Pesticide resistance - Revision history

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← Previous revision		Revision as of 18:11, 17 June 2025
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	\| s2cid=59524736		\| s2cid=59524736
	\| doi-access=free		\| doi-access=free
			\| bibcode=2019JPesS..92.1329G
	}}</ref>		}}</ref>

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	* Pests with limited viable range (such as insects with a specific diet of a few related crop plants) are more likely to evolve resistance, because they are exposed to higher pesticide concentrations and has less opportunity to breed with unexposed populations.<ref name="Daly" />		* Pests with limited viable range (such as insects with a specific diet of a few related crop plants) are more likely to evolve resistance, because they are exposed to higher pesticide concentrations and has less opportunity to breed with unexposed populations.<ref name="Daly" />
	* Pests with shorter [[generation time]]s develop resistance more quickly than others.<ref name="Daly" />		* Pests with shorter [[generation time]]s develop resistance more quickly than others.<ref name="Daly" />
	* The social dynamics of farmers: Farmers following the common practices of their peers is sometimes problematic in this case. Overrelying on pesticides is a popular mistake and becomes increasingly popular as farmers conform to the practices around them.<ref name="Jorgensen-et-al-2019">{{cite journal \| last1=Jørgensen \| first1=Peter Søgaard \| last2=Folke \| first2=Carl \| last3=Carroll \| first3=Scott P. \| title=Evolution in the Anthropocene: Informing Governance and Policy \| journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics]] \| publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)\|Annual Reviews]] \| volume=50 \| issue=1 \| date=2019-11-02 \| issn=1543-592X \| doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110218-024621 \| pages=527–546\| s2cid=202846760 \| doi-access=free }}</ref>		* The social dynamics of farmers: Farmers following the common practices of their peers is sometimes problematic in this case. Overrelying on pesticides is a popular mistake and becomes increasingly popular as farmers conform to the practices around them.<ref name="Jorgensen-et-al-2019">{{cite journal \| last1=Jørgensen \| first1=Peter Søgaard \| last2=Folke \| first2=Carl \| last3=Carroll \| first3=Scott P. \| title=Evolution in the Anthropocene: Informing Governance and Policy \| journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics]] \| publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)\|Annual Reviews]] \| volume=50 \| issue=1 \| date=2019-11-02 \| issn=1543-592X \| doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110218-024621 \| pages=527–546\| s2cid=202846760 \| doi-access=free \| bibcode=2019AREES..50..527J }}</ref>
	* Unfamiliarity with variation in [[regulatory enforcement]] can hamper policy makers' ability to produce real change in the course of resistance evolution.<ref name="Jorgensen-et-al-2019" />		* Unfamiliarity with variation in [[regulatory enforcement]] can hamper policy makers' ability to produce real change in the course of resistance evolution.<ref name="Jorgensen-et-al-2019" />

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	* In [[Hawaii]], [[Japan]] and [[Tennessee]], the [[diamondback moth]] evolved a resistance to ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' about three years after it began to be used heavily.<ref name="Daly"/>		* In [[Hawaii]], [[Japan]] and [[Tennessee]], the [[diamondback moth]] evolved a resistance to ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' about three years after it began to be used heavily.<ref name="Daly"/>
	* In England, rats in certain areas have evolved resistance that allows them to consume up to five times as much [[rat poison]] as normal rats without dying.<ref name="PBS"/>		* In England, rats in certain areas have evolved resistance that allows them to consume up to five times as much [[rat poison]] as normal rats without dying.<ref name="PBS"/>
