Structural engineering - Revision history

imported>ConnerTT: Reverted edit by ~2026-32305-50 (talk) to last version by ~2026-28611-13

2026-06-01T05:31:22Z

Reverted edit by ~2026-32305-50 (talk) to last version by ~2026-28611-13

← Previous revision		Revision as of 05:31, 1 June 2026
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	{{Short description\|~~Sub-discipline~~ of civil engineering dealing with ~~the creation of~~ man made structures}}		{{Short description\|Branch of civil engineering dealing with man-made structures}}
	{{More footnotes\|date=February 2009}}		{{More footnotes needed\|date=February 2009}}
	[[File:Tour Eiffel Wikimedia Commons.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|The [[Eiffel Tower]] in Paris is a historical achievement of structural engineering.]]		[[File:Tour Eiffel Wikimedia Commons.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|The [[Eiffel Tower]] in Paris is a historical achievement of structural engineering.]]
	{{~~Template:~~Engineering side bar}}		{{Engineering side bar}}

	'''Structural engineering''' is a sub-discipline of [[civil engineering]] in which [[structural engineer]]s are trained to design the 'bones and joints' that create the form and shape of human-made [[Structure#Load-bearing\|structures]]. [[Structural engineers]] also must understand and calculate the [[structural stability\|stability]], strength, [[structural rigidity\|rigidity]] and earthquake-susceptibility of built structures for [[building]]s<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf FAO online publication] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119191121/http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf \|date=2016-11-19 }}</ref> and [[nonbuilding structure]]s. The structural designs are integrated with those of other designers such as [[architects]] and [[Building services engineering\|building services engineer]] and often supervise the construction of projects by [[contractors]] on site.<ref name = IStructE/> They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. See [[glossary of structural engineering]].		'''Structural engineering''' is a sub-discipline of [[civil engineering]] in which [[structural engineer]]s are trained to design the 'bones and joints' that create the form and shape of human-made [[Structure#Load-bearing\|structures]]. [[Structural engineers]] also must understand and calculate the [[structural stability\|stability]], strength, [[structural rigidity\|rigidity]] and earthquake-susceptibility of built structures for [[building]]s<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf FAO online publication] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119191121/http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf \|date=2016-11-19 }}</ref> and [[nonbuilding structure]]s. The structural designs are integrated with those of other designers such as [[architects]] and [[Building services engineering\|building services engineer]] and often supervise the construction of projects by [[contractors]] on site.<ref name = IStructE/> They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. See [[glossary of structural engineering]].
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	[[File:Bolt-in-shear.svg\|thumb\|Figure of a [[Screw\|bolt]] in [[shear stress]]. Top figure illustrates single shear, bottom figure illustrates double shear.]]		[[File:Bolt-in-shear.svg\|thumb\|Figure of a [[Screw\|bolt]] in [[shear stress]]. Top figure illustrates single shear, bottom figure illustrates double shear.]]

	Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of [[applied mechanics]], [[materials science]], and [[applied mathematics]] to understand and predict how structures support and resist self-weight and imposed loads. To apply the knowledge successfully a structural engineer generally requires detailed knowledge of relevant empirical and theoretical [[design codes]], the techniques of [[structural analysis]], as well as some knowledge of the [[corrosion]] resistance of the materials and structures, especially when those structures are exposed to the external environment. Since the 1990s, specialist software has become available to aid in the design of structures, with the functionality to assist in the drawing, analyzing and designing of structures with maximum precision; examples include [[AutoCAD]], StaadPro, [[Computers and Structures\|ETABS]], Prokon, Revit Structure, Inducta RCB, etc. Such software may also take into consideration environmental loads, such as earthquakes and winds.{{cn\|date=February 2024}}		Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of [[applied mechanics]], [[materials science]], and [[applied mathematics]] to understand and predict how structures support and resist self-weight and imposed loads. To apply the knowledge successfully a structural engineer generally requires detailed knowledge of relevant empirical and theoretical [[design codes]], the techniques of [[structural analysis]], as well as some knowledge of the [[corrosion]] resistance of the materials and structures, especially when those structures are exposed to the external environment. Since the 1990s, specialist software has become available to aid in the design of structures, with the functionality to assist in the drawing, analyzing and designing of structures with maximum precision; examples include [[AutoCAD]], StaadPro, [[Computers and Structures\|ETABS]], Prokon, Revit Structure, Inducta RCB, etc. Such software may also take into consideration environmental loads, such as earthquakes and winds.{{citation needed\|date=February 2024}}

