title=The Pseudo-boutonniers of Richat |journal=Gouvernement Général de l'Afrique Occidentale Française Bulletin de la Direction des Mines |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=391–401}}</ref>


It is an eroded [[Dome (geology)|geological dome]], {{convert|40|km|mi}} in diameter, caused by a subsurface [[igneous intrusion]] deforming the overlying [[sedimentary rock]] layers, causing the rock to be exposed as concentric rings with the oldest layers exposed at the centre of the structure. [[Igneous rock]] is exposed inside and there are [[rhyolite]]s and [[gabbro]]s that have undergone [[hydrothermal alteration]], and a central [[Breccia|megabreccia]]. The structure is also the location of exceptional accumulations of [[Acheulean]] [[Paleolithic]] stone tools. It was selected as one of the 100 geological heritage sites identified by the [[International Union of Geological Sciences]] (IUGS) to be of the highest scientific value.<ref name="IUGS2022a">{{Cite web |title=The First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites |url=https://iugs-geoheritage.org/videos-pdfs/iugs_first_100_book_v2.pdf |access-date=3 November 2022 |website=IUGS International Commission on Geoheritage |publisher=IUGS}}</ref>
It is an eroded [[Dome (geology)|geological dome]], {{convert|40|km|mi}} in diameter, caused by a subsurface [[igneous intrusion]] deforming the overlying [[sedimentary rock]] layers, causing the rock to be exposed as concentric rings with the oldest layers exposed at the centre of the structure. [[Igneous rock]] is exposed inside and there are [[rhyolite]]s and [[gabbro]]s that have undergone [[hydrothermal alteration]], and a central [[Breccia|megabreccia]]. The structure is also the location of exceptional accumulations of [[Acheulean]] [[Paleolithic]] stone tools. It was selected as one of the 100 geological heritage sites identified by the [[International Union of Geological Sciences]] (IUGS) to be of the highest scientific value.<ref name="IUGS2022a">{{Cite web |title=The First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites |url=https://iugs-geoheritage.org/videos-pdfs/iugs_first_100_book_v2.pdf |access-date=3 November 2022 |website=IUGS International Commission on Geoheritage |publisher=IUGS}}</ref>