	* DDT is no longer effective in preventing [[malaria]] in some places.<ref name="sustaining"/> Resistance developed slowly in the 1960s due to [[insecticide application\|agricultural use]]. This pattern was especially noted and synthesized by Mouchet 1988.<ref name="Mouchet-1988">{{cite journal \| last=Mouchet \| first=Jean \| title=Agriculture and Vector Resistance \| journal=[[International Journal of Tropical Insect Science]] \| publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] (CUP)<!--- Note CUP not Springer - in 1988 was a CUP journal. ---> \| volume=9 \| issue=3 \| year=1988 \| issn=1742-7584 \| doi=10.1017/s1742758400006238 \| pages=297–302 \| s2cid=85650599}}</ref><ref name="Roberts-et-al-2000">{{cite journal \| last1=Roberts \| first1=Donald R. \| author1-link=Donald R. Roberts \| last2=Manguin \| first2=S \| last3=Mouchet \| first3=J \| title=DDT house spraying and re-emerging malaria \| journal=[[The Lancet]] \| publisher=[[Elsevier]] \| volume=356 \| issue=9226 \| year=2000 \| issn=0140-6736 \| doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(00)02516-2 \| pages=330–332 \| s2cid=19359748 \| pmid=11071203}}</ref>		* DDT is no longer effective in preventing [[malaria]] in some places.<ref name="sustaining"/> Resistance developed slowly in the 1960s due to [[insecticide application\|agricultural use]]. This pattern was especially noted and synthesized by Mouchet 1988.<ref name="Mouchet-1988">{{cite journal \| last=Mouchet \| first=Jean \| title=Agriculture and Vector Resistance \| journal=[[International Journal of Tropical Insect Science]] \| publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] (CUP)<!--- Note CUP not Springer - in 1988 was a CUP journal. ---> \| volume=9 \| issue=3 \| year=1988 \| issn=1742-7584 \| doi=10.1017/s1742758400006238 \| pages=297–302 \| bibcode=1988IJTIS...9..297M \| s2cid=85650599}}</ref><ref name="Roberts-et-al-2000">{{cite journal \| last1=Roberts \| first1=Donald R. \| author1-link=Donald R. Roberts \| last2=Manguin \| first2=S \| last3=Mouchet \| first3=J \| title=DDT house spraying and re-emerging malaria \| journal=[[The Lancet]] \| publisher=[[Elsevier]] \| volume=356 \| issue=9226 \| year=2000 \| issn=0140-6736 \| doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(00)02516-2 \| pages=330–332 \| s2cid=19359748 \| pmid=11071203}}</ref>
	* In the southern United States, ''[[Amaranthus palmeri]]'', which interferes with [[cotton]] production, has evolved resistance to the herbicide [[glyphosate]]<ref>{{Cite news \|url=http://www.salon.com/tech/htww/2008/08/27/monsantos_bane/index.html \|author=Andrew Leonard \|title=Monsanto's bane: The evil pigweed \|work=[[Salon.com\|Salon]] \|date=August 27, 2008}}</ref> and overall has resistance to five [[site of action\|sites of action]] in the southern US {{as of\|2021\|lc=yes}}.<ref name="Palmer-TakeAction">{{cite web \| title=Palmer Amaranth (Pigweed) \| website=[[Take Action Pesticide Resistance Management]] \| date=2020-09-21 \| url=http://iwilltakeaction.com/weed/palmer-amaranth \| access-date=2021-09-22}}</ref>		* In the southern United States, ''[[Amaranthus palmeri]]'', which interferes with [[cotton]] production, has evolved resistance to the herbicide [[glyphosate]]<ref>{{Cite news \|url=http://www.salon.com/tech/htww/2008/08/27/monsantos_bane/index.html \|author=Andrew Leonard \|title=Monsanto's bane: The evil pigweed \|work=[[Salon.com\|Salon]] \|date=August 27, 2008}}</ref> and overall has resistance to five [[site of action\|sites of action]] in the southern US {{as of\|2021\|lc=yes}}.<ref name="Palmer-TakeAction">{{cite web \| title=Palmer Amaranth (Pigweed) \| website=[[Take Action Pesticide Resistance Management]] \| date=2020-09-21 \| url=http://iwilltakeaction.com/weed/palmer-amaranth \| access-date=2021-09-22}}</ref>
	* The [[Colorado potato beetle]] has evolved resistance to 52 different compounds belonging to all major insecticide classes. Resistance levels vary across populations and between [[beetle]] life stages, but in some cases can be very high (up to 2,000-fold).<ref>{{cite journal \| last1=Alyokhin \| first1=A. \| last2=Baker \| first2=M. \| last3=Mota-Sanchez \| first3=D. \| last4=Dively \| first4=G. \| last5=Grafius \| first5=E. \| year=2008 \| title=Colorado potato beetle resistance to insecticides \| journal=American Journal of Potato Research \| volume=85 \| issue=6\| pages=395–413 \| doi=10.1007/s12230-008-9052-0\| s2cid=41206911 }}</ref>		* The [[Colorado potato beetle]] has evolved resistance to 52 different compounds belonging to all major insecticide classes. Resistance levels vary across populations and between [[beetle]] life stages, but in some cases can be very high (up to 2,000-fold).<ref>{{cite journal \| last1=Alyokhin \| first1=A. \| last2=Baker \| first2=M. \| last3=Mota-Sanchez \| first3=D. \| last4=Dively \| first4=G. \| last5=Grafius \| first5=E. \| year=2008 \| title=Colorado potato beetle resistance to insecticides \| journal=American Journal of Potato Research \| volume=85 \| issue=6\| pages=395–413 \| doi=10.1007/s12230-008-9052-0\| s2cid=41206911 }}</ref>
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	:This book cites this research.		:This book cites this research.