	==Profession==		==Profession==
	{{Main\|Structural engineer}}		{{Main\|Structural engineer}}

	Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and structural analysis. Entry-level structural engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, such as the beams and columns of a building. More experienced engineers may be responsible for the structural design and integrity of an entire system, such as a building.{{cn\|date=February 2024}}		Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and structural analysis. Entry-level structural engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, such as the beams and columns of a building. More experienced engineers may be responsible for the structural design and integrity of an entire system, such as a building.{{citation needed\|date=February 2024}}

	Structural engineers often specialize in particular types of structures, such as buildings, bridges, pipelines, industrial constructions, tunnels, vehicles, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft ~~and software~~. Structural engineers who specialize in buildings may specialize in particular construction materials such as concrete, steel, wood, masonry, alloys and composites.{{cn\|date=February 2024}}		Structural engineers often specialize in particular types of structures, such as buildings, bridges, pipelines, industrial constructions, tunnels, vehicles, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft. Structural engineers who specialize in buildings may specialize in particular construction materials such as concrete, steel, wood, masonry, alloys and composites.{{citation needed\|date=February 2024}}

	Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their structures. It became a more defined and formalized profession with the emergence of architecture as a distinct profession from engineering during the industrial revolution in the late 19th century. Until then, the architect and the structural engineer were usually one and the same thing – the master builder. Only with the development of specialized knowledge of structural theories that emerged during the 19th and early 20th centuries, did the professional structural engineers come into existence.{{cn\|date=February 2024}}		Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their structures. It became a more defined and formalized profession with the emergence of architecture as a distinct profession from engineering during the industrial revolution in the late 19th century. Until then, the architect and the structural engineer were usually one and the same thing – the master builder. Only with the development of specialized knowledge of structural theories that emerged during the 19th and early 20th centuries, did the professional structural engineers come into existence.{{citation needed\|date=February 2024}}

	The role of a structural engineer today involves a significant understanding of both static and dynamic loading and the structures that are available to resist them. The complexity of modern structures often requires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure the structures support and resist the loads they are subjected to. A structural engineer will typically have a four or five-year undergraduate degree, followed by a minimum of three years of professional practice before being considered fully qualified.		The role of a structural engineer today involves a significant understanding of both static and dynamic loading and the structures that are available to resist them. The complexity of modern structures often requires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure the structures support and resist the loads they are subjected to. A structural engineer will typically have a four or five-year undergraduate degree, followed by a minimum of three years of professional practice before being considered fully qualified.
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	Civil engineering structures are often subjected to very extreme forces, such as large variations in temperature, dynamic loads such as waves or traffic, or high pressures from water or compressed gases. They are also often constructed in corrosive environments, such as at sea, in industrial facilities, or below ground.		Civil engineering structures are often subjected to very extreme forces, such as large variations in temperature, dynamic loads such as waves or traffic, or high pressures from water or compressed gases. They are also often constructed in corrosive environments, such as at sea, in industrial facilities, or below ground.


	===Mechanical engineering structures===		===Mechanical engineering structures===
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	===Structural engineering for medical science===		===Structural engineering for medical science===
	[[File:Marcelletti SO2.jpg\|thumb\| Designing medical equipment needs in-depth understanding of structural engineering]]		[[File:Marcelletti SO2.jpg\|thumb\|Designing medical equipment needs in-depth understanding of structural engineering]]

