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{{Short description|Archaeological culture in present-day Poland}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Infobox archaeological culture
| name = Wielbark culture
| map =
| mapalt =
| altnames =
| horizon =
| region = [[Poland]]
| period = [[Iron Age]]
| dates = ca. 100–400 AD
| typesite =
| majorsites =
| extra =
| precededby = [[Oksywie culture]], [[Przeworsk culture]]
| followedby = [[Sukow-Dziedzice group]]
| definedby =
| antiquatedby=
| module =
}}
{{Prehistory of Poland}}
The '''Wielbark culture''' ({{langx|de|Wielbark-Willenberg-Kultur}}; {{langx|pl|Kultura wielbarska}}) is an [[Iron Age]] archaeological complex which flourished on the territory of today's [[Poland]] from the 1st century AD{{sfn|Juras|2014}} to the 5th century AD.{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=125}}

The Wielbark culture is associated with the [[Goths]] and related [[Germanic peoples]], and played an important role in the [[Amber Road]]. It displays cultural links not only with its neighbours, but also with southern [[Scandinavia]]. The Wielbark culture replaced the preceding [[Oksywie culture]] on the lower [[Vistula]] in the 1st century AD, and subsequently expanded southwards at the expense of the [[Przeworsk culture]], which is associated with the [[Vandals]]. This expansion has been associated by historians such as [[Peter Heather]] with the contemporary [[Marcomannic Wars]]. By the late 3rd century AD, the Wielbark culture had expanded into the area of the upper [[Dniester]], where it possibly influenced the [[Chernyakhov culture]] to its south, which encompassed a large area between the [[Danube]] and the [[Don River]].

In the 5th century AD, the Wielbark culture was replaced by the [[Sukow-Dziedzice group]], which is associated with the [[Early Slavs]].

==Discovery==
The [[Wielbark, Pomeranian Voivodeship|Wielbark]] culture was named after the once-Prussian village, known in German as Willenberg, where a burial place with over 3,000 tombs, was discovered and partially recorded in 1873.

The "first modern description" of the culture was not until the work of Ryszard Wołągiewicz in the 1970s. The cemetery's completeness and long period of use was the reason this site was chosen to name the culture, which "spans all the phases of Wielbark culture as well as phases predating its emergence and thus dating to the earlier, pre-Roman period".{{sfn|Cieśliński|2016|p=219}}

Many of the cemetery stones were moved, and many graves were damaged by the early discoverers, particularly during the [[Second World War]].

==Characteristics==
[[Image:Wesiory.jpg|right|thumb|A [[stone circle (Iron Age)|stone circle]] in northern Poland – [[Kashubia]].]]

Before 1 AD, when the [[Roman Empire]] began to be more influential in northern Europe, there was relative consistency in burial practices between the [[Rhine]] and [[Vistula]]. Bodies were normally cremated and there were few grave goods, if any. This began to change, possibly reflecting increasing social stratification. The Wielbark culture, for example, is distinguished by its occasional use of monumental "barrow" burials.{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=56}}

The Wielbark culture is primarily differentiated from its predecessor the Oksywie culture by the introduction of inhumation as opposed to cremation, which began around 1 AD. Notably, the Wielbark culture used both rituals. Despite this, there is also evidence for continuity between the two cultures. This is interpreted as being caused by an evolution in spiritual culture.{{sfn|Cieśliński|2016|p=222}}

The neighbouring Przeworsk culture, on the other hand, long continued to practice cremation, and whereas Wielbark burials never included weapons, Przeworsk burials often did. In the second century AD however, the burial practices of the Wielbark culture began to spread into Przeworsk areas.{{sfn|Heather|2012|pp=103–107}}

Instead, the artifacts found are mostly ornaments and costumes, although a few graves have shown [[spur]]s, these being the only warrior attributes found. The people of the Wielbark culture used both [[inhumation]] and [[cremation]] techniques for burying their dead.{{sfn|Rau|2018}}