	:		:
	:{{Cite journal \|last1=Kain \|first1=Wendy C. \|last2=Zhao \|first2=Jian-Zhou \|last3=Janmaat \|first3=Alida F. \|last4=Myers \|first4=Judith \|last5=Shelton \|first5=Anthony M. \|last6=Wang \|first6=Ping \|title=Inheritance of Resistance to ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' Cry1Ac Toxin in a Greenhouse-Derived Strain of Cabbage Looper (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) \|journal=[[Journal of Economic Entomology]]\|volume=97 \|issue=6 \|pages=2073–2078 \|doi=10.~~1603~~/~~0022-0493-~~97.6.2073 \|year=2004 \|pmid=15666767 \|s2cid=13920351 }}{{Dead link\|date=November 2018 \|bot=InternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}		:{{Cite journal \|last1=Kain \|first1=Wendy C. \|last2=Zhao \|first2=Jian-Zhou \|last3=Janmaat \|first3=Alida F. \|last4=Myers \|first4=Judith \|last5=Shelton \|first5=Anthony M. \|last6=Wang \|first6=Ping \|title=Inheritance of Resistance to ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' Cry1Ac Toxin in a Greenhouse-Derived Strain of Cabbage Looper (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) \|journal=[[Journal of Economic Entomology]]\|volume=97 \|issue=6 \|pages=2073–2078 \|doi=10.1093/jee/97.6.2073 \|year=2004 \|pmid=15666767 \|s2cid=13920351 }}{{Dead link\|date=November 2018 \|bot=InternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}
	</ref>		</ref>
	* The widespread introduction of ''[[Rattus norvegicus]]'' (the brown rat) combined with the widespread use of [[anticoagulent rodenticide]]s such as [[warfarin rodenticide\|warfarin]] has produced almost equally widespread resistance to [[vitamin K antagonist rodenticide]]s around the world.<ref name="RRAC-anticoags">{{cite web \| url=http://croplife.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Rodenticide-Resistance-Strategy_Sept2015v3.pdf \| publisher=[[CropLife]] \| website=[[RRAC]] \| first1=Stefan \| last1=Endepols \| first2=Alan \| last2=Buckle \| first3=Charlie \| last3=Eason \| first4=Hans-Joachim \| last4=Pelz \| first5=Adrian \| last5=Meyer \| first6=Philippe \| last6=Berny \| first7=Kristof \| last7=Baert \| first8=Colin \| last8=Prescott \| place=[[Brussels]] \| date=September 2015 \| pages=1–29 \| title=RRAC guidelines on Anticoagulant Rodenticide Resistance Management}}</ref>		* The widespread introduction of ''[[Rattus norvegicus]]'' (the brown rat) combined with the widespread use of [[anticoagulent rodenticide]]s such as [[warfarin rodenticide\|warfarin]] has produced almost equally widespread resistance to [[vitamin K antagonist rodenticide]]s around the world.<ref name="RRAC-anticoags">{{cite web \| url=http://croplife.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Rodenticide-Resistance-Strategy_Sept2015v3.pdf \| publisher=[[CropLife]] \| website=[[RRAC]] \| first1=Stefan \| last1=Endepols \| first2=Alan \| last2=Buckle \| first3=Charlie \| last3=Eason \| first4=Hans-Joachim \| last4=Pelz \| first5=Adrian \| last5=Meyer \| first6=Philippe \| last6=Berny \| first7=Kristof \| last7=Baert \| first8=Colin \| last8=Prescott \| place=[[Brussels]] \| date=September 2015 \| pages=1–29 \| title=RRAC guidelines on Anticoagulant Rodenticide Resistance Management}}</ref>
	* In aquatic environments, non-target organisms have also demonstrated pesticide resistance. A study on ''Gammarus roeselii'' and ''Hyalella azteca'' found that after only two generations of exposure to the neonicotinoid thiacloprid, tolerance levels nearly doubled. The research suggests that developmental plasticity, rather than genetic mutations alone, may contribute to rapid resistance in some species. <ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Jourdan J, El Toum Abdel Fadil S, Oehlmann J, Hupało K \| title = Rapid development of increased neonicotinoid tolerance in non-target freshwater amphipods \| journal = Environment International \| volume = 183 \| page = 108368 \| date = 2024 \| doi = 10.1016/j.envint.2023.108368 \| doi-access = free }}</ref>		* In aquatic environments, non-target organisms have also demonstrated pesticide resistance. A study on ''Gammarus roeselii'' and ''Hyalella azteca'' found that after only two generations of exposure to the neonicotinoid thiacloprid, tolerance levels nearly doubled. The research suggests that developmental plasticity, rather than genetic mutations alone, may contribute to rapid resistance in some species. <ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Jourdan J, El Toum Abdel Fadil S, Oehlmann J, Hupało K \| title = Rapid development of increased neonicotinoid tolerance in non-target freshwater amphipods \| journal = Environment International \| volume = 183 \| page = 108368 \| date = 2024 \| doi = 10.1016/j.envint.2023.108368 \| doi-access = free \| pmid = 38070438 \| bibcode = 2024EnInt.18308368J }}</ref>

	==Consequences==		==Consequences==

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2025-05-23T13:16:57Z