==Description==
==Description==
[[File:Richat structure cropped.png|left|thumb|Cross section of the structure. Magenta is the volcanic intrusion, while purple, green and grey represent sedimentary layers]]
[[File:Richat structure cropped.png|thumb|Cross section of the structure. Magenta is the volcanic intrusion, while purple, green and grey represent sedimentary layers]]
The Richat Structure is a deeply [[Erosion|eroded]], slightly [[elliptical dome|elliptical]] [[Dome (geology)|dome]] with a diameter of {{convert|40|km|mi}}. The sedimentary rock exposed in this dome ranges in age from Late [[Proterozoic]] within the center of the dome to [[Ordovician]] [[sandstone]] around its edges. The [[sedimentary rock]]s composing this structure [[Strike and dip|dip]] outward at 10–20°. Differential erosion of resistant layers of [[quartzite]] has created high-relief circular [[cuesta]]s. Its center consists of a [[Silicon dioxide|siliceous]] [[breccia]] covering an area that is at least {{convert|30|km|mi}} in diameter.<ref name="Matton2008a">{{Cite web |last=Matton |first=G. |year=2008 |title=The Cretaceous Richat Complex (Mauritania); a peri-Atlantic alkaline |url=http://bibvir.uqac.ca/theses/030084214/030084214.pdf |publisher=[[Université du Québec à Chicoutimi]] |place=Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=2 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402073745/http://bibvir.uqac.ca/theses/030084214/030084214.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="MattonOthers2005a">{{Cite journal |last1=Matton |first1=Guillaume |last2=Jébrak |first2=Michel |last3=Lee |first3=James K.W. |year=2005 |title=Resolving the Richat enigma: Doming and hydrothermal karstification above an alkaline complex |url=http://www.archipel.uqam.ca/272/1/Matton_etal05.pdf |journal=Geology |volume=33 |issue=8 |pages=665–68 |doi=10.1130/G21542AR.1 |ref={{sfnref|Matton|2005}}}}</ref><ref name="Wooley2001a">{{Cite book |last=Woolley |first=Alan Robert |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/16448519 |title=Alkaline Rocks and Carbonatites of the World |year=1987 |isbn=0-292-70389-9 |publisher=University of Texas Press|location=Austin |oclc=16448519}}</ref>[[Image:ASTER Richat.jpg|thumb|250px|Satellite picture of the Richat Structure (false color)]]Exposed within the interior of the Richat Structure is a variety of [[Intrusive rock|intrusive]] and [[Extrusive rock|extrusive]] [[igneous rock]]s. They include [[Rhyolite|rhyolitic]] volcanic rocks, [[gabbro]]s, [[carbonatite]]s and [[kimberlite]]s. The rhyolitic rocks consist of [[lava]] flows and [[Hydrothermal alteration|hydrothermally]] altered [[tuff]]aceous rocks that are part of two distinct eruptive centers, which are interpreted to be the eroded remains of two [[maar]]s. According to field mapping, [[Aeromagnetic survey|aeromagnetic]], and [[Gravimetry|gravimetric]] data, the gabbroic rocks form two concentric [[ring dike]]s. The inner ring dike is about {{convert|30|m|ft}} in width, {{convert|3|km|mi}} from the center of the Richat Structure. The outer ring dike is about {{convert|70|m|ft}} in width, {{convert|8|km|mi}} from the center of the structure.<ref name=":0" /> Thirty-two carbonatite dikes and [[Sill (geology)|sills]] have been mapped within the structure. The dikes are generally about {{convert|300|m|ft}} long and typically {{convert|1 to 4|m|ft}} wide. They consist of massive carbonatites that are mostly devoid of [[Vesicular texture|vesicles]]. The carbonatite rocks have been dated as having cooled between 94&nbsp;and 104&nbsp;million years ago. A kimberlitic plug and several sills have been found within the northern part of the structure. The kimberlite plug has been dated to around 99&nbsp;million years old. These intrusive igneous rocks are interpreted as indicating the presence of a large alkaline igneous intrusion that currently underlies the structure and was created by uplifting the overlying rock.<ref name="Matton2008a" /><ref name="MattonOthers2005a" /><ref name="NettoOthers1992a">{{Cite journal |last1=Netto |first1=A.M. |last2=Fabre |first2=J. |last3=Poupeau |first3=G. |last4=Champemmois |first4=M. |year=1992 |title=Datations par traces de fissions de la structure circulaire des Richats |journal=Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris |volume=314 |pages=1179–1186}}</ref><ref name="MattonOthers2014a">{{Cite journal |last1=Matton |first1=Guillaume |last2=Jébrak |first2=Michel |year=2014 |title=The 'eye of Africa' (Richat dome, Mauritania): An isolated Cretaceous alkaline–hydrothermal complex |url=https://www.academia.edu/9220436 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=97 |pages=109–124 |bibcode=2014JAfES..97..109M |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2014.04.006}}</ref>
The Richat Structure is a deeply [[Erosion|eroded]], slightly [[elliptical dome|elliptical]] [[Dome (geology)|dome]] with a diameter of {{convert|40|km|mi}}. The sedimentary rock exposed in this dome ranges in age from Late [[Proterozoic]] within the center of the dome to [[Ordovician]] [[sandstone]] around its edges. The [[sedimentary rock]]s composing this structure [[Strike and dip|dip]] outward at 10–20°. Differential erosion of resistant layers of [[quartzite]] has created high-relief circular [[cuesta]]s. Its center consists of a [[Silicon dioxide|siliceous]] [[breccia]] covering an area that is at least {{convert|30|km|mi}} in diameter.<ref name="Matton2008a">{{Cite web |last=Matton |first=G. |year=2008 |title=The Cretaceous Richat Complex (Mauritania); a peri-Atlantic alkaline |url=http://bibvir.uqac.ca/theses/030084214/030084214.pdf |publisher=[[Université du Québec à Chicoutimi]] |place=Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=2 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402073745/http://bibvir.uqac.ca/theses/030084214/030084214.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="MattonOthers2005a">{{Cite journal |last1=Matton |first1=Guillaume |last2=Jébrak |first2=Michel |last3=Lee |first3=James K.W. |year=2005 |title=Resolving the Richat enigma: Doming and hydrothermal karstification above an alkaline complex |url=http://www.archipel.uqam.ca/272/1/Matton_etal05.pdf |journal=Geology |volume=33 |issue=8 |pages=665–68 |doi=10.1130/G21542AR.1 |ref={{sfnref|Matton|2005}}}}</ref><ref name="Wooley2001a">{{Cite book |last=Woolley |first=Alan Robert |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/16448519 |title=Alkaline Rocks and Carbonatites of the World |year=1987 |isbn=0-292-70389-9 |publisher=University of Texas Press|location=Austin |oclc=16448519}}</ref>[[Image:ASTER Richat.jpg|thumb|250px|Satellite picture of the Richat Structure (false color)]]Exposed within the interior of the Richat Structure is a variety of [[Intrusive rock|intrusive]] and [[Extrusive rock|extrusive]] [[igneous rock]]s. They include [[Rhyolite|rhyolitic]] volcanic rocks, [[gabbro]]s, [[carbonatite]]s and [[kimberlite]]s. The rhyolitic rocks consist of [[lava]] flows and [[Hydrothermal alteration|hydrothermally]] altered [[tuff]]aceous rocks that are part of two distinct eruptive centers, which are interpreted to be the eroded remains of two [[maar]]s. According to field mapping, [[Aeromagnetic survey|aeromagnetic]], and [[Gravimetry|gravimetric]] data, the gabbroic rocks form two concentric [[ring dike]]s. The inner ring dike is about {{convert|30|m|ft}} in width, {{convert|3|km|mi}} from the center of the Richat Structure. The outer ring dike is about {{convert|70|m|ft}} in width, {{convert|8|km|mi}} from the center of the structure.<ref name=":0" /> Thirty-two carbonatite dikes and [[Sill (geology)|sills]] have been mapped within the structure. The dikes are generally about {{convert|300|m|ft}} long and typically {{convert|1 to 4|m|ft}} wide. They consist of massive carbonatites that are mostly devoid of [[Vesicular texture|vesicles]]. The carbonatite rocks have been dated as having cooled between 94&nbsp;and 104&nbsp;million years ago. A kimberlitic plug and several sills have been found within the northern part of the structure. The kimberlite plug has been dated to around 99&nbsp;million years old. These intrusive igneous rocks are interpreted as indicating the presence of a large alkaline igneous intrusion that currently underlies the structure and was created by uplifting the overlying rock.<ref name="Matton2008a" /><ref name="MattonOthers2005a" /><ref name="NettoOthers1992a">{{Cite journal |last1=Netto |first1=A.M. |last2=Fabre |first2=J. |last3=Poupeau |first3=G. |last4=Champemmois |first4=M. |year=1992 |title=Datations par traces de fissions de la structure circulaire des Richats |journal=Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris |volume=314 |pages=1179–1186}}</ref><ref name="MattonOthers2014a">{{Cite journal |last1=Matton |first1=Guillaume |last2=Jébrak |first2=Michel |year=2014 |title=The 'eye of Africa' (Richat dome, Mauritania): An isolated Cretaceous alkaline–hydrothermal complex |url=https://www.academia.edu/9220436 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=97 |pages=109–124 |bibcode=2014JAfES..97..109M |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2014.04.006}}</ref>


