http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?action=history&feed=atom&title=Peppered_moth_evolutionPeppered moth evolution - Revision history2026-05-15T00:41:09ZRevision history for this page on the wikiMediaWiki 1.43.1http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=Peppered_moth_evolution&diff=5101746&oldid=previmported>InternetArchiveBot: Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.52025-11-06T04:46:01Z<p>Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5</p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 04:46, 6 November 2025</td>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Bernard Kettlewell]] was the first to investigate the evolutionary mechanism behind peppered moth adaptation, between 1953 and 1956. He found that a light-coloured body was an effective [[camouflage]] in a clean environment, such as in rural [[Dorset]], while the dark colour was beneficial in a polluted environment like industrial [[Birmingham]]. This selective survival was due to birds, which easily caught dark moths on clean trees and white moths on trees darkened with soot. The story, supported by [[Kettlewell's experiment]], became the canonical example of [[Darwinian]] evolution and [[coloration evidence for natural selection|evidence for natural selection]] used in standard textbooks.<ref name="Bender">{{cite journal |last=Bender |first=Eric |title=Urban evolution: How species adapt to survive in cities |journal=Knowable Magazine |publisher=Annual Reviews |date=21 March 2022 |doi=10.1146/knowable-031822-1 |doi-access=free |url=https://knowablemagazine.org/article/living-world/2022/urban-evolution-species-adapt-survive-cities|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Diamond">{{cite journal |last1=Diamond |first1=Sarah E. |last2=Martin |first2=Ryan A. |title=Evolution in Cities |journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics |date=2 November 2021 |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=519–540 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012021-021402 |doi-access=free |s2cid=239646134 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012021-021402}}</ref><ref name="Miller">{{cite web |last1=Miller |first1=Ken |title=The Peppered Moth - An Update |date=1999 |website=millerandlevine.com |url=http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/Moths/moths.html |access-date=31 March 2022}}</ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Bernard Kettlewell]] was the first to investigate the evolutionary mechanism behind peppered moth adaptation, between 1953 and 1956. He found that a light-coloured body was an effective [[camouflage]] in a clean environment, such as in rural [[Dorset]], while the dark colour was beneficial in a polluted environment like industrial [[Birmingham]]. This selective survival was due to birds, which easily caught dark moths on clean trees and white moths on trees darkened with soot. The story, supported by [[Kettlewell's experiment]], became the canonical example of [[Darwinian]] evolution and [[coloration evidence for natural selection|evidence for natural selection]] used in standard textbooks.<ref name="Bender">{{cite journal |last=Bender |first=Eric |title=Urban evolution: How species adapt to survive in cities |journal=Knowable Magazine |publisher=Annual Reviews |date=21 March 2022 |doi=10.1146/knowable-031822-1 |doi-access=free |url=https://knowablemagazine.org/article/living-world/2022/urban-evolution-species-adapt-survive-cities|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Diamond">{{cite journal |last1=Diamond |first1=Sarah E. |last2=Martin |first2=Ryan A. |title=Evolution in Cities |journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics |date=2 November 2021 |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=519–540 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012021-021402 |doi-access=free |s2cid=239646134 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012021-021402}}</ref><ref name="Miller">{{cite web |last1=Miller |first1=Ken |title=The Peppered Moth - An Update |date=1999 |website=millerandlevine.com |url=http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/Moths/moths.html |access-date=31 March 2022}}</ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>However, failure to replicate the experiment and Theodore David Sargent's criticism of Kettlewell's methods in the late 1960s led to general skepticism. When [[Judith Hooper]]'s ''[[Of Moths and Men]]'' was published in 2002, Kettlewell's story was more sternly attacked, and accused of fraud. The criticism became a major argument for [[creationism|creationists]]. [[Michael Majerus]] was <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">there </del>principal defender. His seven-year experiment beginning in 2001, the most elaborate of its kind in [[population biology]], the results of which were published posthumously in 2012, vindicated Kettlewell's work in great detail. This restored the peppered moth evolution as "the most direct evidence", and "one of the clearest and most easily understood examples of Darwinian evolution in action".