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← Previous revision		Revision as of 17:46, 24 December 2025
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	* In England, rats in certain areas have evolved resistance that allows them to consume up to five times as much [[rat poison]] as normal rats without dying.<ref name="PBS"/>		* In England, rats in certain areas have evolved resistance that allows them to consume up to five times as much [[rat poison]] as normal rats without dying.<ref name="PBS"/>
	* DDT is no longer effective in preventing [[malaria]] in some places.<ref name="sustaining"/> Resistance developed slowly in the 1960s due to [[insecticide application\|agricultural use]]. This pattern was especially noted and synthesized by Mouchet 1988.<ref name="Mouchet-1988">{{cite journal \| last=Mouchet \| first=Jean \| title=Agriculture and Vector Resistance \| journal=[[International Journal of Tropical Insect Science]] \| publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] (CUP)<!--- Note CUP not Springer - in 1988 was a CUP journal. ---> \| volume=9 \| issue=3 \| year=1988 \| issn=1742-7584 \| doi=10.1017/s1742758400006238 \| pages=297–302 \| bibcode=1988IJTIS...9..297M \| s2cid=85650599}}</ref><ref name="Roberts-et-al-2000">{{cite journal \| last1=Roberts \| first1=Donald R. \| author1-link=Donald R. Roberts \| last2=Manguin \| first2=S \| last3=Mouchet \| first3=J \| title=DDT house spraying and re-emerging malaria \| journal=[[The Lancet]] \| publisher=[[Elsevier]] \| volume=356 \| issue=9226 \| year=2000 \| issn=0140-6736 \| doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(00)02516-2 \| pages=330–332 \| s2cid=19359748 \| pmid=11071203}}</ref>		* DDT is no longer effective in preventing [[malaria]] in some places.<ref name="sustaining"/> Resistance developed slowly in the 1960s due to [[insecticide application\|agricultural use]]. This pattern was especially noted and synthesized by Mouchet 1988.<ref name="Mouchet-1988">{{cite journal \| last=Mouchet \| first=Jean \| title=Agriculture and Vector Resistance \| journal=[[International Journal of Tropical Insect Science]] \| publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] (CUP)<!--- Note CUP not Springer - in 1988 was a CUP journal. ---> \| volume=9 \| issue=3 \| year=1988 \| issn=1742-7584 \| doi=10.1017/s1742758400006238 \| pages=297–302 \| bibcode=1988IJTIS...9..297M \| s2cid=85650599}}</ref><ref name="Roberts-et-al-2000">{{cite journal \| last1=Roberts \| first1=Donald R. \| author1-link=Donald R. Roberts \| last2=Manguin \| first2=S \| last3=Mouchet \| first3=J \| title=DDT house spraying and re-emerging malaria \| journal=[[The Lancet]] \| publisher=[[Elsevier]] \| volume=356 \| issue=9226 \| year=2000 \| issn=0140-6736 \| doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(00)02516-2 \| pages=330–332 \| s2cid=19359748 \| pmid=11071203}}</ref>
	* In the southern United States, ''[[Amaranthus palmeri]]'', which interferes with [[cotton]] production, has evolved resistance to the herbicide [[glyphosate]]<ref>{{Cite news \|url=http://www.salon.com/tech/htww/2008/08/27/monsantos_bane/index.html \|author=Andrew Leonard \|title=Monsanto's bane: The evil pigweed \|work=[[Salon.com\|Salon]] \|date=August 27, 2008}}</ref> and overall has resistance to five [[site of action\|sites of action]] in the southern US {{as of\|2021\|lc=yes}}.<ref name="Palmer-TakeAction">{{cite web \| title=Palmer Amaranth (Pigweed) \| website=[[Take Action Pesticide Resistance Management]] \| date=2020-09-21 \| url=http://iwilltakeaction.com/weed/palmer-amaranth \| access-date=2021-09-22}}</ref>		* In the southern United States, ''[[Amaranthus palmeri]]'', which interferes with [[cotton]] production, has evolved resistance to the herbicide [[glyphosate]]<ref>{{Cite news \|url=http://www.salon.com/tech/htww/2008/08/27/monsantos_bane/index.html \|author=Andrew Leonard \|title=Monsanto's bane: The evil pigweed \|work=[[Salon.com\|Salon]] \|date=August 27, 2008 \|archive-date=September 10, 2008 \|access-date=August 29, 2008 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910020017/http://www.salon.com/tech/htww/2008/08/27/monsantos_bane/index.html \|url-status=dead }}</ref> and overall has resistance to five [[site of action\|sites of action]] in the southern US {{as of\|2021\|lc=yes}}.<ref name="Palmer-TakeAction">{{cite web \| title=Palmer Amaranth (Pigweed) \| website=[[Take Action Pesticide Resistance Management]] \| date=2020-09-21 \| url=http://iwilltakeaction.com/weed/palmer-amaranth \| access-date=2021-09-22 \| archive-date=2022-07-06 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706061828/https://iwilltakeaction.com/weed/palmer-amaranth \| url-status=dead }}</ref>