[[File:GuelbRichatTopo.png|thumb|Topographic map of Guelb el Richat. Elevation in meters. 10 m contour interval with major contour line every 50 m|left]]
[[File:GuelbRichatTopo.png|thumb|Topographic map of Guelb el Richat. Elevation in meters. 10 m contour interval with major contour line every 50 m]]


Spectacular hydrothermal features are a part of the Richat Structure. They include the extensive [[hydrothermal alteration]] of rhyolites and gabbros and a central [[Breccia|megabreccia]] created by hydrothermal dissolution and collapse. The siliceous megabreccia is at least {{convert|40|m|ft}} thick in its center to only a few meters thick along its edges. The breccia consists of fragments of white to dark gray [[chert]]y material, [[quartz]]-rich sandstone, diagenetic cherty nodules, and [[Stromatolite|stromatolitic]] [[limestone]] and is intensively silicified. The hydrothermal alteration, which created this breccia, has been dated to have occurred about 98.2&nbsp;± 2.6&nbsp;million years ago using the [[Argon–argon dating|<sup>40</sup>Ar/<sup>39</sup>Ar]] method.<ref name="Matton2008a" /><ref name="MattonOthers2005a" /><ref name="MattonOthers2014a" />
Spectacular hydrothermal features are a part of the Richat Structure. They include the extensive [[hydrothermal alteration]] of rhyolites and gabbros and a central [[Breccia|megabreccia]] created by hydrothermal dissolution and collapse. The siliceous megabreccia is at least {{convert|40|m|ft}} thick in its center to only a few meters thick along its edges. The breccia consists of fragments of white to dark gray [[chert]]y material, [[quartz]]-rich sandstone, diagenetic cherty nodules, and [[Stromatolite|stromatolitic]] [[limestone]] and is intensively silicified. The hydrothermal alteration, which created this breccia, has been dated to have occurred about 98.2&nbsp;± 2.6&nbsp;million years ago using the [[Argon–argon dating|<sup>40</sup>Ar/<sup>39</sup>Ar]] method.<ref name="Matton2008a" /><ref name="MattonOthers2005a" /><ref name="MattonOthers2014a" />
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== Archaeology ==
== Archaeology ==
[[Image:Richat Structure - SRTM.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A topographic reconstruction (scaled 6:1 on the vertical axis) from satellite photos. False colouring as follows: <br />• Brown: bedrock <br />• Yellow/white: sand <br />• Green: vegetation <br />• Blue: salty sediments]]
[[Image:Richat Structure - SRTM.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A topographic reconstruction (scaled 6:1 on the vertical axis) from satellite photos. False colouring as follows: <br />• Brown: bedrock <br />• Yellow/white: sand <br />• Green: vegetation <br />• Blue: salty sediments]]
The Richat Structure is the location of exceptional accumulations of [[Acheulean]] [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifact]]s.<ref name="Monod1975a" /><ref name="SaoOthers2008a" /> These Acheulean archaeological sites are located along [[wadi]]s that occupy the outermost annular depression of this structure. Pre-Acheulean stone tools also have been found in the same areas. These sites are associated with rubbly [[outcrop]]s of [[quartzite]] that provided the raw material needed for the manufacture of these artifacts. The most important Acheulean sites and their associated outcrops are found along the northwest of the outer ring, from which Wadi Akerdil heads east and Wadi Bamouere to the west. Sparse and widely scattered [[Neolithic]] spear points and other artifacts have also been found. However, since these sites were first discovered by Théodore Monod in 1974,<ref name="Monod1975a">{{Cite journal |last=Monod |first=T. |year=1975 |title=Three Pebble Deposits in the Mauritanian Adrar (Western Sahara) |journal=Provence Historique |volume=99 |pages=87–97}}</ref> mapping of artifacts within the area of the structure have found them to be generally absent in its innermost depressions. So far, neither recognizable midden deposits nor manmade structures have been recognized and reported from the structure. This is interpreted as indicating that the area of the Richat Structure was used for only short-term hunting and stone tool manufacturing. The local apparent wealth of surface artifacts is the result of the concentration and mixing by deflation over multiple [[glacial]]-[[interglacial]] cycles.<ref name="SaoOthers2008a">{{Cite journal |last1=Sao |first1=Ousmane |last2=Giresse |first2=Pierre |last3=de Lumley |first3=Henry |last4=Faure |first4=Olivier |last5=Perrenoud |first5=Christian |last6=Saos |first6=Thibaud |last7=Rachid |first7=Mouamar Ould |last8=Touré |first8=Ousmane Cherif |year=2008 |title=The Sedimentary Environments of the Pre-Eulean and Aeulean Deposits of the Akerdil and Bamouéré Wadis (Guelb er-Richât, Adrar, Mauritania), A First Approach |journal=L'Anthropologie |volume=112 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1016/j.anthro.2008.01.001}}</ref><ref name="GiresseOthers2012a" />
The Richat Structure is the location of exceptional accumulations of [[Acheulean]] [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifact]]s.<ref name="Monod1975a" /><ref name="SaoOthers2008a" /> These Acheulean archaeological sites are located along [[wadi]]s that occupy the outermost annular depression of this structure. Pre-Acheulean stone tools also have been found in the same areas. These sites are associated with rubbly [[outcrop]]s of [[quartzite]] that provided the raw material needed for the manufacture of these artifacts. The most important Acheulean sites and their associated outcrops are found along the northwest of the outer ring, from which Wadi Akerdil heads east and Wadi Bamouere to the west. Sparse and widely scattered [[Neolithic]] spear points and other artifacts have also been found. However, since these sites were first discovered by Théodore Monod in 1974,<ref name="Monod1975a">{{Cite journal |last=Monod |first=T. |year=1975 |title=Three Pebble Deposits in the Mauritanian Adrar (Western Sahara) |journal=Provence Historique |volume=99 |pages=87–97}}</ref> mapping of artifacts within the area of the structure have found them to be generally absent in its innermost depressions. The local apparent wealth of surface artifacts is the result of the concentration and mixing by deflation over multiple [[glacial]]-[[interglacial]] cycles.<ref name="SaoOthers2008a">{{Cite journal |last1=Sao |first1=Ousmane |last2=Giresse |first2=Pierre |last3=de Lumley |first3=Henry |last4=Faure |first4=Olivier |last5=Perrenoud |first5=Christian |last6=Saos |first6=Thibaud |last7=Rachid |first7=Mouamar Ould |last8=Touré |first8=Ousmane Cherif |year=2008 |title=The Sedimentary Environments of the Pre-Eulean and Aeulean Deposits of the Akerdil and Bamouéré Wadis (Guelb er-Richât, Adrar, Mauritania), A First Approach |journal=L'Anthropologie |volume=112 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1016/j.anthro.2008.01.001}}</ref><ref name="GiresseOthers2012a" />