<ref name="Cook2012">{{cite journal |last1=Cook |first1=L. M. |last2=Grant |first2=B. S. |last3=Saccheri |first3=I. J. |last4=Mallet |first4=James |author4-link=James Mallet |title=Selective bird predation on the peppered moth: the last experiment of Michael Majerus |journal=[[Biology Letters]] |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=609–612 |year=2012 |pmid=22319093 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2011.1136 |pmc=3391436}}</ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>However, failure to replicate the experiment and Theodore David Sargent's criticism of Kettlewell's methods in the late 1960s led to general skepticism. When [[Judith Hooper]]'s ''[[Of Moths and Men]]'' was published in 2002, Kettlewell's story was more sternly attacked, and accused of fraud. The criticism became a major argument for [[creationism|creationists]]. [[Michael Majerus]] was <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">their </ins>principal defender. His seven-year experiment beginning in 2001, the most elaborate of its kind in [[population biology]], the results of which were published posthumously in 2012, vindicated Kettlewell's work in great detail. This restored the peppered moth evolution as "the most direct evidence", and "one of the clearest and most easily understood examples of Darwinian evolution in action".<ref name="Cook2012">{{cite journal |last1=Cook |first1=L. M. |last2=Grant |first2=B. S. |last3=Saccheri |first3=I. J. |last4=Mallet |first4=James |author4-link=James Mallet |title=Selective bird predation on the peppered moth: the last experiment of Michael Majerus |journal=[[Biology Letters]] |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=609–612 |year=2012 |pmid=22319093 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2011.1136 |pmc=3391436}}</ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Origin and evolution ==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Origin and evolution ==</div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Bruce Grant (biologist)|Bruce Grant]] has written several papers on melanism in the peppered moth which are listed on [http://bsgran.people.wm.edu his home page].</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Bruce Grant (biologist)|Bruce Grant]] has written several papers on melanism in the peppered moth which are listed on [http://bsgran.people.wm.edu his home page].</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* Online lecture: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070702152449/http://www.streaming.mmu.ac.uk/cook/ "The rise and fall of the melanic Peppered Moth"] presented by Laurence Cook.</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* Online lecture: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070702152449/http://www.streaming.mmu.ac.uk/cook/ "The rise and fall of the melanic Peppered Moth"] presented by Laurence Cook.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* {{cite web |title=Moonshine: Why the Peppered Moth remains an Icon of Evolution |last=Young |first=Matt |publisher=Department of Physics, Colorado School of Mines |ref=none |url=http://www.talkreason.org/articles/moonshine.cfm |access-date=2009-01-03}}</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* {{cite web |title=Moonshine: Why the Peppered Moth remains an Icon of Evolution |last=Young |first=Matt |publisher=Department of Physics, Colorado School of Mines |ref=none |url=http://www.talkreason.org/articles/moonshine.cfm |access-date=2009-01-03 <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">|archive-date=31 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731002423/http://www.talkreason.org/articles/moonshine.cfm |url-status=dead </ins>}}</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110724145125/http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/research/personal/majerus/Darwiniandisciple.pdf The Peppered Moth: Decline of a Darwinian Disciple]. This is the transcript of [[Michael Majerus]]' lecture delivered to the [[British Humanist Association]] on [[Darwin Day]] 2004.</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110724145125/http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/research/personal/majerus/Darwiniandisciple.pdf The Peppered Moth: Decline of a Darwinian Disciple]. This is the transcript of [[Michael Majerus]]' lecture delivered to the [[British Humanist Association]] on [[Darwin Day]] 2004.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110615081639/http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/research/personal/majerus/Swedentalk220807.pdf The Peppered Moth: The Proof of Darwinian Evolution]. This is the transcript of Majerus' lecture given at the [[European Society for Evolutionary Biology]] meeting on 23 August 2007. The accompanying [[PowerPoint]] presentation is [https://web.archive.org/web/20110615081721/http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/research/personal/majerus/SwedenPepperedmoth2007Ppt.pdf also available].</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110615081639/http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/research/personal/majerus/Swedentalk220807.pdf The Peppered Moth: The Proof of Darwinian Evolution]. This is the transcript of Majerus' lecture given at the [[European Society for Evolutionary Biology]] meeting on 23 August 2007. The accompanying [[PowerPoint]] presentation is [https://web.archive.org/web/20110615081721/http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/research/personal/majerus/SwedenPepperedmoth2007Ppt.pdf also available].</div></td></tr>
