Microprocessor - Revision history

imported>Kvng: review: link improvements. consistent terminology.

2026-05-29T14:58:24Z

review: link improvements. consistent terminology.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 14:58, 29 May 2026
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	A '''microprocessor''' is a ~~[[computer]]~~ [[processor (computing)\|processor]] for which the data processing logic and control is included on a single [[integrated circuit]] (IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's [[central processing unit]] (CPU). The IC is capable of interpreting and executing ~~program instructions~~ and performing arithmetic operations.<ref>{{cite web \|last=Orion \|first=Veritas \|date=2024-08-23 \|title=What distinguishes a microprocessor from a microcontroller? \|url=https://www.ampheo.com/blog/microprocessor-vs-microcontroller-comparison \|website=Ampheo Electronics \|publisher=Orion Veritas}}</ref> The microprocessor is a multipurpose, [[Clock signal\|clock]]-driven, [[Processor register\|register]]-based, [[digital integrated circuit]] that accepts [[binary ~~code\|binary~~]] ~~data~~ as input, processes it according to [[instruction (computing)\|instruction]]s stored in its [[computer memory\|memory]], and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain both [[combinational logic]] and [[sequential logic\|sequential digital logic]], and operate on numbers and symbols represented in the [[binary number]] system.		A '''microprocessor''' is a [[processor (computing)\|computer processor]] for which the data processing logic and control is included on a single [[integrated circuit]] (IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's [[central processing unit]] (CPU). The microprocessor is capable of interpreting and executing [[machine code]] and performing arithmetic operations.<ref>{{cite web \|last=Orion \|first=Veritas \|date=2024-08-23 \|title=What distinguishes a microprocessor from a microcontroller? \|url=https://www.ampheo.com/blog/microprocessor-vs-microcontroller-comparison \|website=Ampheo Electronics \|publisher=Orion Veritas}}</ref> The microprocessor is a multipurpose, [[Clock signal\|clock]]-driven, [[Processor register\|register]]-based, [[digital integrated circuit]] that accepts [[binary data]] as input, processes it according to [[instruction (computing)\|instruction]]s stored in its [[computer memory\|memory]], and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain both [[combinational logic]] and [[sequential logic\|sequential digital logic]], and operate on numbers and symbols represented in the [[binary number]] system.

	The integration of a whole CPU onto a single or a few integrated circuits using [[very-large-scale integration]] (VLSI) greatly reduced the cost of ~~processing power~~. Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[semiconductor device fabrication\|fabrication processes]], resulting in a relatively low [[unit price]]. Single-chip processors increase reliability because there are fewer electrical ~~connections~~ that can fail. As [[~~Processor~~ design~~\|microprocessor designs~~]] improve, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size) generally stays the same, according to [[Rock's law]].		The integration of a whole CPU onto a single or a few integrated circuits using [[very-large-scale integration]] (VLSI) greatly reduced the cost of computing. Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[semiconductor device fabrication\|fabrication processes]], resulting in a relatively low [[unit price]]. Single-chip processors increase reliability because there are fewer [[electrical connection]]s that can fail. As [[microprocessor design]]s improve, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size) generally stays the same, according to [[Rock's law]]. Continued increases in microprocessor capacity have since rendered other forms of computers almost completely obsolete (see [[history of computing hardware]]), with one or more microprocessors used in everything from the smallest [[embedded system]]s and [[handheld device]]s to the largest [[mainframe]]s and [[supercomputer]]s.

	Before microprocessors, small computers had been built using racks of [[circuit board]]s with many [[medium-scale integration\|medium-]] and [[small-scale integration\|small-scale integrated circuits]]. These were typically of the [[Transistor–transistor logic\|TTL]] type. Microprocessors combined this into one or a few [[large-scale integration\|large-scale]] ICs. While there is disagreement over who deserves credit for the invention of the microprocessor, the first commercially available microprocessor was the [[Intel 4004]], designed by [[Federico Faggin]] and introduced in 1971.<ref name = "IEEE">{{cite web \| url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors \| title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors \| date=30 August 2016 \| access-date=4 October 2022 \| archive-date=4 October 2022 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004011825/https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors \| url-status=live }}</ref>		Before microprocessors, small computers had been built using racks of [[circuit board]]s with many [[medium-scale integration\|medium-]] and [[small-scale integration\|small-scale integrated circuits]]. These were typically of the [[Transistor–transistor logic\|TTL]] type. Microprocessors combined this into one or a few [[large-scale integration\|large-scale]] ICs. While there is disagreement over who deserves credit for the invention of the microprocessor, the first commercially available microprocessor was the [[Intel 4004]], designed by [[Federico Faggin]] and introduced in 1971.<ref name = "IEEE">{{cite web \| url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors \| title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors \| date=30 August 2016 \| access-date=4 October 2022 \| archive-date=4 October 2022 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004011825/https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors \| url-status=live }}</ref>