Artifacts are found, typically redeposited, deflated, or both, in [[Late Pleistocene]] to early [[Holocene]] gravelly [[mud]], muddy [[gravel]], [[clay]]ey [[sand]], and [[silt]]y sand. These [[sediment]]s are often cemented into either [[concretion]]ary masses or beds by [[calcrete]]. Ridges typically consist of deeply weathered [[bedrock]] representing truncated [[Cenozoic]] [[paleosol]]s that formed under tropical environments. The Pleistocene to Middle Holocene sediments occur along wadis as the thin, meter- to less-than-meter-thick accumulations in the interior annular depressions to {{convert|3 to 4|m|ft|}}-thick accumulations along the wadis in the outermost annular depression of the structure. The gravelly deposits consist of a mixture of slope scree, [[debris flow]], and [[fluvial|fluviatile]] or even torrential flow deposits. The finer-grained, sandy deposits consist of [[Aeolian dust|eolian]] and [[playa lake]] deposits. The latter contain well-preserved [[freshwater]] [[fossil]]s. Numerous concordant [[radiocarbon]] dates indicate that the bulk of these sediments accumulated between 15,000 and 8,000 [[Before Present|BP]] during the [[African humid period]]. These deposits lie directly upon deeply eroded and weathered bedrock.<ref name="GiresseOthers2012a">{{Cite journal |last1=Giresse |first1=Pierre |last2=Sao |first2=Ousmane |last3=de Lumley |first3=Henry |year=2012 |title=Paleo-environmental Study of the Quaternary Sediments of Guelb and Richât (Adrar of Mauritania) with Respect to Neighboring or Associated Sites of the Lower Paleolithic. Discussion and Perspectives |journal=L'Anthropologie |volume=116 |issue=1 |pages=12–38 |doi=10.1016/j.anthro.2011.12.001}}</ref>
Artifacts are found, typically redeposited, deflated, or both, in [[Late Pleistocene]] to early [[Holocene]] gravelly [[mud]], muddy [[gravel]], [[clay]]ey [[sand]], and [[silt]]y sand. These [[sediment]]s are often cemented into either [[concretion]]ary masses or beds by [[calcrete]]. Ridges typically consist of deeply weathered [[bedrock]] representing truncated [[Cenozoic]] [[paleosol]]s that formed under tropical environments. The Pleistocene to Middle Holocene sediments occur along wadis as the thin, meter- to less-than-meter-thick accumulations in the interior annular depressions to {{convert|3 to 4|m|ft|}}-thick accumulations along the wadis in the outermost annular depression of the structure. The gravelly deposits consist of a mixture of slope scree, [[debris flow]], and [[fluvial|fluviatile]] or even torrential flow deposits. The finer-grained, sandy deposits consist of [[Aeolian dust|eolian]] and [[playa lake]] deposits. The latter contain well-preserved [[freshwater]] [[fossil]]s. Numerous concordant [[radiocarbon]] dates indicate that the bulk of these sediments accumulated between 15,000 and 8,000 [[Before Present|BP]] during the [[African humid period]]. These deposits lie directly upon deeply eroded and weathered bedrock.<ref name="GiresseOthers2012a">{{Cite journal |last1=Giresse |first1=Pierre |last2=Sao |first2=Ousmane |last3=de Lumley |first3=Henry |year=2012 |title=Paleo-environmental Study of the Quaternary Sediments of Guelb and Richât (Adrar of Mauritania) with Respect to Neighboring or Associated Sites of the Lower Paleolithic. Discussion and Perspectives |journal=L'Anthropologie |volume=116 |issue=1 |pages=12–38 |doi=10.1016/j.anthro.2011.12.001}}</ref>
In addition to Acheulean artifacts, the Richat Structure contains [[Middle Stone Age]] [[Aterian]] stone artifacts produced by modern humans, dating to the latest [[Middle Pleistocene]] to [[Late Pleistocene]] period, around 145,000-29,000 years ago.<ref>Bordes J.G., Mourre V., 2010. Introduction : bilan sur les recherches connues. ''In'' : Bordes J.G., Gonzalez-Carballo A., Vernet R., 2010 – ''La Majâbat al koubrâ. Nord-ouest du bassin de Taoudenni, Mauritanie''. Archéologiques 3. MNHA, Luxembourg, 367 p. : 131-163.</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Garcea |first=Elena A.A. |title=Aterian |date=2021-11-29 |work=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology |url=https://oxfordre.com/anthropology/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.001.0001/acrefore-9780190854584-e-327 |access-date=2025-06-02 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.327 |isbn=978-0-19-085458-4|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
The protruding land dikes of the Richat Structure are lined with thousands of [[Tumulus|stone burial mounds]] in various styles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vernet |first=R. |date=2025 |title=Funerary Monuments of Central Mauritania: Inventory and Distribution |url=https://prehistoireouestsaharienne.wordpress.com/2025/05/10/inventaire-des-peintures-rupestres-du-plateau-du-tagant/ |journal=Arid Zone Archeology Monographs |volume=10 |pages=129-151}}</ref> These still remain to be excavated in order to establish their age. Several rock art sites have also been identified, which include depictions of horsemen armed with [[Javelin|javelins]], [[Chariot|chariots]], bovids, elephants (Tililit, Oued Slil) and [[Libyco-Berber alphabet|Libyco-Berber]] inscriptions (Tin Labbé, Lemqader).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vernet |first=Auteur Robert |date=2020-06-27 |title=Les gravures rupestres de l’Adrar de Mauritanie – III. Autres stations |url=https://prehistoireouestsaharienne.wordpress.com/2020/06/27/les-gravures-rupestres-de-ladrar-de-mauritanie-iii-autres-stations/ |access-date=2025-06-02 |website=Préhistoire de l'Ouest Saharien |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>Lluch, P.; Philip, S. (2003). "Six stations à gravures du N.E. de l'Adrar (dhar Chinguetti, Mauritanie)". ''Cahiers de l’AARS''. '''8''': 87–96.</ref><ref>Mauny, R. (1954). ''Gravures, peintures et inscriptions rupestres de l’ouest saharien''. Dakar: IFAN Dakar. p.&nbsp;92.</ref><ref>Monod, Th. (1938). ''Contribution à l’étude du Sahara occidental : gravures, peintures, inscriptions rupestres''. Paris: Éditions Larose. p.&nbsp;173.</ref>