The Wielbark culture played an important role in the [[Amber Road]].{{sfn|Rau|2018}}{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=139}} A complex series of wooden bridges and causeways built by the Wielbark culture were probably connected to this trade.{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=134}}

The Wielbark culture appears to have practiced mixed agriculture. Their lack of agricultural expertise made their fields less fertile, which caused the population to be quite mobile.{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=146}} Several settlements however remained stable for hundreds of years.{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=146}}

A characteristic of the Wielbark culture, which it had in common with southern Scandinavia, was the raising of stone covered mounds, [[Stone Circle (Iron Age)|stone circles]], solitary [[Menhir (Iron Age)|stelae]] and variations of cobble cladding. These stone circles might have been places of communal meetings.{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=146}}

The Wielbark culture displays several characteristics similar to those of the Chernyakhov culture.{{sfn|Heather|Matthews|1991|pp=63, 91}} This includes the creation of handmade bowl-shaped ceramics, the wearing by females of [[Fibula (brooch)|fibula]] brooches on each shoulder, the presence of Germanic [[longhouse]]s, the practice of both cremation and inhumation, and the lack of weapons deposited in burials.{{sfn|Heather|2012|pp=117–120}}

[[Image:Rekonstrukcja gockiego długiego domu w Masłomęczu.JPG|right|thumb|Reconstruction of a Wielbark culture house]]

Another feature of the Wielbark culture was the use of bronze to make ornaments and accessories. Silver was used seldom and gold rarely. Iron appears to have been used extremely rarely. In 2000, in [[:pl:Czarnówko (województwo pomorskie)|Czarnówko]] near [[Lębork]], Pomerania, a cemetery of Oksywie and Wielbark cultures was found. These reached their height before the emigration of the population to the south began. A bronze kettle depicts males wearing the [[Suebian knot]] hairstyle.{{sfn|Maczynska|Rudnicka|2004|p=}}

==History==
[[Image:Chernyakhov.PNG|upright=1.25|thumb|
{{legend|#0f0|[[Götaland]]}}
{{legend|#f08|[[Gotland]]}}
{{legend|#f00|Wielbark culture in the early 3rd century}}
{{legend|#f80|[[Chernyakhov culture]] in the early 4th century}}
{{legend|#80f|[[Roman Empire]]}}]]
The Wielbark culture emerged in the 1st century AD around the same area as the [[Oksywie culture]], around the present day towns of [[Gdańsk]] and [[Chełmno]].{{sfn|Rau|2018}} Whether the Wielbark culture was an outgrowth of the Oksywie culture or represents a new population is disputed. The increasing density of Wielbark centuries after its establishment suggests that it experienced significant population growth during its existence.{{sfn|Heather|2012|pp=103–107}}

During the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, the Wielbark culture expanded into the lakelands ([[Kashubia]]n and Krajenskian lakes) and stretched southwards, into the region around [[Poznań]]. Here it ejected the [[Przeworsk culture]], which is often associated with the [[Vandals]].{{sfn|Stolarek|2019}}{{sfn|Heather|2012|pp=103–107}} Rather than being entirely replaced, archaeological evidence suggest that the Przeworsk were to a certain extent absorbed by the Wielbark. The southward expansion of the Wielbark burial habits has been connected with the beginning of the [[Marcomannic Wars]].{{sfn|Heather|2012|pp=103–107}} By 200 AD, people of the Wielbark culture appear to have been recruited as soldiers in the [[Roman Army]].{{sfn|Heather|2012|pp=103–107}}