	Medical equipment (also known as armamentarium) is designed to aid in the diagnosis, monitoring or treatment of medical conditions. There are several basic types: [[diagnostic]] equipment includes medical imaging machines, used to aid in diagnosis; equipment includes infusion pumps, medical lasers, and [[LASIK surgical machines]]; medical monitors allow medical staff to measure a patient's medical state. Monitors may measure patient vital signs and other parameters including [[ECG]], [[EEG]], blood pressure, and dissolved gases in the blood; diagnostic medical equipment may also be used in the home for certain purposes, e.g. for the control of diabetes mellitus. A [[biomedical equipment technician]] (BMET) is a vital component of the healthcare delivery system. Employed primarily by hospitals, BMETs are the people responsible for maintaining a facility's medical equipment.		Medical equipment (also known as armamentarium) is designed to aid in the diagnosis, monitoring or treatment of medical conditions. There are several basic types: [[diagnostic]] equipment includes medical imaging machines, used to aid in diagnosis; equipment includes infusion pumps, medical lasers, and [[LASIK surgical machines]]; medical monitors allow medical staff to measure a patient's medical state. Monitors may measure patient vital signs and other parameters including [[ECG]], [[EEG]], blood pressure, and dissolved gases in the blood; diagnostic medical equipment may also be used in the home for certain purposes, e.g. for the control of diabetes mellitus. A [[biomedical equipment technician]] (BMET) is a vital component of the healthcare delivery system. Employed primarily by hospitals, BMETs are the people responsible for maintaining a facility's medical equipment.
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	===Trusses===		===Trusses===
	{{Main ~~article~~\|Truss}}		{{Main\|Truss}}
	[[File:McDonnell-Planetarium.jpg\|thumb\|The McDonnell Planetarium by [[Gyo Obata]] in [[St Louis, Missouri]], USA, a concrete shell structure]]		[[File:McDonnell-Planetarium.jpg\|thumb\|The McDonnell Planetarium by [[Gyo Obata]] in [[St Louis, Missouri]], USA, a concrete shell structure]]
	[[File:gateway arch.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|The 630 foot (192 m) high, stainless-clad (type 304) [[Jefferson National Expansion Memorial#The Gateway Arch\|Gateway Arch]] in [[St. Louis\|St. Louis, Missouri]]]]		[[File:gateway arch.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|The 630 foot (192 m) high, stainless-clad (type 304) [[Jefferson National Expansion Memorial#The Gateway Arch\|Gateway Arch]] in [[St. Louis\|St. Louis, Missouri]]]]
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	{{Main\|Plate (structure)}}		{{Main\|Plate (structure)}}

	Plates carry bending in two directions. A concrete flat slab is an example of a plate. Plate behavior is based on [[continuum mechanics]]. Due to the complexity involved they are most often analyzed using a finite element analysis.		Plates carry bending in two directions. A concrete flat slab is an example of a plate. Plate behavior is based on [[continuum mechanics]]. Due to the complexity involved they are most often analyzed using a finite element analysis.

	They can also be designed with yield line theory, where an assumed collapse mechanism is analyzed to give an upper bound on the collapse load. This technique is used in practice<ref>{{cite web \|title=Assessment of a Pair of Reinforced Concrete Roof Slabs \|url=http://www.ramsay-maunder.co.uk/downloads/precast_roof_slabs.pdf \|website=Ramsay-Maunder.co.uk \|publisher=Ramsay Maunder Associates \|date=2011 \|access-date=2022-03-08 }}</ref> but because the method provides an upper-bound (i.e. an unsafe prediction of the collapse load) for poorly conceived collapse mechanisms, great care is needed to ensure that the assumed collapse mechanism is realistic.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.ramsay-maunder.co.uk/downloads/l_shaped_landing.pdf \|title=Reappraisal of a Simply Supported Landing Slab \|website=Ramsay-Maunder.co.uk \|publisher=Ramsay Maunder Associates \|url-status=live \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071038/http://www.ramsay-maunder.co.uk/downloads/l_shaped_landing.pdf \|date=2011 \|archive-date=2016-03-04 \|access-date=2022-03-08 }}</ref>		They can also be designed with yield line theory, where an assumed collapse mechanism is analyzed to give an upper bound on the collapse load. This technique is used in practice<ref>{{cite web \|title=Assessment of a Pair of Reinforced Concrete Roof Slabs \|url=http://www.ramsay-maunder.co.uk/downloads/precast_roof_slabs.pdf \|website=Ramsay-Maunder.co.uk \|publisher=Ramsay Maunder Associates \|date=2011 \|access-date=2022-03-08 }}</ref> but because the method provides an upper-bound (i.e. an unsafe prediction of the collapse load) for poorly conceived collapse mechanisms, great care is needed to ensure that the assumed collapse mechanism is realistic.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.ramsay-maunder.co.uk/downloads/l_shaped_landing.pdf \|title=Reappraisal of a Simply Supported Landing Slab \|website=Ramsay-Maunder.co.uk \|publisher=Ramsay Maunder Associates \|url-status=live \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071038/http://www.ramsay-maunder.co.uk/downloads/l_shaped_landing.pdf \|date=2011 \|archive-date=2016-03-04 \|access-date=2022-03-08 }}</ref>
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	Common structural materials are:		Common structural materials are:
	* [[Iron]]: [[wrought iron]], [[cast iron]]		* [[Iron]]: [[wrought iron]], [[cast iron]]
	* [[Concrete]]: [[reinforced concrete]], [[prestressed concrete]]		* [[Concrete]]: [[reinforced concrete]], [[prestressed concrete]], [[ultra-high performance concrete]]
	* [[Alloy]]: [[steel]], [[stainless steel]]		* [[Alloy]]: [[steel]], [[stainless steel]]
	* [[Masonry]]		* [[Masonry]]
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	==See also==		==See also==
			{{Portal\| Engineering }}
	{{div col\|colwidth=22em}}		{{div col\|colwidth=22em}}
	* [[Glossary of structural engineering]]		* [[Glossary of structural engineering]]
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	==External links==		==External links==
	~~{{Portal\| Engineering }}~~
	* [http://www.seaint.org Structural Engineering Association – International]		* [http://www.seaint.org Structural Engineering Association – International]
	* [http://www.ncsea.com National Council of Structural Engineers Associations]		* [http://www.ncsea.com National Council of Structural Engineers Associations]