	* The [[Colorado potato beetle]] has evolved resistance to 52 different compounds belonging to all major insecticide classes. Resistance levels vary across populations and between [[beetle]] life stages, but in some cases can be very high (up to 2,000-fold).<ref>{{cite journal \| last1=Alyokhin \| first1=A. \| last2=Baker \| first2=M. \| last3=Mota-Sanchez \| first3=D. \| last4=Dively \| first4=G. \| last5=Grafius \| first5=E. \| year=2008 \| title=Colorado potato beetle resistance to insecticides \| journal=American Journal of Potato Research \| volume=85 \| issue=6\| pages=395–413 \| doi=10.1007/s12230-008-9052-0\| s2cid=41206911 }}</ref>		* The [[Colorado potato beetle]] has evolved resistance to 52 different compounds belonging to all major insecticide classes. Resistance levels vary across populations and between [[beetle]] life stages, but in some cases can be very high (up to 2,000-fold).<ref>{{cite journal \| last1=Alyokhin \| first1=A. \| last2=Baker \| first2=M. \| last3=Mota-Sanchez \| first3=D. \| last4=Dively \| first4=G. \| last5=Grafius \| first5=E. \| year=2008 \| title=Colorado potato beetle resistance to insecticides \| journal=American Journal of Potato Research \| volume=85 \| issue=6\| pages=395–413 \| doi=10.1007/s12230-008-9052-0\| s2cid=41206911 }}</ref>
	* The [[cabbage looper]] is an agricultural pest that is becoming increasingly problematic due to its increasing resistance to ''Bacillus thuringiensis,'' as demonstrated in Canadian greenhouses.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Janmaat \|first1=Alida F. \|last2=Myers \|first2=Judith \|date=2003-11-07 \|title=Rapid evolution and the cost of resistance to ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' in greenhouse populations of cabbage loopers, ''Trichoplusia ni'' \|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences \|language=en \|volume=270 \|issue=1530 \|pages=2263–2270 \|doi=10.1098/rspb.2003.2497 \|issn=0962-8452 \|pmid=14613613 \|pmc=1691497}}</ref> Further research found a genetic component to Bt resistance.<ref>		* The [[cabbage looper]] is an agricultural pest that is becoming increasingly problematic due to its increasing resistance to ''Bacillus thuringiensis,'' as demonstrated in Canadian greenhouses.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Janmaat \|first1=Alida F. \|last2=Myers \|first2=Judith \|date=2003-11-07 \|title=Rapid evolution and the cost of resistance to ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' in greenhouse populations of cabbage loopers, ''Trichoplusia ni'' \|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences \|language=en \|volume=270 \|issue=1530 \|pages=2263–2270 \|doi=10.1098/rspb.2003.2497 \|issn=0962-8452 \|pmid=14613613 \|pmc=1691497}}</ref> Further research found a genetic component to Bt resistance.<ref>
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	==Management==		==Management==
	{{expand section\|date=January 2021}}		{{expand section\|date=January 2021}}
	In order to remediate the problem it first must be ascertained what is really wrong. Assaying of suspected pesticide resistance - and not merely field observation and experience - is necessary because it may be mistaken for failure to [[pesticide application\|apply]] the pesticide as directed, or [[biodegradation\|microbial degradation]] of the pesticide.<ref name="Waddington-et-al-1992">{{cite book \| quote="[It] is necessary to determine if the cause of the problem is actually resistance, an application problem, or perhaps enhanced microbial degradation of the pesticide." \| first1=Donald V \| last1=Waddington \| first2=Robert N \| last2=Carrow \| first3=Robert C \| last3=Shearman \| title=Turfgrass \| publisher=[[American Society of Agronomy]], [[Crop Science Society of America]], [[Soil Science Society of America]] \| publication-place=[[Madison, Wisconsin]], [[United States]] \| year=1992 \| isbn=978-0-89118-108-8 \| oclc=25048047 \| page=682}}</ref>		In order to remediate the problem it first must be ascertained what is really wrong. Assaying of suspected pesticide resistance - and not merely field observation and experience - is necessary because it may be mistaken for failure to [[pesticide application\|apply]] the pesticide as directed, or [[biodegradation\|microbial degradation]] of the pesticide.<ref name="Waddington-et-al-1992">{{cite book \| quote="[It] is necessary to determine if the cause of the problem is actually resistance, an application problem, or perhaps enhanced microbial degradation of the pesticide." \| first1=Donald V \| last1=Waddington \| first2=Robert N \| last2=Carrow \| first3=Robert C \| last3=Shearman \| title=Turfgrass \| publisher=[[American Society of Agronomy]], [[Crop Science Society of America]], [[Soil Science Society of America]] \| publication-place=[[Madison, Wisconsin]], United States \| year=1992 \| isbn=978-0-89118-108-8 \| oclc=25048047 \| page=682}}</ref>