In the first half of the 3rd century AD, the Wielbark culture expanded southwards along the Vistula and [[Bug River|Bug]] towards the upper [[Dniester]]. Meanwhile, Pomeranian settlements by the [[Baltic Sea]] were somewhat, but not entirely,{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=592}} abandoned.{{sfn|Heather|2012|pp=117–120}} This expansion was swifter and on an even larger scale than previous ones, and represented a significant shift of Wielbark power towards the south.{{sfn|Heather|2012|pp=117–120}}{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=147}} Archaeological and linguistics evidence suggest that the expansion involved both men, women and children.{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=130}}{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=147}} The Gothic attack on [[Histria (ancient city)|Histria]] in 238 is probably connected with this expansion.{{sfn|Heather|2012|pp=117–120}} North of the [[Black Sea]], the Wielbark culture played a decisive role in the formation of the [[Chernyakhov culture]] in the late 3rd century AD, which by the 4th century AD would cover a huge area between the [[Danube]] and the [[Don River]].{{sfn|Stolarek|2019}}{{sfn|Heather|2012}} Though historically controversial, it is now universally accepted that the origins of the Chernyakhov culture lie primarily in the Wielbark culture, and that the former represents a culture dominated by the Goths and other Germanic peoples.{{sfn|Heather|2012|pp=117–120}}

Isolated pockets of the Wielbark culture continued to exist in current northern Poland until the 5th century AD.{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=125}}{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=592}} From then it was replaced by the [[Sukow-Dziedzice group]], which is associated with [[Early Slavs]].{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=413}}

==Ethnicity==
{{See also|Origin of the Goths|Origin stories of the Goths}}
The Wielbark culture has been described by archaeologists as a culture which continued both Germanic and non-Germanic people, which developed from the previous Oksywie material culture, with some influences from Scandinavia.<ref>{{citation|last=Kazanski |first=Michael |title= Les origines des Goths et la civilisation de Wielbark. |journal= Dossiers d'Archéologie |issue=398 |year=2020 |url=https://www.academia.edu/42216970}}</ref> Roman authors described the [[Gutones]], [[Rugii]] and [[Lemovii]] as living in the same approximate area.

The Gutones have traditionally been equated to the ancestors of the [[Goths]] from [[Scandza]] ([[Scandinavia]]) to [[Gothiscandza]] as related in [[Jordanes]]' account of their origin. While such Scandinavian influence may well have played a part, the identical geographical extent and persistent use of Oksywie cemeteries suggest that the Wielbark Culture emerged from previous human settlements in the area, with new groups of Scandinavian immigrants making contributions to it as they arrived.{{sfn|Kaliff|2001}}{{sfn|Rau|2018}}

Based upon the accounts of Jordanes and [[Tacitus]], many historians and archaeologists believe that the culture was politically dominated by the ancestors of the [[Goths]], [[Rugii]] and [[Gepids]] who are later described in Roman and Greek sources further south, living north of the imperial border on the Danube.{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=222}}{{sfn|Heather|2012|pp=103–107}} Along with the neighbouring [[Przeworsk culture]], historian [[Peter Heather]] places it in the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] cultural horizon.{{sfn|Heather|2010|p=87}}{{Efn|"[T]he Wielbark and Przeworsk systems have come to be understood as thoroughly dominated by Germanic-speakers...{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=679}} }} In the past, the Wielbark culture was often connected with [[Early Slavs]], but such theories have been dismissed by modern scholarship.{{sfn|Heather|2012|pp=103–107}}{{sfn|Heather|2012|p=392}}

The cemeteries may give some indication in evidence as to which settlements could have been established directly by Goths. [[tumulus|Barrow]] cemeteries on the Baltic Sea in Poland, which have raised [[Stone Circle (Iron Age)|stone circles]], and solitary [[Menhir (Iron Age)|stelae]] next to them, reflect Scandinavian burial customs with a concentration in [[Gotland]] and [[Götaland]]. Appearing in the later 1st century, this type is found between the Vistula and the [[Kashub]]ian and Krajenskian lakelands (Odry and Węsiory sites) reaching into the Koszalin region ([[Grzybnica, Koszalin County|Grzybnica]] site).{{sfn|Makiewicz}}

==Physical characteristics==
Odontological analysis revealed that the Central European populations from the [[Roman period]] and the [[Early Middle Ages]] were indistinguishable in terms of non-metrical dental traits, though this does not exclude the possibility of genetically different origins.{{sfn|Piontek|2007}}