</table>imported>InternetArchiveBothttp://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=Peppered_moth_evolution&diff=793777&oldid=previmported>OAbot: Open access bot: url-access updated in citation with #oabot.2025-06-19T23:09:40Z<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OABOT" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:OABOT">Open access bot</a>: url-access updated in citation with #oabot.</p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 23:09, 19 June 2025</td>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The dark-coloured or ''melanic'' form of the peppered moth (var. ''carbonaria'') was rare, though a specimen had been collected by 1811. After field collection in 1848 from [[Manchester]], an industrial city in England, the frequency of the variety was found to have increased drastically. By the end of the 19th century it almost completely outnumbered the original light-coloured type (var. ''typica''), with a record of 98% in 1895.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=C. A. |last2=Mani |first2=G. S. |last3=Wynne |first3=G. |title=Evolution in reverse: clean air and the peppered moth |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |date=1985 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=189–199 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.1985.tb01555.x}}</ref> The evolutionary importance of the moth was only speculated upon during Darwin's lifetime. It was 14 years after Darwin's death, in 1896, that [[J. W. Tutt]] presented it as a case of natural selection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Majerus |first=Michael E. N. |title=Industrial Melanism in the Peppered Moth, ''Biston betularia'': An Excellent Teaching Example of Darwinian Evolution in Action |journal=Evolution: Education and Outreach |date=2008 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=63–74 |doi=10.1007/s12052-008-0107-y |doi-access=free}}</ref> Because of this, the idea spread widely, and more people came to believe in Darwin's theory.</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The dark-coloured or ''melanic'' form of the peppered moth (var. ''carbonaria'') was rare, though a specimen had been collected by 1811. After field collection in 1848 from [[Manchester]], an industrial city in England, the frequency of the variety was found to have increased drastically. By the end of the 19th century it almost completely outnumbered the original light-coloured type (var. ''typica''), with a record of 98% in 1895.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=C. A. |last2=Mani |first2=G. S. |last3=Wynne |first3=G. |title=Evolution in reverse: clean air and the peppered moth |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |date=1985 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=189–199 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.1985.tb01555.x}}</ref> The evolutionary importance of the moth was only speculated upon during Darwin's lifetime. It was 14 years after Darwin's death, in 1896, that [[J. W. Tutt]] presented it as a case of natural selection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Majerus |first=Michael E. N. |title=Industrial Melanism in the Peppered Moth, ''Biston betularia'': An Excellent Teaching Example of Darwinian Evolution in Action |journal=Evolution: Education and Outreach |date=2008 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=63–74 |doi=10.1007/s12052-008-0107-y |doi-access=free}}</ref> Because of this, the idea spread widely, and more people came to believe in Darwin's theory.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Bernard Kettlewell]] was the first to investigate the evolutionary mechanism behind peppered moth adaptation, between 1953 and 1956. He found that a light-coloured body was an effective [[camouflage]] in a clean environment, such as in rural [[Dorset]], while the dark colour was beneficial in a polluted environment like industrial [[Birmingham]]. This selective survival was due to birds, which easily caught dark moths on clean trees and white moths on trees darkened with soot. The story, supported by [[Kettlewell's experiment]], became the canonical example of [[Darwinian]] evolution and [[coloration evidence for natural selection|evidence for natural selection]] used in standard textbooks.