	Continued increases in microprocessor capacity have since rendered other forms of computers almost completely obsolete (see [[history of computing hardware]]), with one or more microprocessors used in everything from the smallest [[embedded system]]s and [[handheld device]]s to the largest [[mainframe]]s and [[supercomputer]]s.		A microprocessor is distinct from a [[microcontroller]], a type of [[system on a chip]].<ref name="Warnes 2003 pp. 443–477">{{cite book \| last=Warnes \| first=Lionel \| title=Electronic and Electrical Engineering \| chapter=Microprocessors and microcontrollers \| publisher=Macmillan Education UK \| publication-place=London \| date=2003 \| isbn=978-0-333-99040-7 \| doi=10.1007/978-0-230-21633-4_23 \| pages=443–477 \| quote=microprocessor is not a stand-alone computer, since it lacks memory and input/output control. These are the missing parts that the microcontroller supplies, making it more nearly a complete computer on a chip.}}</ref> A microprocessor is related but distinct from a [[digital signal processor]], a specialized microprocessor chip, with its architecture optimized for the operational needs of [[digital signal processing]].<ref>{{cite book \|editor-last1=Yovits \|editor-first1=Marshall C. \|last1=Dyer \|first1=Stephen A. \|last2=Harms \|first2=Brian K. \|chapter=Digital Signal Processing \|title=Advances in Computers \|date=1993-08-13 \|volume=37 \|pages=59{{hyphen}}118 \|publisher=[[Academic Press]] \|doi=10.1016/S0065-2458(08)60403-9 \|isbn=978-0120121373 \|issn=0065-2458 \|lccn=59015761 \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vL-bB7GALAwC&pg=PA104 \|ol=OL10070096M \|oclc=858439915 \|df=dmy-all}}</ref>{{rp\|pages=104{{hyphen}}107}}<ref name="Liptak">{{cite book \|last=Liptak \|first=B. G. \|title=Process Control and Optimization \|series=Instrument Engineers' Handbook \|edition=4th \|year=2006 \|volume=2 \|pages=11–12 \|publisher=CRC Press \|isbn=978-0849310812 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TxKynbyaIAMC&pg=PA11 \|via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

	A microprocessor is distinct from a [[microcontroller]] ~~including~~ a [[system on a chip]].<ref name="Warnes 2003 pp. 443–477">{{cite book \| last=Warnes \| first=Lionel \| title=Electronic and Electrical Engineering \| chapter=Microprocessors and microcontrollers \| publisher=Macmillan Education UK \| publication-place=London \| date=2003 \| isbn=978-0-333-99040-7 \| doi=10.1007/978-0-230-21633-4_23 \| pages=443–477 \| quote=microprocessor is not a stand-alone computer, since it lacks memory and input/output control. These are the missing parts that the microcontroller supplies, making it more nearly a complete computer on a chip.}}</ref> A microprocessor is related but distinct from a [[digital signal processor]], a specialized microprocessor chip, with its architecture optimized for the operational needs of [[digital signal processing]].<ref>{{cite book \|editor-last1=Yovits \|editor-first1=Marshall C. \|last1=Dyer \|first1=Stephen A. \|last2=Harms \|first2=Brian K. \|chapter=Digital Signal Processing \|title=Advances in Computers \|date=1993-08-13 \|volume=37 \|pages=59{{hyphen}}118 \|publisher=[[Academic Press]] \|doi=10.1016/S0065-2458(08)60403-9 \|isbn=978-0120121373 \|issn=0065-2458 \|lccn=59015761 \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vL-bB7GALAwC&pg=PA104 \|ol=OL10070096M \|oclc=858439915 \|df=dmy-all}}</ref>{{rp\|pages=104{{hyphen}}107}}<ref name="Liptak">{{cite book \|last=Liptak \|first=B. G. \|title=Process Control and Optimization \|series=Instrument Engineers' Handbook \|edition=4th \|year=2006 \|volume=2 \|pages=11–12 \|publisher=CRC Press \|isbn=978-0849310812 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TxKynbyaIAMC&pg=PA11 \|via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