==Genetics==
Juras et al. (2014) compared the [[mtDNA]] of the Wielbark culture and the [[Przeworsk culture]], both belonging to the [[Roman Iron Age]] (RoIA) with that of populations from Poland in the [[Middle Ages]]. 24 samples of mtDNA from the Wielbark sites of [[Kowalewko, Oborniki County|Kowalewko]] (11) and [[Rogowo]] (13) were examined. Wielbark samples were found to be primarily carrying types of [[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|haplogroup H]], while types of [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|U]] and [[Haplogroup W (mtDNA)|W]] were also frequent. It was found that the mtDNA of the RoiA populations was largely similar to that of medieval populations, although they displayed closer genetic relations to populations of northern and central Europe, while medieval populations on the other hand displayed closer genetic relations to [[Slavs]] of eastern and southern Europe. The mtDNA of the RoIA samples were found to be more closely related to [[Polish people|Poles]] than any other modern population, while similarities with [[Balts]] and other [[West Slavs]] were also detected.{{sfn|Juras|2014}}

Stolarek et al. (2018) examined the mtDNA of 60 individuals buried at the Wielbark cemetery of Kowalewko in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. The majority of the individuals carried types of haplogroup H and U. Notably, they displayed higher frequencies of [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)#Haplogroup U5|U5b]] (a typically [[Western Hunter-Gatherer]] lineage) than preceding and succeeding populations in the area. Compared to some ancient DNA samples, the male mitochondrial mix was found to be most closely related to Iron Age [[Jutland]] and late Neolithic Central European [[Bell Beaker culture]] samples. The females were most similar to Early-Middle Neolithic farmers.{{sfn|Stolarek|2018}}

Stolarek et al. (2019) examined the mtDNA of 27 individuals from a Wielbark cemetery in [[Masłomęcz]], Poland. The remains were from the 2nd to 4th centuries AD. Based on archaeological evidence, these individuals were assumed to be [[Goths]]. They were found to be mostly carriers of haplogroup H and U. The individuals displayed even closer genetic links to Iron Age populations of southern Scandinavia than those of Kowalewko did. Males and females at Masłomęcz were more closely related to each other than those at Kowalewko. They also carried fewer samples of U5b, and displayed less strong genetic links to the Yamanya culture, Corded Ware culture, Bell Beaker culture and Unetice culture than earlier Wielbark samples from Kowalewko.{{sfn|Stolarek|2019}}

Zenczak et al. (2017) assigned [[Y-DNA haplogroup]]s to 16 individuals buried at the Kowalewko archeological site associated with the Wielbark culture. In total, 8 out of 16 samples were assigned to haplogroup [[Haplogroup I1|I1]]. Out of the samples dated to the [[Roman Iron Age]], 3 samples belonged to haplogroup [[Haplogroup I-M253|I1]] under the subclade I1-L1237 of the I1-Z63 branch, one to [[Haplogroup R1b|R1b]], and one to [[Haplogroup I2 (Y-DNA)|I2a2]].{{sfn|Zenczak et al.|2017}}

Y-chromosome analysis of Goths from the Masłomęcz group cemeteries in southeastern Poland. A total of 14 individuals (78%) represents the Y chromosome haplogroups most closely related to the Scandinavian population. Thirteen individuals were classified into subclades of haplogroup I1, four to haplogroup R1a and one to haplogroup J2b.<ref>{{Cite conference |conference=28th EAA Annual Meeting |url-status=live |archive-date=Mar 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319164432/https://submissions.e-a-a.org/eaa2022/repository/preview.php?Abstract=2305 |date=31 Aug {{ndash}} 3 Sep 2022 |language=en |access-date=6 August 2023 |title=Y-chromosome analysis of Goths from the Maslomecz group cemeteries in southeastern Poland |url=https://submissions.e-a-a.org/eaa2022/repository/preview.php?Abstract=2305 |website=[[European Association of Archaeologists]]}}</ref>