	The [[United Nations]]' [[World Health Organization]] established the [[Worldwide Insecticide resistance Network]] in March 2016,<ref name="Corbel-et-al-2016">{{cite journal \| last1=Corbel \| first1=Vincent \| last2=Achee \| first2=Nicole L. \| last3=Chandre \| first3=Fabrice \| last4=Coulibaly \| first4=Mamadou B. \| last5=Dusfour \| first5=Isabelle \| last6=Fonseca \| first6=Dina M. \| last7=Grieco \| first7=John \| last8=Juntarajumnong \| first8=Waraporn \| last9=Lenhart \| first9=Audrey \| last10=Martins \| first10=Ademir J. \| last11=Moyes \| first11=Catherine \| last12=Ng \| first12=Lee Ching \| last13=Pinto \| first13=João \| last14=Raghavendra \| first14=Kamaraju \| last15=Vatandoost \| first15=Hassan \| last16=Vontas \| first16=John \| last17=Weetman \| first17=David \| last18=Fouque \| first18=Florence \| last19=Velayudhan \| first19=Raman \| last20=David \| first20=Jean-Philippe \| editor-last=Barrera \| editor-first=Roberto \| title=Tracking Insecticide Resistance in Mosquito Vectors of Arboviruses: The Worldwide Insecticide resistance Network (WIN) \| journal=[[PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases]] \| publisher=[[Public Library of Science]] (PLoS) \| volume=10 \| issue=12 \| date=2016-12-01 \| issn=1935-2735 \| doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0005054 \| article-number=e0005054\| pmid=27906961 \| pmc=5131894 \| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="WIN">{{cite web \|title=WIN network / IRD \| website=WIN network / [[Institut de recherche pour le développement\|Research Institute for Development]] \| date=2020-12-02 \| url=http://win-network.ird.fr/ \| language=fr \| access-date=2021-01-03}}</ref><ref name="MIVEGEC">{{cite web \| title=Worldwide Insecticide Resistance Network (WIN) \| website=[[MIVEGEC research institute\|MIVEGEC]] \| url=http://www.mivegec.ird.fr/fr/worldwide-insecticide-resistance-network-win \| language=fr \| access-date=2021-01-03}}</ref><ref name="WHO-news-WIN">{{cite web \| title=New global network tracking insecticide resistance on vectors of arboviruses \| website=[[World Health Organization]] \| date=2016-03-30 \| url=http://www.who.int/tdr/news/2016/global-net-track-insecticide-resist/en/ \| access-date=2021-01-03}}</ref> due to increasing need and increasing recognition, including the radical decline in function against [[pest (organism)\|pest]]s of vegetables.<ref name="Corbel-et-al-2016" /><ref name="WIN" /><ref name="MIVEGEC" /><ref name="WHO-news-WIN" />		The [[United Nations]]' [[World Health Organization]] established the [[Worldwide Insecticide resistance Network]] in March 2016,<ref name="Corbel-et-al-2016">{{cite journal \| last1=Corbel \| first1=Vincent \| last2=Achee \| first2=Nicole L. \| last3=Chandre \| first3=Fabrice \| last4=Coulibaly \| first4=Mamadou B. \| last5=Dusfour \| first5=Isabelle \| last6=Fonseca \| first6=Dina M. \| last7=Grieco \| first7=John \| last8=Juntarajumnong \| first8=Waraporn \| last9=Lenhart \| first9=Audrey \| last10=Martins \| first10=Ademir J. \| last11=Moyes \| first11=Catherine \| last12=Ng \| first12=Lee Ching \| last13=Pinto \| first13=João \| last14=Raghavendra \| first14=Kamaraju \| last15=Vatandoost \| first15=Hassan \| last16=Vontas \| first16=John \| last17=Weetman \| first17=David \| last18=Fouque \| first18=Florence \| last19=Velayudhan \| first19=Raman \| last20=David \| first20=Jean-Philippe \| editor-last=Barrera \| editor-first=Roberto \| title=Tracking Insecticide Resistance in Mosquito Vectors of Arboviruses: The Worldwide Insecticide resistance Network (WIN) \| journal=[[PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases]] \| publisher=[[Public Library of Science]] (PLoS) \| volume=10 \| issue=12 \| date=2016-12-01 \| issn=1935-2735 \| doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0005054 \| article-number=e0005054\| pmid=27906961 \| pmc=5131894 \| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="WIN">{{cite web \|title=WIN network / IRD \| website=WIN network / [[Institut de recherche pour le développement\|Research Institute for Development]] \| date=2020-12-02 \| url=http://win-network.ird.fr/ \| language=fr \| access-date=2021-01-03}}</ref><ref name="MIVEGEC">{{cite web \| title=Worldwide Insecticide Resistance Network (WIN) \| website=[[MIVEGEC research institute\|MIVEGEC]] \| url=http://www.mivegec.ird.fr/fr/worldwide-insecticide-resistance-network-win \| language=fr \| access-date=2021-01-03 \| archive-date=2021-04-14 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414074737/https://mivegec.ird.fr/fr/worldwide-insecticide-resistance-network-win \| url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="WHO-news-WIN">{{cite web \| title=New global network tracking insecticide resistance on vectors of arboviruses \| website=[[World Health Organization]] \| date=2016-03-30 \| url=http://www.who.int/tdr/news/2016/global-net-track-insecticide-resist/en/ \| access-date=2021-01-03}}</ref> due to increasing need and increasing recognition, including the radical decline in function against [[pest (organism)\|pest]]s of vegetables.<ref name="Corbel-et-al-2016" /><ref name="WIN" /><ref name="MIVEGEC" /><ref name="WHO-news-WIN" />

	===Integrated pest management===		===Integrated pest management===