<ref name="Bender">{{cite journal |last=Bender |first=Eric |title=Urban evolution: How species adapt to survive in cities |journal=Knowable Magazine |publisher=Annual Reviews |date=21 March 2022 |doi=10.1146/knowable-031822-1 |doi-access=free |url=https://knowablemagazine.org/article/living-world/2022/urban-evolution-species-adapt-survive-cities}}</ref><ref name="Diamond">{{cite journal |last1=Diamond |first1=Sarah E. |last2=Martin |first2=Ryan A. |title=Evolution in Cities |journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics |date=2 November 2021 |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=519–540 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012021-021402 |doi-access=free |s2cid=239646134 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012021-021402}}</ref><ref name="Miller">{{cite web |last1=Miller |first1=Ken |title=The Peppered Moth - An Update |date=1999 |website=millerandlevine.com |url=http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/Moths/moths.html |access-date=31 March 2022}}</ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Bernard Kettlewell]] was the first to investigate the evolutionary mechanism behind peppered moth adaptation, between 1953 and 1956. He found that a light-coloured body was an effective [[camouflage]] in a clean environment, such as in rural [[Dorset]], while the dark colour was beneficial in a polluted environment like industrial [[Birmingham]]. This selective survival was due to birds, which easily caught dark moths on clean trees and white moths on trees darkened with soot. The story, supported by [[Kettlewell's experiment]], became the canonical example of [[Darwinian]] evolution and [[coloration evidence for natural selection|evidence for natural selection]] used in standard textbooks.<ref name="Bender">{{cite journal |last=Bender |first=Eric |title=Urban evolution: How species adapt to survive in cities |journal=Knowable Magazine |publisher=Annual Reviews |date=21 March 2022 |doi=10.1146/knowable-031822-1 |doi-access=free |url=https://knowablemagazine.org/article/living-world/2022/urban-evolution-species-adapt-survive-cities<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">|url-access=subscription </ins>}}</ref><ref name="Diamond">{{cite journal |last1=Diamond |first1=Sarah E. |last2=Martin |first2=Ryan A. |title=Evolution in Cities |journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics |date=2 November 2021 |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=519–540 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012021-021402 |doi-access=free |s2cid=239646134 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012021-021402}}</ref><ref name="Miller">{{cite web |last1=Miller |first1=Ken |title=The Peppered Moth - An Update |date=1999 |website=millerandlevine.com |url=http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/Moths/moths.html |access-date=31 March 2022}}</ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>However, failure to replicate the experiment and Theodore David Sargent's criticism of Kettlewell's methods in the late 1960s led to general skepticism. When [[Judith Hooper]]'s ''[[Of Moths and Men]]'' was published in 2002, Kettlewell's story was more sternly attacked, and accused of fraud. The criticism became a major argument for [[creationism|creationists]]. [[Michael Majerus]] was <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">the </del>principal defender. His seven-year experiment beginning in 2001, the most elaborate of its kind in [[population biology]], the results of which were published posthumously in 2012, vindicated Kettlewell's work in great detail. This restored peppered moth evolution as "the most direct evidence", and "one of the clearest and most easily understood examples of Darwinian evolution in action".<ref name="Cook2012">{{cite journal |last1=Cook |first1=L. M. |last2=Grant |first2=B. S. |last3=Saccheri |first3=I. J. |last4=Mallet |first4=James |author4-link=James Mallet |title=Selective bird predation on the peppered moth: the last experiment of Michael Majerus |journal=[[Biology Letters]] |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=609–612 |year=2012 |pmid=22319093 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2011.1136 |pmc=3391436}}</ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>However, failure to replicate the experiment and Theodore David Sargent's criticism of Kettlewell's methods in the late 1960s led to general skepticism. When [[Judith Hooper]]'s ''[[Of Moths and Men]]'' was published in 2002, Kettlewell's story was more sternly attacked, and accused of fraud. The criticism became a major argument for [[creationism|creationists]]. [[Michael Majerus]] was <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">there </ins>principal defender. His seven-year experiment beginning in 2001, the most elaborate of its kind in [[population biology]], the results of which were published posthumously in 2012, vindicated Kettlewell's work in great detail. This restored <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">the </ins>peppered moth evolution as "the most direct evidence", and "one of the clearest and most easily understood examples of Darwinian evolution in action".<ref name="Cook2012">{{cite journal |last1=Cook |first1=L. M. |last2=Grant |first2=B. S. |last3=Saccheri |first3=I. J. |last4=Mallet |first4=James |author4-link=James Mallet |title=Selective bird predation on the peppered moth: the last experiment of Michael Majerus |journal=[[Biology Letters]] |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=609–612 |year=2012 |pmid=22319093 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2011.1136 |pmc=3391436}}</ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Origin and evolution ==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Origin and evolution ==</div></td></tr>
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