Stolarek et al. (2023) tested several individuals buried in Wielbark culture cemeteries. The Y-chromosomes were 1 E (E1b1b1a1b1a), 1 F, 5 G2a (two G2a2b2a1a1b1a1a2 and three more with derived subclades), 19 [[Haplogroup I-M253|I1-M253]] with SNPs below L1237, Z2039 and P109, 1 I2a1b1, 1 J2b2a1, 1 J2a1a, 2 N1a, 2 R1a1a, 1 with derived R1a-M458, and 6 R1b (three of them with SNPs below U106). Such results show that the Wielbark culture was dominated by Y-hgs most frequently observed in ancient Northern European populations. This observation agrees with the autosomal results, as the individuals analysed were shifted towards peoples inhabiting Northwestern Europe, so that much of their ancestry had a Scandinavian origin.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stolarek |first1=Ireneusz |last2=Zenczak |first2=Michal |last3=Handschuh |first3=Luiza |last4=Juras |first4=Anna |last5=Marcinkowska-Swojak |first5=Malgorzata |last6=Spinek |first6=Anna |last7=Dębski |first7=Artur |last8=Matla |first8=Marzena |last9=Kóčka-Krenz |first9=Hanna |last10=Piontek |first10=Janusz |last11=Figlerowicz |first11=Marek |title=Genetic history of East-Central Europe in the first millennium CE |journal=Genome Biology |date=24 July 2023 |volume=24 |issue=1 |page=173 |doi=10.1186/s13059-023-03013-9|pmid=37488661 |pmc=10364380 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

A 2024 study published in Nature found that the population of the Wielbark culture derived 75% of their ancestry from a Scandinavian Early Iron Age-related source. The earliest Scandinavian migrants found in the oldest Wielbark cemeteries were modelled as deriving 100% of their ancestry from Early Iron Age Scandinavia.The study found that the Wielbark culture population did not resemble the preceding Bronze Age populations of Poland at all, and must have been immigrants from the north.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Speidel |first=Leo |last2=Silva |first2=Marina |last3=Booth |first3=Thomas |last4=Raffield |first4=Ben |last5=Anastasiadou |first5=Kyriaki |last6=Barrington |first6=Christopher |last7=Götherström |first7=Anders |last8=Heather |first8=Peter |last9=Skoglund |first9=Pontus |date=January 2025 |title=High-resolution genomic history of early medieval Europe |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08275-2 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=637 |issue=8044 |pages=118–126 |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-08275-2 |issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free |pmc=11693606 }}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:02019 (4) Frauengrab des 2. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. aus Bagicz.png
File:02019 0586 (2) Pottery vessel found at Resko, Pomerania - Elbe - Weser horizon, 5th century.jpg
File:02020 Germanische Funde der Oxhöft-Gepiden-Gruppe der Wielbark Kultur aus spätrömischer Zeit.jpg
File:Collier-Gdansk.jpg
File:Silver bracelets with stylised snake-shaped endings.jpg
File:Vessels, 60-160 and 160-230 AD. Gdansk Archaeological Museum.jpg
File:Elbląg, muzeum, stříbrný náramek z počátku 3 století II.JPG
File:Bronze pair of spurs. 160-230. Wielbark culture. Archaeological Museum, Gdańsk.jpeg
File:02020 Germanischhe Grabunde der Volkerwanderungszeit aus Pommern im 5. -6. Jahrhundert, Pruszcz, Główczycem Gorzyna, Witków , Stramnica.jpg
File:02019 0574 (2) Glass beakers from a graves found in Pomerania, Witkowice, Borkowice, second half of the 4th c.jpg
File:02019 1014 Hügelgrab mit einem Steinkreis, Odry.jpg
File:Węsiory kurhan 31.12.09 pl2.jpg
File:Węsiory krąg i kurhan 06.07.10 p.jpg
File:Megaliths in Węsiory, Pommerian.JPG
File:Kamienne Kręgi Odry k-Czerska - panoramio.jpg
File:Grzybnica cmentarzysko krag.jpg
File:Szczecin Museum Ceramics 3.jpg|Wielbark pottery
File:Szczecin Museum Ceramics 4.jpg|Wielbark pottery
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Poland in antiquity#Migrations of Wielbark and Przeworsk cultures people|Migrations of Wielbark and Przeworsk cultures people]]
*[[Poland in antiquity#Origins and expansion of the Wielbark culture|Origins and expansion of the Wielbark culture]]
*[[Poland in antiquity#Wielbark culture and burials|Wielbark culture and burials]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|24em}}