== Fringe theory of Atlantis site ==
== Fringe theory of Atlantis site ==
The Richat structure has been the subject of [[Fringe theory|fringe claims]] to be the site of [[Atlantis]] mentioned in the works of [[Plato]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Mark Adams |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4hTUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA203 |title=Meet Me in Atlantis: Across Three Continents in Search of the Legendary Sunken City |date=26 April 2016 |publisher=Penguin Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-101-98393-5 |page=203}}
The Richat Structure has been the subject of [[Fringe theory|fringe claims]] to be the site of [[Atlantis]] mentioned in the works of [[Plato]].<ref name=":1" /> This claim is primarily based on the [[Concentric objects|concentric]] nature of the structure, which superficially matches Plato's description of the city.<ref name=":1" /> Most classicists believe that Atlantis was a fictional [[Rhetoric|rhetorical]] invention by Plato, rather than a real geographic location.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clay |first=Diskin |title=Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy |publisher=E. J. Brill |year=2000 |isbn=978-90-04-11704-4 |editor-last=Cleary |editor-first=John J. |volume=15 |location=Leiden |pages=1–21 |chapter=The Invention of Atlantis: The Anatomy of a Fiction |author-link=Diskin Clay |editor2-last=Gurtler |editor2-first=Gary M. |chapter-url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=AMRl67uqD9wC |page=1}}}}</ref><ref>"As Smith discusses in the opening article in this theme issue, the lost island-continent was – in all likelihood – entirely Plato's invention for the purposes of illustrating arguments around Grecian polity. Archaeologists broadly agree with the view that Atlantis is quite simply 'utopia' (Doumas, 2007), a stance also taken by classical philologists, who interpret Atlantis as a metaphorical rather than an actual place (Broadie, 2013; Gill, 1979; Nesselrath, 2002). One might consider the question as being already reasonably solved but despite the general expert consensus on the matter, countless attempts have been made at finding Atlantis." ([http://shimajournal.org/issues/v10n2/c.-Dawson-Hayward-Introduction-Shima-v10n2.pdf Dawson & Hayward, 2016])</ref> According to archaeologist Sean M. Rafferty, other than superficially matching Plato's Atlantis description in being circular, in its particular details, including being a geologically ancient natural structure, the Richat Structure bears little resemblance to Plato's description of Atlantis, with the Richat Structure's inland location in a desert contradicting Plato's information regarding the location of Atlantis.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Rafferty |first=Sean M. |title=Mythologizing the Past: Archaeology, History, and Ideology |date=2025 |publisher=ROUTLEDGE |isbn=978-1-032-69020-9 |location=S.l. |pages=26, 46 |quote=Then there is the Richat Structure, a 30 km wide circular formation in the Sahara Desert. A dome of sedimentary rock formed millions of years ago has eroded at the surface, leaving a circular formation of exposed strata. Proponents of an Atlantean connection have argued that this circular structure exactly duplicates the descriptions of Plato, and so it must be the remains of the actual city. The facts that it is actually not a very good match for Plato’s description (aside from being circular), is vastly too old, and is located in a desert, are data that again miss being cherry-picked.}}</ref>
 