	==Structure==		==Structure==
	[[File:Z80 arch.svg\|thumb\|600px\|The [[Computer architecture\|architecture]] of the [[Zilog Z80\|Z80]] microprocessor (1976) internally uses an 8-bit [[Arithmetic logic unit\|arithmetic and logic section]] and [[~~Processor register\|~~register]] ~~file~~, but accesses external memory using 16-bit [[Memory address\|addresses]]]]		[[File:Z80 arch.svg\|thumb\|600px\|The [[Computer architecture\|architecture]] of the [[Zilog Z80\|Z80]] microprocessor (1976) internally uses an 8-bit [[Arithmetic logic unit\|arithmetic and logic section]] and [[register file]], but accesses external memory using 16-bit [[Memory address\|addresses]]]]

	The complexity of an integrated circuit is bounded by physical limitations on the number of [[transistors]] that can be put onto one chip, the number of package terminations that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number of interconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can [[Thermal management (electronics)\|dissipate]]. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture.		The complexity of an integrated circuit is bounded by physical limitations on the number of [[transistors]] that can be put onto one chip, the number of package terminations (pins) that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number of interconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can [[Thermal management (electronics)\|dissipate]]. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture.

	A minimal hypothetical microprocessor might include only an [[arithmetic logic unit]] (ALU), and a [[control logic]] section. The ALU performs addition, subtraction, and operations such as AND or OR. Each operation of the ALU sets one or more ~~[[Bit field\|flag]]s~~ in a [[status register]], which indicate the results of the last operation (zero value, negative number, [[Integer overflow\|overflow]], or others). The control logic retrieves ~~instruction codes~~ from memory and initiates the sequence of operations required for the ALU to carry out the instruction. A single ~~[[operation code]]~~ might affect many individual data paths, registers, and other elements of the processor.		A minimal hypothetical microprocessor might include only an [[arithmetic logic unit]] (ALU), and a [[control logic]] section. The ALU performs addition, subtraction, and [[bitwise operations]] such as AND or OR. Each operation of the ALU sets one or more flags in a [[status register]], which indicate the results of the last operation (zero value, negative number, [[Integer overflow\|overflow]], or others). The control logic retrieves [[opcode]]s from memory and initiates the sequence of operations required for the ALU to carry out the instruction. A single opcode might affect many individual data paths, registers, and other elements of the processor.<!--[[User:Kvng/RTH]]-->