~2025-41785-33: /* Profession */

2025-12-19T11:47:39Z

Profession

imported>Maertrajg: /* Building structures */

2025-10-30T19:49:40Z

Building structures

← Previous revision		Revision as of 19:49, 30 October 2025
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	{{More footnotes\|date=February 2009}}		{{More footnotes\|date=February 2009}}
	[[File:Tour Eiffel Wikimedia Commons.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|The [[Eiffel Tower]] in Paris is a historical achievement of structural engineering.]]		[[File:Tour Eiffel Wikimedia Commons.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|The [[Eiffel Tower]] in Paris is a historical achievement of structural engineering.]]
			{{Template:Engineering side bar}}

	'''Structural engineering''' is a sub-discipline of [[civil engineering]] in which [[structural engineer]]s are trained to design the 'bones and joints' that create the form and shape of human-made [[Structure#Load-bearing\|structures]]. [[Structural engineers]] also must understand and calculate the [[structural stability\|stability]], strength, [[structural rigidity\|rigidity]] and earthquake-susceptibility of built structures for [[building]]s<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf FAO online publication] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119191121/http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf \|date=2016-11-19 }}</ref> and [[nonbuilding structure]]s. The structural designs are integrated with those of other designers such as [[architects]] and [[Building services engineering\|building services engineer]] and often supervise the construction of projects by [[contractors]] on site.<ref name = IStructE/> They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. See [[glossary of structural engineering]].		'''Structural engineering''' is a sub-discipline of [[civil engineering]] in which [[structural engineer]]s are trained to design the 'bones and joints' that create the form and shape of human-made [[Structure#Load-bearing\|structures]]. [[Structural engineers]] also must understand and calculate the [[structural stability\|stability]], strength, [[structural rigidity\|rigidity]] and earthquake-susceptibility of built structures for [[building]]s<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf FAO online publication] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119191121/http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf \|date=2016-11-19 }}</ref> and [[nonbuilding structure]]s. The structural designs are integrated with those of other designers such as [[architects]] and [[Building services engineering\|building services engineer]] and often supervise the construction of projects by [[contractors]] on site.<ref name = IStructE/> They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. See [[glossary of structural engineering]].
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	===Building structures===		===Building structures===
	{{See also\|Building engineering}}		{{See also\|Building engineering}}
	[[File:Sydney Opera House Sails edit02.jpg\|thumb\|[[Sydney Opera House]], designed by Architect [[Jørn Utzon]] and structural design by [[~~Arup Group Limited\|~~Ove Arup & Partners]]]]		[[File:Sydney Opera House Sails edit02.jpg\|thumb\|[[Sydney Opera House]], designed by Architect [[Jørn Utzon]] and structural design by [[Ove Arup & Partners]]]]
			[[File:Millennium Dome (zakgollop) version.jpg\|thumb\|[[Millennium Dome]] in [[London]], England designed by [[Richard Rogers]] and [[Buro Happold]]]]
	[[File:Millennium Dome (zakgollop) version.jpg\|thumb\|[[Millennium Dome]] in London, ~~UK,~~ by [[Richard Rogers]] and [[Buro Happold]]]]		[[File:Burjdubaiaug92007.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|[[Burj Khalifa]], in [[Dubai]], the [[world's tallest building]] under construction in 2007]]