{{cite book |author=Rob Shelsky |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rYaVCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 |title=Invader Moon |date=23 February 2016 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-61868-666-4 |page=75}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Is this Atlantis, hiding in plain sight in the Sahara? |language=en |work=Newshub |url=https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/world/2018/09/is-this-atlantis-hiding-in-plain-sight-in-the-sahara.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907043527/https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/world/2018/09/is-this-atlantis-hiding-in-plain-sight-in-the-sahara.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 September 2018 |access-date=2023-11-08}}</ref> This claim is primarily based on the concentric nature of the structure, which superficially matches Plato's description of the city.<ref name=":1" /> Most classicists believe that Atlantis was a fictional rhetorical invention by Plato, rather than a real geographic location.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clay |first=Diskin |title=Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy |publisher=E. J. Brill |year=2000 |isbn=978-90-04-11704-4 |editor-last=Cleary |editor-first=John J. |volume=15 |location=Leiden |pages=1–21 |chapter=The Invention of Atlantis: The Anatomy of a Fiction |author-link=Diskin Clay |editor2-last=Gurtler |editor2-first=Gary M. |chapter-url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=AMRl67uqD9wC |page=1}}}}</ref><ref>"As Smith discusses in the opening article in this theme issue, the lost island-continent was – in all likelihood – entirely Plato's invention for the purposes of illustrating arguments around Grecian polity. Archaeologists broadly agree with the view that Atlantis is quite simply 'utopia' (Doumas, 2007), a stance also taken by classical philologists, who interpret Atlantis as a metaphorical rather than an actual place (Broadie, 2013; Gill, 1979; Nesselrath, 2002). One might consider the question as being already reasonably solved but despite the general expert consensus on the matter, countless attempts have been made at finding Atlantis." ([http://shimajournal.org/issues/v10n2/c.-Dawson-Hayward-Introduction-Shima-v10n2.pdf Dawson & Hayward, 2016])</ref> Skeptic [[Steven Novella]] criticised the claim, stating that the structure is inconsistent with Plato's description of Atlantis, and that the site shows no evidence of a city ever being built at the location.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Novella |first=Stephen |date=2018-11-19 |title=No – Atlantis Has Not Been Discovered in North Africa |url=https://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/no-atlantis-has-not-been-discovered-in-north-africa/ |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=NeuroLogica}}</ref>


==Notes==
==Notes==

Latest revision as of 06:22, 30 June 2025

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The Richat Structure, or Guelb er Richât (Template:Langx, Script error: No such module "IPA".), often called the Eye of Africa,[1][2] is a prominent circular geological feature in the Adrar Plateau of the Sahara. It is located near Ouadane in the Adrar Region of Mauritania. In Hassaniya Arabic, rīšāt means feathers and it is also known locally in Arabic as tagense, referring to the circular opening of the leather pouch that is used to draw water from local wells.[3]