	As integrated circuit technology advanced, it was feasible to manufacture more and more complex processors on a single chip. The size of data objects became larger; allowing more transistors on a chip allowed [[Word (computer architecture)\|word]] sizes to increase from [[4-bit computing\|4-]] and [[8-bit]] words up to today's [[64-bit]] words. Additional features were added to the processor architecture; more on-chip registers sped up programs, and complex instructions could be used to make more compact programs. [[Floating-point arithmetic]], for example, was often not available on 8-bit microprocessors, but had to be carried out in [[software]]. Integration of the [[floating-point unit]], first as a separate integrated circuit and then as part of the same microprocessor chip, sped up floating-point calculations.		As integrated circuit technology advanced, it was feasible to manufacture more and more complex processors on a single chip. The size of data objects became larger; allowing more transistors on a chip allowed [[Word (computer architecture)\|word]] sizes to increase from [[4-bit computing\|4-]] and [[8-bit]] words up to today's [[64-bit]] words. Additional features were added to the processor architecture; more on-chip registers sped up programs, and complex instructions could be used to make more compact programs. [[Floating-point arithmetic]], for example, was often not available on 8-bit microprocessors, but had to be carried out in [[software]]. Integration of the [[floating-point unit]], first as a separate integrated circuit and then as part of the same microprocessor chip, sped up floating-point calculations.
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	==History==		==History==
	{{See also\|Microprocessor chronology}}		{{See also\|Microprocessor chronology}}
	The advent of low-cost [[computers]] on [[integrated circuits]] has transformed [[modern society]]. General-purpose microprocessors in [[personal computer]]s are used for computation, text editing, [[multimedia\|multimedia display]], and communication over the [[Internet]]. Many more microprocessors are part of [[embedded system]]s, providing digital control over myriad objects from appliances to automobiles to [[cellular phone]]s and industrial [[process control]]. Microprocessors perform binary operations based on [[Boolean logic]], named after [[George Boole]]. The ability to operate computer systems using Boolean logic was first proven in a 1938 thesis by master's student [[Claude Shannon]], who later went on to become a professor. Shannon is considered "The Father of Information Theory". In 1951, [[microprogramming]] was invented by [[Maurice Wilkes]] at the [[ University of Cambridge]] from the realization that the central processor could be controlled by a specialised program in a dedicated [[ROM]].<ref>{{Cite journal \| last1 = Wilkes \| first1 = M. V. \| title = The Growth of Interest in Microprogramming: A Literature Survey \| doi = 10.1145/356551.356553 \| journal = ACM Computing Surveys \| volume = 1 \| issue = 3 \| pages = 139–145 \| year = 1969 \| s2cid = 10673679 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> Wilkes is also credited with the idea of symbolic labels, macros and subroutine libraries.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Sir Maurice Wilkes, The Father Of Computing, Dies \|website=Silicon UK \|date=3 December 2010 \|url=https://www.silicon.co.uk/workspace/sir-maurice-wilkes-the-father-of-computing-dies-aged-97-14967\|access-date=28 November 2023}}</ref>		The advent of low-cost [[computers]] on [[integrated circuits]] has transformed [[modern society]]. General-purpose microprocessors in [[personal computer]]s are used for computation, text editing, [[multimedia\|multimedia display]], and communication over the [[Internet]]. Many more microprocessors are part of [[embedded system]]s, providing digital control over myriad objects from appliances to automobiles to [[cellular phone]]s and industrial [[process control]].

	Following the development of [[MOS integrated circuit]] chips in the early 1960s, MOS chips reached higher [[transistor density]] and lower manufacturing costs than [[bipolar junction transistor\|bipolar]] [[integrated circuits]] by 1964. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by [[Moore's law]], leading to [[large-scale integration]] (LSI) with hundreds of [[transistors]] on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to [[computing]] was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete [[computer processor]] could be contained on several MOS LSI chips.<ref name="ieee">{{cite journal\|last1=Shirriff\|first1=Ken\|date=30 August 2016\|title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors\|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors\|journal=[[IEEE Spectrum]]\|publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]]\|volume=53\|issue=9\|pages=48–54\|doi=10.1109/MSPEC.2016.7551353\|access-date=13 October 2019\|s2cid=32003640\|url-access=subscription\|url-status=live\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124080014/http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-history/silicon-revolution/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors\|archive-date=2017-11-24}}</ref> Designers in the late 1960s were striving to integrate the [[central processing unit]] (CPU) functions of a computer onto a handful of MOS LSI chips, called microprocessor unit (MPU) chipsets.		Following the development of [[MOS integrated circuit]] chips in the early 1960s, MOS chips reached higher [[transistor density]] and lower manufacturing costs than [[bipolar junction transistor\|bipolar]] [[integrated circuits]] by 1964. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by [[Moore's law]], leading to [[large-scale integration]] (LSI) with hundreds of [[transistors]] on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to [[computing]] was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete [[computer processor]] could be contained on several MOS LSI chips.<ref name="ieee">{{cite journal\|last1=Shirriff\|first1=Ken\|date=30 August 2016\|title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors\|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors\|journal=[[IEEE Spectrum]]\|publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]]\|volume=53\|issue=9\|pages=48–54\|doi=10.1109/MSPEC.2016.7551353\|access-date=13 October 2019\|s2cid=32003640\|url-access=subscription\|url-status=live\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124080014/http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-history/silicon-revolution/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors\|archive-date=2017-11-24}}</ref> Designers in the late 1960s were striving to integrate the [[central processing unit]] (CPU) functions of a computer onto a handful of MOS LSI chips, called microprocessor unit (MPU) chipsets.

imported>Kvng: simplify link

2025-12-29T01:28:52Z

simplify link

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imported>Fluyt: Removed improper capitalisation, corrections.