	[[File:Burjdubaiaug92007.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|[[Burj Khalifa]], in [[Dubai]], the [[world's tallest building]]~~, shown~~ under construction in 2007 ~~(since completed)~~]]

	Structural building engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms and the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end that fulfills its functional requirements and is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could reasonably be expected to experience. This is subtly different from architectural design, which is driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms, mass, space, volume, texture, and light to achieve an end which is aesthetic, functional, and often artistic.		Structural building engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms and the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end that fulfills its functional requirements and is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could reasonably be expected to experience. This is subtly different from architectural design, which is driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms, mass, space, volume, texture, and light to achieve an end which is aesthetic, functional, and often artistic.

75.128.4.144: Heading for a section was missing

2025-06-10T17:53:37Z

Heading for a section was missing

← Previous revision		Revision as of 17:53, 10 June 2025
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	Civil engineering structures are often subjected to very extreme forces, such as large variations in temperature, dynamic loads such as waves or traffic, or high pressures from water or compressed gases. They are also often constructed in corrosive environments, such as at sea, in industrial facilities, or below ground.		Civil engineering structures are often subjected to very extreme forces, such as large variations in temperature, dynamic loads such as waves or traffic, or high pressures from water or compressed gases. They are also often constructed in corrosive environments, such as at sea, in industrial facilities, or below ground.

	~~resisted and significant deflections of structures.~~

			===Mechanical engineering structures===
	The forces which parts of a machine are subjected to can vary significantly and can do so at a great rate. The forces which a boat or aircraft are subjected to vary enormously and will do so thousands of times over the structure's lifetime. The structural design must ensure that such structures can endure such loading for their entire design life without failing.		The forces which parts of a machine are subjected to can vary significantly and can do so at a great rate. The forces which a boat or aircraft are subjected to vary enormously and will do so thousands of times over the structure's lifetime. The structural design must ensure that such structures can endure such loading for their entire design life without failing.

imported>Xaviedias1: /* Columns */ Added link to buckling

2025-05-31T10:39:05Z

Columns: Added link to buckling

Show changes

← Previous revision		Revision as of 19:49, 30 October 2025
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	{{More footnotes\|date=February 2009}}		{{More footnotes\|date=February 2009}}
	[[File:Tour Eiffel Wikimedia Commons.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|The [[Eiffel Tower]] in Paris is a historical achievement of structural engineering.]]		[[File:Tour Eiffel Wikimedia Commons.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|The [[Eiffel Tower]] in Paris is a historical achievement of structural engineering.]]
			{{Template:Engineering side bar}}

	'''Structural engineering''' is a sub-discipline of [[civil engineering]] in which [[structural engineer]]s are trained to design the 'bones and joints' that create the form and shape of human-made [[Structure#Load-bearing\|structures]]. [[Structural engineers]] also must understand and calculate the [[structural stability\|stability]], strength, [[structural rigidity\|rigidity]] and earthquake-susceptibility of built structures for [[building]]s<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf FAO online publication] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119191121/http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf \|date=2016-11-19 }}</ref> and [[nonbuilding structure]]s. The structural designs are integrated with those of other designers such as [[architects]] and [[Building services engineering\|building services engineer]] and often supervise the construction of projects by [[contractors]] on site.<ref name = IStructE/> They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. See [[glossary of structural engineering]].		'''Structural engineering''' is a sub-discipline of [[civil engineering]] in which [[structural engineer]]s are trained to design the 'bones and joints' that create the form and shape of human-made [[Structure#Load-bearing\|structures]]. [[Structural engineers]] also must understand and calculate the [[structural stability\|stability]], strength, [[structural rigidity\|rigidity]] and earthquake-susceptibility of built structures for [[building]]s<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf FAO online publication] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119191121/http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf \|date=2016-11-19 }}</ref> and [[nonbuilding structure]]s. The structural designs are integrated with those of other designers such as [[architects]] and [[Building services engineering\|building services engineer]] and often supervise the construction of projects by [[contractors]] on site.<ref name = IStructE/> They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. See [[glossary of structural engineering]].
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	===Building structures===		===Building structures===
	{{See also\|Building engineering}}		{{See also\|Building engineering}}
	[[File:Sydney Opera House Sails edit02.jpg\|thumb\|[[Sydney Opera House]], designed by Architect [[Jørn Utzon]] and structural design by [[~~Arup Group Limited\|~~Ove Arup & Partners]]]]		[[File:Sydney Opera House Sails edit02.jpg\|thumb\|[[Sydney Opera House]], designed by Architect [[Jørn Utzon]] and structural design by [[Ove Arup & Partners]]]]
			[[File:Millennium Dome (zakgollop) version.jpg\|thumb\|[[Millennium Dome]] in [[London]], England designed by [[Richard Rogers]] and [[Buro Happold]]]]
	[[File:Millennium Dome (zakgollop) version.jpg\|thumb\|[[Millennium Dome]] in London, ~~UK,~~ by [[Richard Rogers]] and [[Buro Happold]]]]		[[File:Burjdubaiaug92007.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|[[Burj Khalifa]], in [[Dubai]], the [[world's tallest building]] under construction in 2007]]