It is an eroded geological dome, Template:Convert in diameter, caused by a subsurface igneous intrusion deforming the overlying sedimentary rock layers, causing the rock to be exposed as concentric rings with the oldest layers exposed at the centre of the structure. Igneous rock is exposed inside and there are rhyolites and gabbros that have undergone hydrothermal alteration, and a central megabreccia. The structure is also the location of exceptional accumulations of Acheulean Paleolithic stone tools. It was selected as one of the 100 geological heritage sites identified by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) to be of the highest scientific value.[4]

Description

File:Richat structure cropped.png
Cross section of the structure. Magenta is the volcanic intrusion, while purple, green and grey represent sedimentary layers

The Richat Structure is a deeply eroded, slightly elliptical dome with a diameter of Template:Convert. The sedimentary rock exposed in this dome ranges in age from Late Proterozoic within the center of the dome to Ordovician sandstone around its edges. The sedimentary rocks composing this structure dip outward at 10–20°. Differential erosion of resistant layers of quartzite has created high-relief circular cuestas. Its center consists of a siliceous breccia covering an area that is at least Template:Convert in diameter.[5][6][7]

File:ASTER Richat.jpg
Satellite picture of the Richat Structure (false color)

Exposed within the interior of the Richat Structure is a variety of intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks. They include rhyolitic volcanic rocks, gabbros, carbonatites and kimberlites. The rhyolitic rocks consist of lava flows and hydrothermally altered tuffaceous rocks that are part of two distinct eruptive centers, which are interpreted to be the eroded remains of two maars. According to field mapping, aeromagnetic, and gravimetric data, the gabbroic rocks form two concentric ring dikes. The inner ring dike is about Template:Convert in width, Template:Convert from the center of the Richat Structure. The outer ring dike is about Template:Convert in width, Template:Convert from the center of the structure.[8] Thirty-two carbonatite dikes and sills have been mapped within the structure. The dikes are generally about Template:Convert long and typically Template:Convert wide. They consist of massive carbonatites that are mostly devoid of vesicles. The carbonatite rocks have been dated as having cooled between 94 and 104 million years ago. A kimberlitic plug and several sills have been found within the northern part of the structure. The kimberlite plug has been dated to around 99 million years old. These intrusive igneous rocks are interpreted as indicating the presence of a large alkaline igneous intrusion that currently underlies the structure and was created by uplifting the overlying rock.[5][6][9][10]

File:GuelbRichatTopo.png
Topographic map of Guelb el Richat. Elevation in meters. 10 m contour interval with major contour line every 50 m

Spectacular hydrothermal features are a part of the Richat Structure. They include the extensive hydrothermal alteration of rhyolites and gabbros and a central megabreccia created by hydrothermal dissolution and collapse. The siliceous megabreccia is at least Template:Convert thick in its center to only a few meters thick along its edges. The breccia consists of fragments of white to dark gray cherty material, quartz-rich sandstone, diagenetic cherty nodules, and stromatolitic limestone and is intensively silicified. The hydrothermal alteration, which created this breccia, has been dated to have occurred about 98.2 ± 2.6 million years ago using the 40Ar/39Ar method.[5][6][10]

Interpretation

The structure was first described in the 1930s to 1940s, as Richât Crater or Richât buttonhole (boutonnière du Richât). Richard-Molard (1948) considered it to be the result of a laccolithic uplift.[11] A geological expedition to Mauritania led by Théodore Monod in 1952 recorded four "crateriform or circular irregularities" (accidents cratériformes ou circulaires) in the area, Er Richât, Aouelloul (south of Chinguetti), Temimichat-Ghallaman and Tenoumer.[12] It was initially considered to be an impact structure (as is clearly the case with the other three), but a closer study in the 1950s to 1960s suggested that it might instead have been formed by terrestrial processes. After field and laboratory studies in the 1960s, no significant evidence was found for shock metamorphism or other deformation indicative of a hypervelocity extraterrestrial impact.[13] Coesite, an indicator of shock metamorphism, was initially reported as being present in rock samples from the structure, but a further analysis in 1969 concluded that barite had been misidentified as coesite.[14] Work on dating the structure was done in the 1990s.[15] A study of the formation of the structure by Matton, et al. (2005, 2008) concluded it was not an impact structure.[5][6]

Further analysis of deep structure underneath the surface, including with aeromagnetic and gravimetric mapping,[8] concluded that the structure is the result of ring faults which led to gabbroic ring dikes over a large intrusive body of magma, and the uplifting and later erosion of a dome, through intense hydrothermal activity through the fractured substructure. This can form cuestas over time through the differential erosion of the resulting alternating hard and soft rock layers.[8] The underlying alkaline igneous complex exposed through erosion dates to the Cretaceous period.Template:Efn

IUGS geological heritage site

In respect of it being "a spectacular example of a magmatic concentric alkaline complex", the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) included the Richat Structure in its assemblage of 100 geological heritage sites around the world, in October 2022. The organisation defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as "a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history."[4]