2025-11-10T22:07:50Z

Removed improper capitalisation, corrections.

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imported>Em3rgent0rdr: /* Structure */ For Z80's caption, add the year, and instead of just listing everything in the diagram, say something interesting instead: that it uses 8-bit data but 16-bit addresses.

2025-06-20T22:52:53Z

Structure: For Z80's caption, add the year, and instead of just listing everything in the diagram, say something interesting instead: that it uses 8-bit data but 16-bit addresses.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 22:52, 20 June 2025
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	{{Short description\|Computer processor contained on an integrated-circuit chip}}		{{Short description\|Computer processor contained on an integrated-circuit chip}}
	{{Use dmy dates\|date=June 2022}}		{{Use dmy dates\|date=June 2022}}
	{{EngvarB\|date=June 2022}}		{{EngvarB\|date=June 2022}}[[File:C4004 two lines.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.9\|4-bit [[Intel 4004]] (1971) ]]
			[[File:Motorola XC6800A 1.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.9\|8-bit [[Motorola 6800]] (1974)]]
	[[File:~~TI TMS1000NLL 1~~.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.9\|~~Texas Instruments~~ [[~~Texas Instruments TMS1000\|TMS1000~~]]]]		[[File:Intel C8086 1.jpg\|thumb\|16-bit [[Intel 8086]] (1978)]]
	[[File:~~C4004 two lines~~.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.9\|[[~~Intel 4004~~]] ]]		[[File:KL IBM PowerPC 601.jpg\|thumb\|32-bit [[PowerPC 601]] (1993)]]
	[[File:~~Motorola XC6800A~~ 1.jpg\|thumb\|~~upright=0~~.9\|[[~~Motorola 6800~~]] (~~MC6800~~)]]		[[File:Scan des AMD Ryzen Threadripper 7970X 20240407 075.jpg\|thumb\|[[64-bit]], 32-core (64-threads), AMD Ryzen Threadripper 7970X based on [[x86-64]] [[Zen 4]] (2023)]]A '''microprocessor''' is a [[computer]] [[processor (computing)\|processor]] for which the data processing logic and control is included on a single [[integrated circuit]] (IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's [[central processing unit]] (CPU). The IC is capable of interpreting and executing program instructions and performing arithmetic operations.<ref>{{cite web \|last=Orion \|first=Veritas \|date=2024-08-23 \|title=What distinguishes a microprocessor from a microcontroller? \|url=https://www.ampheo.com/blog/microprocessor-vs-microcontroller-comparison \|website=Ampheo Electronics \|publisher=Orion Veritas}}</ref> The microprocessor is a multipurpose, [[Clock signal\|clock]]-driven, [[Processor register\|register]]-based, [[digital integrated circuit]] that accepts [[binary code\|binary]] data as input, processes it according to [[instruction (computing)\|instruction]]s stored in its [[computer memory\|memory]], and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain both [[combinational logic]] and [[sequential logic\|sequential digital logic]], and operate on numbers and symbols represented in the [[binary number]] system.
	[[File:Scan des AMD Ryzen Threadripper 7970X 20240407 075.jpg\|thumb\|~~A modern~~ [[64-bit]] ~~[[x86~~-64~~]] processor (~~AMD Ryzen Threadripper 7970X, based on [[~~Zen 4]], 2023)~~]]
	~~[[File:AMD Ryzen 7 1800X.jpg\|thumb\|AMD Ryzen 7 1800X (2017, based on~~ [[Zen ~~(microarchitecture)\|Zen~~]]) ~~processor in an [[socket AM4\|AM4]~~] ~~socket on a motherboard~~]]

	A '''microprocessor''' is a [[computer]] [[processor (computing)\|processor]] for which the data processing logic and control is included on a single [[integrated circuit]] (IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's [[central processing unit]] (CPU). The IC is capable of interpreting and executing program instructions and performing arithmetic operations.<ref>{{cite web \|last=Orion \|first=Veritas \|date=2024-08-23 \|title=What distinguishes a microprocessor from a microcontroller? \|url=https://www.ampheo.com/blog/microprocessor-vs-microcontroller-comparison \|website=Ampheo Electronics \|publisher=Orion Veritas}}</ref> The microprocessor is a multipurpose, [[Clock signal\|clock]]-driven, [[Processor register\|register]]-based, [[digital integrated circuit]] that accepts [[binary code\|binary]] data as input, processes it according to [[instruction (computing)\|instruction]]s stored in its [[computer memory\|memory]], and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain both [[combinational logic]] and [[sequential logic\|sequential digital logic]], and operate on numbers and symbols represented in the [[binary number]] system.