	[[File:Burjdubaiaug92007.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|[[Burj Khalifa]], in [[Dubai]], the [[world's tallest building]]~~, shown~~ under construction in 2007 ~~(since completed)~~]]

	Structural building engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms and the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end that fulfills its functional requirements and is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could reasonably be expected to experience. This is subtly different from architectural design, which is driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms, mass, space, volume, texture, and light to achieve an end which is aesthetic, functional, and often artistic.		Structural building engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms and the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end that fulfills its functional requirements and is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could reasonably be expected to experience. This is subtly different from architectural design, which is driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms, mass, space, volume, texture, and light to achieve an end which is aesthetic, functional, and often artistic.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 11:47, 19 December 2025
Line 4:		Line 4:
	{{Template:Engineering side bar}}		{{Template:Engineering side bar}}

	'''Structural engineering''' is a sub-discipline of [[civil engineering]] in which [[structural engineer]]s are trained to design the 'bones and joints' that create the form and shape of human-made [[Structure#Load-bearing\|structures]]. [[Structural engineers]] also must understand and calculate the [[structural stability\|stability]], strength, [[structural rigidity\|rigidity]] and earthquake-susceptibility of built structures for [[building]]s<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf FAO online publication] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119191121/http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf \|date=2016-11-19 }}</ref> and [[nonbuilding structure]]s. The structural designs are integrated with those of other designers such as [[architects]] and [[Building services engineering\|building services engineer]] and often supervise the construction of projects by [[contractors]] on site.<ref name = IStructE/> They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. See [[glossary of structural engineering]].		'''Structural engineering''' is a sub-discipline of [[civil engineering]] in which [[structural engineer]]s are trained to design the 'bones and joints' that create the form and shape of human-made [[Structure#Load-bearing\|structures]]. [[Structural engineers]] also must understand and calculate the [[structural stability\|stability]], strength, [[structural rigidity\|rigidity]] and earthquake-susceptibility of built structures for [[building]]s<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf FAO online publication] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119191121/http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf \|date=2016-11-19 }}</ref> and [[nonbuilding structure]]s. The structural designs are integrated with those of other designers such as [[architects]] and [[Building services engineering\|building services engineer]] and often supervise the construction of projects by [[contractors]] on site.<ref name = IStructE/> They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. See [[glossary of structural engineering]].

	Structural engineering theory is based upon applied [[physics\|physical laws]] and [[empirical]] knowledge of the structural performance of different materials and geometries. Structural engineering design uses a number of relatively simple structural concepts to build complex [[structural system]]s. Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals.<ref name="IStructE">{{cite web\|url = http://www.rmg-engineers.com/what-is-a-structural-engineer/\|title = What is a structural engineer\|access-date = 2015-11-30\|date = 2015-11-30\|website = RMG Engineers\|url-status = live\|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208052438/http://www.rmg-engineers.com/what-is-a-structural-engineer/\|archive-date = 2015-12-08}}</ref>		Structural engineering theory is based upon applied [[physics\|physical laws]] and [[empirical]] knowledge of the structural performance of different materials and geometries. Structural engineering design uses a number of relatively simple structural concepts to build complex [[structural system]]s. Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals.<ref name="IStructE">{{cite web\|url = http://www.rmg-engineers.com/what-is-a-structural-engineer/\|title = What is a structural engineer\|access-date = 2015-11-30\|date = 2015-11-30\|website = RMG Engineers\|url-status = live\|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208052438/http://www.rmg-engineers.com/what-is-a-structural-engineer/\|archive-date = 2015-12-08}}</ref>
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	[[File:Pont du Gard BLS.jpg\|thumb\|[[Pont du Gard]], France, a [[Ancient Rome\|Roman]] era aqueduct circa 19 BC]]		[[File:Pont du Gard BLS.jpg\|thumb\|[[Pont du Gard]], France, a [[Ancient Rome\|Roman]] era aqueduct circa 19 BC]]

	Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B.C. when the step pyramid for Pharaoh [[Djoser]] was built by [[Imhotep]], the first engineer in history known by name. Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because the structural form of a pyramid is inherently stable and can be almost infinitely scaled (as opposed to most other structural forms, which cannot be linearly increased in size in proportion to increased loads).<ref name = Saouma/>		Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B.C., when the [[step pyramid]] for Pharaoh [[Djoser]] was built by [[Imhotep]], the first engineer in history known by name. Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because the structural form of a pyramid is inherently stable and can be almost infinitely scaled (as opposed to most other structural forms, which cannot be linearly increased in size in proportion to increased loads).<ref name = Saouma/>

	The structural stability of the pyramid, whilst primarily gained from its shape, relies also on the strength of the stone from which it is constructed, and its ability to support the weight of the stone above it.<ref name=Fonte>{{cite report\|title=Building the Great Pyramid in a Year: An Engineer's Report \|author=Fonte, Gerard C. A.\|publisher=Algora Publishing: New York\|pages=34}}CV</ref> The limestone blocks were often taken from a quarry near the building site and have a compressive strength from 30 to 250 MPa (MPa = Pa × 10<sup>6</sup>).<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.stanford.edu/~tyzhu/Documents/Some%20Useful%20Numbers.pdf\|title=Some Useful Numbers on the Engineering Properties of Materials (Geologic and Otherwise)\|publisher=Stanford University\|access-date=2013-12-05\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616163119/http://www.stanford.edu/~tyzhu/Documents/Some%20Useful%20Numbers.pdf\|archive-date=2012-06-16}}</ref> Therefore, the structural strength of the pyramid stems from the material properties of the stones from which it was built rather than the pyramid's geometry.		The structural stability of the pyramid, whilst primarily gained from its shape, relies also on the strength of the stone from which it is constructed, and its ability to support the weight of the stone above it.<ref name=Fonte>{{cite report\|title=Building the Great Pyramid in a Year: An Engineer's Report \|author=Fonte, Gerard C. A.\|publisher=Algora Publishing: New York\|pages=34}}CV</ref> The limestone blocks were often taken from a quarry near the building site and have a compressive strength from 30 to 250 MPa (MPa = Pa × 10<sup>6</sup>).<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.stanford.edu/~tyzhu/Documents/Some%20Useful%20Numbers.pdf\|title=Some Useful Numbers on the Engineering Properties of Materials (Geologic and Otherwise)\|publisher=Stanford University\|access-date=2013-12-05\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616163119/http://www.stanford.edu/~tyzhu/Documents/Some%20Useful%20Numbers.pdf\|archive-date=2012-06-16}}</ref> Therefore, the structural strength of the pyramid stems from the material properties of the stones from which it was built rather than the pyramid's geometry.
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	{{Main\|Structural failure\|List of structural failures and collapses}}		{{Main\|Structural failure\|List of structural failures and collapses}}

	The history of structural engineering contains many collapses and failures. Sometimes this is due to obvious negligence, as in the case of the [[2008 Pétion-ville school collapse\|Pétion-Ville school collapse]], in which Rev. Fortin Augustin ''" constructed the building all by himself, saying he didn't need an engineer as he had good knowledge of construction"'' following a partial collapse of the three-story schoolhouse that sent neighbors fleeing. The final collapse killed 94 people, mostly children.		The history of structural engineering contains many collapses and failures. Sometimes this is due to obvious negligence, as in the case of the [[2008 Pétion-ville school collapse\|Pétion-Ville school collapse]], in which Rev. Fortin Augustin ''" constructed the building all by himself, saying he didn't need an engineer as he had good knowledge of construction"'' following a partial collapse of the three-story schoolhouse that sent neighbors fleeing. The final collapse killed 94 people, mostly children.