Archaeology

File:Richat Structure - SRTM.jpg
A topographic reconstruction (scaled 6:1 on the vertical axis) from satellite photos. False colouring as follows:
• Brown: bedrock
• Yellow/white: sand
• Green: vegetation
• Blue: salty sediments

The Richat Structure is the location of exceptional accumulations of Acheulean artifacts.[16][17] These Acheulean archaeological sites are located along wadis that occupy the outermost annular depression of this structure. Pre-Acheulean stone tools also have been found in the same areas. These sites are associated with rubbly outcrops of quartzite that provided the raw material needed for the manufacture of these artifacts. The most important Acheulean sites and their associated outcrops are found along the northwest of the outer ring, from which Wadi Akerdil heads east and Wadi Bamouere to the west. Sparse and widely scattered Neolithic spear points and other artifacts have also been found. However, since these sites were first discovered by Théodore Monod in 1974,[16] mapping of artifacts within the area of the structure have found them to be generally absent in its innermost depressions. The local apparent wealth of surface artifacts is the result of the concentration and mixing by deflation over multiple glacial-interglacial cycles.[17][18]

Artifacts are found, typically redeposited, deflated, or both, in Late Pleistocene to early Holocene gravelly mud, muddy gravel, clayey sand, and silty sand. These sediments are often cemented into either concretionary masses or beds by calcrete. Ridges typically consist of deeply weathered bedrock representing truncated Cenozoic paleosols that formed under tropical environments. The Pleistocene to Middle Holocene sediments occur along wadis as the thin, meter- to less-than-meter-thick accumulations in the interior annular depressions to Template:Convert-thick accumulations along the wadis in the outermost annular depression of the structure. The gravelly deposits consist of a mixture of slope scree, debris flow, and fluviatile or even torrential flow deposits. The finer-grained, sandy deposits consist of eolian and playa lake deposits. The latter contain well-preserved freshwater fossils. Numerous concordant radiocarbon dates indicate that the bulk of these sediments accumulated between 15,000 and 8,000 BP during the African humid period. These deposits lie directly upon deeply eroded and weathered bedrock.[18]

In addition to Acheulean artifacts, the Richat Structure contains Middle Stone Age Aterian stone artifacts produced by modern humans, dating to the latest Middle Pleistocene to Late Pleistocene period, around 145,000-29,000 years ago.[19][20]

The protruding land dikes of the Richat Structure are lined with thousands of stone burial mounds in various styles.[21] These still remain to be excavated in order to establish their age. Several rock art sites have also been identified, which include depictions of horsemen armed with javelins, chariots, bovids, elephants (Tililit, Oued Slil) and Libyco-Berber inscriptions (Tin Labbé, Lemqader).[22][23][24][25]

Fringe theory of Atlantis site

The Richat Structure has been the subject of fringe claims to be the site of Atlantis mentioned in the works of Plato.[26] This claim is primarily based on the concentric nature of the structure, which superficially matches Plato's description of the city.[26] Most classicists believe that Atlantis was a fictional rhetorical invention by Plato, rather than a real geographic location.[27][28] According to archaeologist Sean M. Rafferty, other than superficially matching Plato's Atlantis description in being circular, in its particular details, including being a geologically ancient natural structure, the Richat Structure bears little resemblance to Plato's description of Atlantis, with the Richat Structure's inland location in a desert contradicting Plato's information regarding the location of Atlantis.[26]

Notes

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References

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External links

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  1. ↑ https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/Earth_from_Space_Eye_of_Africa
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ a b c d Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ a b c d Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
    Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Bordes J.G., Mourre V., 2010. Introduction : bilan sur les recherches connues. In : Bordes J.G., Gonzalez-Carballo A., Vernet R., 2010 – La Majâbat al koubrâ. Nord-ouest du bassin de Taoudenni, Mauritanie. Archéologiques 3. MNHA, Luxembourg, 367 p. : 131-163.
  20. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Lluch, P.; Philip, S. (2003). "Six stations à gravures du N.E. de l'Adrar (dhar Chinguetti, Mauritanie)". Cahiers de l’AARS. 8: 87–96.
  24. ↑ Mauny, R. (1954). Gravures, peintures et inscriptions rupestres de l’ouest saharien. Dakar: IFAN Dakar. p. 92.
  25. ↑ Monod, Th. (1938). Contribution à l’étude du Sahara occidental : gravures, peintures, inscriptions rupestres. Paris: Éditions Larose. p. 173.
  26. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ "As Smith discusses in the opening article in this theme issue, the lost island-continent was – in all likelihood – entirely Plato's invention for the purposes of illustrating arguments around Grecian polity. Archaeologists broadly agree with the view that Atlantis is quite simply 'utopia' (Doumas, 2007), a stance also taken by classical philologists, who interpret Atlantis as a metaphorical rather than an actual place (Broadie, 2013; Gill, 1979; Nesselrath, 2002). One might consider the question as being already reasonably solved but despite the general expert consensus on the matter, countless attempts have been made at finding Atlantis." (Dawson & Hayward, 2016)
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