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	A complementary approach is to site untreated refuges near treated croplands where susceptible pests can survive.<ref name="Boerboom" /><ref>Onstad, D.W. 2008. Insect Resistance Management. Elsevier: Amsterdam.</ref>		A complementary approach is to site untreated refuges near treated croplands where susceptible pests can survive.<ref name="Boerboom" /><ref>Onstad, D.W. 2008. Insect Resistance Management. Elsevier: Amsterdam.</ref>

	When pesticides are the sole or predominant method of pest control, resistance is commonly managed through pesticide rotation. This involves switching among pesticide classes with different modes of action to delay or mitigate pest resistance.<ref name="murphy">Graeme Murphy (December 1, 2005), [http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/hort/news/grower/2005/12gn05a2.htm Resistance Management - Pesticide Rotation] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013135858/http://omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/hort/news/grower/2005/12gn05a2.htm \|date=2007-10-13 }}. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. Retrieved on September 15, 2007</ref> The Resistance Action Committees monitor resistance across the world, and in order to do that, each maintains a list of modes of action and pesticides that fall into those categories: the [[Fungicide Resistance Action Committee]],<ref name="FRAC-MoAs">{{cite web \| url=http://www.frac.info/docs/default-source/publications/frac-code-list/frac-code-list-2021--final.pdf \| title=FRAC Code List ©*2021: Fungal control agents sorted by cross resistance pattern and mode of action (including coding for FRAC Groups on product labels) \| date=March 2021 \| author=FRAC ([[Fungicide Resistance Action Committee]])}}</ref> the [[Weed Science Society of America]]<ref name="WSSA-MOA-summary">{{cite web \| url=http://wssa.net/wp-content/uploads/WSSA-Mechanism-of-Action.pdf \| title=Summary of Herbicide Mechanism of Action According to the Weed Science Society of America (WSSA) \| author=[[Weed Science Society of America]]}}</ref><ref name="Heap-WSSA-MOAs">{{cite web \| url=http://www.weedscience.org/Documents/ShowDocuments.aspx?DocumentID=1192 \| title=HERBICIDE MODE OF ACTION TABLE \| last=Heap \| first=Ian}}</ref> (the [[Herbicide Resistance Action Committee]] no longer has its own scheme, and is contributing to WSSA's from now on),<ref name="HRAC-MOA-2020">{{cite web \| title=HRAC MOA 2020 Revision Description and Master Herbicide List \| website=[[Herbicide Resistance Action Committee]] \| date=2020-09-14 \| url=http://hracglobal.com/tools/hrac-moa-2020-revision-description-and-master-herbicide-list \| access-date=2021-04-01}}</ref> and the [[Insecticide Resistance Action Committee]].<ref name="IRAC-MoA-2020">{{cite web \| title=Interactive MoA Classification \| website=[[Insecticide Resistance Action Committee]] \| date=2020-09-16 \| url=http://irac-online.org/modes-of-action/ \| access-date=2021-04-01}}</ref> The [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) also uses those classification schemes.<ref name="EPA-guidance">{{cite web \| url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-09/documents/prn-2017-1-pesticide-resistance-management-labeling.pdf \| title=PESTICIDE REGISTRATION NOTICE (PRN) 2017-1 NOTICE TO MANUFACTURERS, PRODUCERS, PRODUCERS AND REGISTRANTS OF PESTICIDE PRODUCTS AND DEVICES \| author=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]}}</ref>		When pesticides are the sole or predominant method of pest control, resistance is commonly managed through pesticide rotation. This involves switching among pesticide classes with different modes of action to delay or mitigate pest resistance.<ref name="murphy">Graeme Murphy (December 1, 2005), [http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/hort/news/grower/2005/12gn05a2.htm Resistance Management - Pesticide Rotation] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013135858/http://omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/hort/news/grower/2005/12gn05a2.htm \|date=2007-10-13 }}. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. Retrieved on September 15, 2007</ref> The Resistance Action Committees monitor resistance across the world, and in order to do that, each maintains a list of modes of action and pesticides that fall into those categories: the [[Fungicide Resistance Action Committee]],<ref name="FRAC-MoAs">{{cite web \| url=http://www.frac.info/docs/default-source/publications/frac-code-list/frac-code-list-2021--final.pdf \| title=FRAC Code List ©*2021: Fungal control agents sorted by cross resistance pattern and mode of action (including coding for FRAC Groups on product labels) \| date=March 2021 \| author=FRAC ([[Fungicide Resistance Action Committee]]) \| access-date=2021-04-01 \| archive-date=2021-11-05 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105005300/https://www.frac.info/docs/default-source/publications/frac-code-list/frac-code-list-2021--final.pdf \| url-status=dead }}</ref> the [[Weed Science Society of America]]<ref name="WSSA-MOA-summary">{{cite web \| url=http://wssa.net/wp-content/uploads/WSSA-Mechanism-of-Action.pdf \| title=Summary of Herbicide Mechanism of Action According to the Weed Science Society of America (WSSA) \| author=[[Weed Science Society of America]]}}</ref><ref name="Heap-WSSA-MOAs">{{cite web \| url=http://www.weedscience.org/Documents/ShowDocuments.aspx?DocumentID=1192 \| title=HERBICIDE MODE OF ACTION TABLE \| last=Heap \| first=Ian}}</ref> (the [[Herbicide Resistance Action Committee]] no longer has its own scheme, and is contributing to WSSA's from now on),<ref name="HRAC-MOA-2020">{{cite web \| title=HRAC MOA 2020 Revision Description and Master Herbicide List \| website=[[Herbicide Resistance Action Committee]] \| date=2020-09-14 \| url=http://hracglobal.com/tools/hrac-moa-2020-revision-description-and-master-herbicide-list \| access-date=2021-04-01}}</ref> and the [[Insecticide Resistance Action Committee]].<ref name="IRAC-MoA-2020">{{cite web \| title=Interactive MoA Classification \| website=[[Insecticide Resistance Action Committee]] \| date=2020-09-16 \| url=http://irac-online.org/modes-of-action/ \| access-date=2021-04-01}}</ref> The [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) also uses those classification schemes.<ref name="EPA-guidance">{{cite web \| url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-09/documents/prn-2017-1-pesticide-resistance-management-labeling.pdf \| title=PESTICIDE REGISTRATION NOTICE (PRN) 2017-1 NOTICE TO MANUFACTURERS, PRODUCERS, PRODUCERS AND REGISTRANTS OF PESTICIDE PRODUCTS AND DEVICES \| author=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]}}</ref>

	Manufacturers may recommend no more than a specified number of consecutive applications of a pesticide class be made before moving to a different pesticide class.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://resistance.potatobeetle.org/management.html\|title=Colorado Potato Beetle Damage and Life History\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606000511/http://resistance.potatobeetle.org/management.html\|archive-date=2011-06-06}}</ref>		Manufacturers may recommend no more than a specified number of consecutive applications of a pesticide class be made before moving to a different pesticide class.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://resistance.potatobeetle.org/management.html\|title=Colorado Potato Beetle Damage and Life History\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606000511/http://resistance.potatobeetle.org/management.html\|archive-date=2011-06-06}}</ref>
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	==Further reading==		==Further reading==
	* {{cite web \| url=http://www.frac.info/docs/default-source/publications/statement-on-multisite-fungicides/frac-statement-on-multisite-fungicides-2018.pdf?sfvrsn=3c25489a_2 \| title=Importance of multisite fungicides in managing pathogen resistance \| author=FRAC ([[Fungicide Resistance Action Committee]])}}		* {{cite web \| url=http://www.frac.info/docs/default-source/publications/statement-on-multisite-fungicides/frac-statement-on-multisite-fungicides-2018.pdf?sfvrsn=3c25489a_2 \| title=Importance of multisite fungicides in managing pathogen resistance \| author=FRAC ([[Fungicide Resistance Action Committee]]) \| access-date=2021-05-21 \| archive-date=2023-07-27 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230727165849/https://www.frac.info/docs/default-source/publications/statement-on-multisite-fungicides/frac-statement-on-multisite-fungicides-2018.pdf?sfvrsn=3c25489a_2 \| url-status=dead }}

	==External links==		==External links==
	*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100724001453/http://resistance.potatobeetle.org/resistance.html Overview of insecticide resistance]		*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100724001453/http://resistance.potatobeetle.org/resistance.html Overview of insecticide resistance]
	*[http://www.irac-online.org/resources/guide.asp IRAC, Insecticide Resistance Action Committee]		*[http://www.irac-online.org/resources/guide.asp IRAC, Insecticide Resistance Action Committee] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060215220017/http://www.irac-online.org/resources/guide.asp \|date=2006-02-15 }}
	*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120723052103/http://www.frac.info/frac/index.htm FRAC, Fungicide Resistance Action Committee]		*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120723052103/http://www.frac.info/frac/index.htm FRAC, Fungicide Resistance Action Committee]
	*[https://web.archive.org/web/20021031073455/http://www.croplife.org/website/pages/RRAC.aspx RRAC, Rodenticide Resistance Action Committee ]		*[https://web.archive.org/web/20021031073455/http://www.croplife.org/website/pages/RRAC.aspx RRAC, Rodenticide Resistance Action Committee ]