	In other cases [[crash testing\|structural failures]] require careful study, and the results of these inquiries have resulted in improved practices and a greater understanding of the science of structural engineering. Some such studies are the result of [[forensic engineering]] investigations where the original engineer seems to have done everything in accordance with the state of the profession and acceptable practice yet a failure still eventuated. A famous case of structural knowledge and practice being advanced in this manner can be found in a series of failures involving [[box girders]] which collapsed in Australia during the 1970s.		In other cases [[crash testing\|structural failures]] require careful study, and the results of these inquiries have resulted in improved practices and a greater understanding of the science of structural engineering. Some such studies are the result of [[forensic engineering]] investigations where the original engineer seems to have done everything in accordance with the state of the profession and acceptable practice yet a failure still eventuated. A famous case of structural knowledge and practice being advanced in this manner can be found in a series of failures involving [[box girders]] which collapsed in Australia during the 1970s.

	==Theory==		==Theory==
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	Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and structural analysis. Entry-level structural engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, such as the beams and columns of a building. More experienced engineers may be responsible for the structural design and integrity of an entire system, such as a building.{{cn\|date=February 2024}}		Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and structural analysis. Entry-level structural engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, such as the beams and columns of a building. More experienced engineers may be responsible for the structural design and integrity of an entire system, such as a building.{{cn\|date=February 2024}}

	Structural engineers often specialize in particular types of structures, such as buildings, bridges, pipelines, industrial, tunnels, vehicles, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft. Structural engineers who specialize in buildings may specialize in particular construction materials such as concrete, steel, wood, masonry, alloys and composites.{{cn\|date=February 2024}}		Structural engineers often specialize in particular types of structures, such as buildings, bridges, pipelines, industrial constructions, tunnels, vehicles, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft and software. Structural engineers who specialize in buildings may specialize in particular construction materials such as concrete, steel, wood, masonry, alloys and composites.{{cn\|date=February 2024}}

	Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their structures. It became a more defined and formalized profession with the emergence of architecture as a distinct profession from engineering during the industrial revolution in the late 19th century. Until then, the architect and the structural engineer were usually one and the same thing – the master builder. Only with the development of specialized knowledge of structural theories that emerged during the 19th and early 20th centuries, did the professional structural engineers come into existence.{{cn\|date=February 2024}}		Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their structures. It became a more defined and formalized profession with the emergence of architecture as a distinct profession from engineering during the industrial revolution in the late 19th century. Until then, the architect and the structural engineer were usually one and the same thing – the master builder. Only with the development of specialized knowledge of structural theories that emerged during the 19th and early 20th centuries, did the professional structural engineers come into existence.{{cn\|date=February 2024}}
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	* Feld, Jacob; Carper, Kenneth L. (1997). ''Construction Failure''. John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN\|0-471-57477-5}}.		* Feld, Jacob; Carper, Kenneth L. (1997). ''Construction Failure''. John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN\|0-471-57477-5}}.
	* Galilei, Galileo. (translators: Crew, Henry; de Salvio, Alfonso) (1954). ''Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences''. Courier Dover Publications. {{ISBN\|0-486-60099-8}}		* Galilei, Galileo. (translators: Crew, Henry; de Salvio, Alfonso) (1954). ''Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences''. Courier Dover Publications. {{ISBN\|0-486-60099-8}}
	* Kirby, Richard Shelton ~~(1990). ''~~Engineering in History~~''. Courier~~ Dover Publications~~. {{ISBN~~\|0-486-26412-2}}.		* {{cite book \| last1 = Kirby \| first1 = Richard Shelton \| last2 = Withington \| first2 = Sidney \| last3 = Darling \| first3 = Arthur Burr \| last4 = Kilgour \| first4 = Frederick Gridley \| author-link4 = Fred Kilgour \| title = Engineering in History \| publisher = Dover Publications \| year = 1990 \| orig-year = 1956 \| location = New York \| oclc = 561620 \| isbn = 0-486-26412-2 \| url = https://archive.org/details/engineeringinhis0000unse }}
	* Heyman, Jacques (1998). ''Structural Analysis: A Historical Approach''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN\|0-521-62249-2}}.		* Heyman, Jacques (1998). ''Structural Analysis: A Historical Approach''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN\|0-521-62249-2}}.
	* Labrum, E.A. (1994). ''Civil Engineering Heritage''. Thomas Telford. {{ISBN\|0-7277-1970-X}}.		* Labrum, E.A. (1994). ''Civil Engineering Heritage''. Thomas Telford. {{ISBN\|0-7277-1970-X}}.