==Sources==
{{Refbegin|35em}}
*{{citation|chapter=The Gothic migration through Eastern Poland – archaeological evidences |editor-last1= Cieśliński |editor-last2= Kontny |title=Interacting Barbarians. Contacts, Exchange and Migrations in the First Millennium AD |series= Neue Studien zur Sachsenforschung |volume=9| location= Warszawa-Braunschweig |year=2019 |pages= 227–239 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/40560901 |first= Jacek |last=Andrzejowski}}
*{{citation|chapter=The society of Wielbark culture, AD 1‒300 |editor-last=Rzeszotarska-Nowakiewicz |title= The Past Societies. Polish lands from the first evidence of human presence to the Early Middle Ages. 500BC‒500AD |volume= 4 |location= Warszawa |year=2016 |pages= 217‒255 |first=Adam |last=Cieśliński |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/36853596}}
* {{cite book |last1=Heather |first1=Peter |author-link1=Peter Heather |last2=Matthews |first2=John |author-link2=John Matthews (historian) |year=1991 |title=The Goths in the Fourth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m8p4SxNNk1YC |publisher=[[Liverpool University Press]] |isbn=9780853234265 }}
* {{cite book |last=Heather |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Heather |year=2010 |title=The Fall of the Roman Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Jntu21N9K0C |publisher=[[Pan Macmillan]] |isbn=9780330529839 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Heather |first1=Peter |author-link1=Peter Heather |year=2012a |title=Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=suwVDAAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780199892266 }}
*{{cite book |last1=Heather |first1=Peter |author-link1=Peter Heather |date=2012b |chapter=Goths |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001/acref-9780199545568-e-2873? |editor1-last=Hornblower |editor1-first=Simon |editor1-link=Simon Hornblower |editor2-last=Spawforth |editor2-first=Antony |editor3-last=Eidinow |editor3-first=Esther |editor3-link=Esther Eidinow |title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary |title-link=The Oxford Classical Dictionary |edition=4th |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780191735257 |access-date=February 20, 2020 |chapter-url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Juras |first1=Anna |date=October 22, 2014 |title=Ancient DNA Reveals Matrilineal Continuity in Present-Day Poland over the Last Two Millennia |journal=[[PLOS One]] |publisher=[[PLOS]] |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages= e110839|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0110839 |pmc=4206425 |pmid=25337992 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9k0839J |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last=Kaliff |first=Anders |author-link=Anders Kaliff |year=2001 |title=Gothic connections: Contacts between eastern Scandinavia and the southern Baltic coast 1000 BC-500 AD |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhK4AAAACAAJ |publisher=[[Uppsala University]] |isbn=9150614827 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/archweb/gazociag/title5.htm |title=The Goths in Greater Poland |last=Makiewicz |first=Tadeusz |author-link=:pl:Tadeusz Makiewicz |publisher=[[:pl:Muzeum Archeologiczne w Poznaniu]] |access-date=February 20, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414235502/http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/archweb/gazociag/title5.htm |archive-date=April 14, 2012 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Maczynska |first1=Magdalena |last2=Rudnicka |first2=Dorota |year=2004 |title=Ein Grab mit römischen Importen aus Czarnówko, Kr. Lêbork (Pommern) |trans-title=A grave with Roman imports from Czarnówko, Lębork district, Pomerania, Poland |url=http://www.dainst.org/medien/de/Germania_82-2.pdf |access-date=January 28, 2020 |journal=[[:de:Germania (Zeitschrift)|Germania]] |publisher=Verlag Henrich Editionen |volume=88 |issue=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807203411/http://www.dainst.org/medien/de/Germania_82-2.pdf |archive-date=August 7, 2007 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Murdoch |first1=Brian |author-link1=Brian O. Murdoch |last2=Read |first2=Malcolm Kevin |year=2004 |title=Early Germanic Literature and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PHqzR1XoV0QC |publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer]] |isbn=157113199X }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Piontek |first1=Janusz |date=January 2007 |title=Odontological Analysis of Central European Populations from the Roman Period and the Early Middle Ages |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233752275 |access-date=February 20, 2020 |journal=Humanbiologia Budapestinensis |volume=30 |pages=77–86 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rau |first1=Andreas |date=2018 |chapter=Wielbark Culture |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-5077 |editor1-last=Nicholson |editor1-first=Oliver |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity |title-link=The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780191744457 |access-date=February 20, 2020 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stolarek |first1=Ireneuz |date=February 6, 2018 |title=A mosaic genetic structure of the human population living in the South Baltic region during the Iron Age |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=8 |issue=2455 |pages= 2455|doi=10.1038/s41598-018-20705-6 |pmc=5802798 |pmid=29410482 |bibcode=2018NatSR...8.2455S }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stolarek |first1=Ireneuz |date=May 1, 2019 |title=Goth migration induced changes in the matrilineal genetic structure of the central-east European population |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=9 |issue=6737 |pages= 6737|doi=10.1038/s41598-019-43183-w |pmc=6494872 |pmid=31043639 |bibcode=2019NatSR...9.6737S }}
* {{Cite journal|vauthors=Zenczak M, Handschuh L, Juras A, Marcinkowska-Swojak M, Philips A, Piontek J, Stolarek I, Figlerowicz M |date=2017 |title=Y-chromosome haplogroup assignment through next generation sequencing of enriched ancient DNA libraries |journal=Anthropological Genetics |url=https://www.academia.edu/33791135 |ref={{sfnref|Zenczak et al.|2017}}}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Commons category|Wielbark culture}}
{{Refbegin}}
* Cieśliński, Adam (2023). ''Die Przeworsk- und Wielbark-Kultur östlich der unteren Weichsel. Auswertung der Archivalien aus dem Nachlass von Herbert Jankuhn'' [The Przeworsk and Wielbark culture east of the lower Vistula. Analysis of the archival material from the legacy of Herbert Jankuhn]. Kiel/Hamburg: Wachholtz, {{ISBN|9783487167763}}.
* {{cite book |last1=Kokowski |first1=Andrzej |author-link1=Andrzej Kokowski |year=2011 |chapter=The Goths in ca. 311 AD |editor1-last=Kaliff |editor1-first=Anders |editor1-link=:sv:Anders Kaliff |editor2-last=Munkhammar |editor2-first=Lars |title=Wulfila 311-2011 |chapter-url=http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:668706/FULLTEXT01.pdf |publisher=[[:sv:Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis|Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis]] |pages=71–96 |isbn=9789155486648 }}
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{{Germanic peoples}}
{{Pomeranian history|dem}}
{{Vistula}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wielbark Culture}}
[[Category:Archaeological cultures in Belarus]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures of Europe]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures in Poland]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures in Ukraine]]
[[Category:Iron Age cultures of Europe]]
[[Category:Goths]]
[[Category:Prehistoric Poland]]
[[Category:Prehistory of Prussia]]

Wielbark culture - Revision history

imported>Andrew Lancaster: Undid revision 1284662065 by Marcin 303 (talk) the german term is used in academia sometimes and so this is a case where a foreign language version is appropriate