	The integration of a whole CPU onto a single or a few integrated circuits using [[Very-Large-Scale Integration]] (VLSI) greatly reduced the cost of processing power. Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[semiconductor device fabrication\|fabrication processes]]. This results in a relatively low [[unit price]]. Single-chip processors increase reliability because there are fewer electrical connections that can fail. As [[Processor design\|microprocessor designs]] improve, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size), generally stays the same, according to [[Rock's law]].		The integration of a whole CPU onto a single or a few integrated circuits using [[Very-Large-Scale Integration]] (VLSI) greatly reduced the cost of processing power. Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[semiconductor device fabrication\|fabrication processes]]. This results in a relatively low [[unit price]]. Single-chip processors increase reliability because there are fewer electrical connections that can fail. As [[Processor design\|microprocessor designs]] improve, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size), generally stays the same, according to [[Rock's law]].
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	==Structure==		==Structure==
	[[File:Z80 arch.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.7\|~~A block diagram of the~~ architecture of the [[Zilog Z80\|Z80]] microprocessor~~, showing the~~ [[Arithmetic logic unit\|arithmetic and logic section]], [[Processor register\|register]] file, ~~[[control logic]] section, and [[Data buffer\|buffer]]s to~~ external [[Memory address\|~~address~~]] ~~and data lines~~]]		[[File:Z80 arch.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.7\|The [[Computer architecture\|architecture]] of the [[Zilog Z80\|Z80]] microprocessor (1976) internally uses an 8-bit [[Arithmetic logic unit\|arithmetic and logic section]] and [[Processor register\|register]] file, but accesses external memory using 16-bit [[Memory address\|addresses]]]]

	The complexity of an integrated circuit is bounded by physical limitations on the number of [[transistors]] that can be put onto one chip, the number of package terminations that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number of interconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can [[Thermal management (electronics)\|dissipate]]. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture.		The complexity of an integrated circuit is bounded by physical limitations on the number of [[transistors]] that can be put onto one chip, the number of package terminations that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number of interconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can [[Thermal management (electronics)\|dissipate]]. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture.
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	===Speed and power considerations===		===Speed and power considerations===
	~~[[File:Intel i9-9900K.jpg\|thumb\|Intel Core i9-9900K (2018, based on [[Coffee Lake]])]]~~
	Microprocessors can be selected for differing applications based on their word size, which is a measure of their complexity. Longer word sizes allow each [[clock cycle]] of a processor to carry out more computation, but correspond to physically larger integrated circuit dies with higher standby and operating [[power consumption]].<ref name="cmicrotek">CMicrotek.		Microprocessors can be selected for differing applications based on their word size, which is a measure of their complexity. Longer word sizes allow each [[clock cycle]] of a processor to carry out more computation, but correspond to physically larger integrated circuit dies with higher standby and operating [[power consumption]].<ref name="cmicrotek">CMicrotek.
	[http://cmicrotek.com/wordpress_159256135/?p=22 "8-bit vs 32-bit Micros"] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714123158/http://cmicrotek.com/wordpress_159256135/?p=22 \|date=2014-07-14 }}.</ref> 4-, 8- or 12-bit processors are widely integrated into microcontrollers operating embedded systems. Where a system is expected to handle larger volumes of data or require a more flexible [[user interface]], 16-, 32- or 64-bit processors are used. An 8- or [[16-bit]] processor may be selected over a 32-bit processor for [[system on a chip]] or microcontroller applications that require extremely [[low-power electronics]], or are part of a [[mixed-signal integrated circuit]] with noise-sensitive on-chip [[analog electronics]] such as high-resolution analog to digital converters, or both.		[http://cmicrotek.com/wordpress_159256135/?p=22 "8-bit vs 32-bit Micros"] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714123158/http://cmicrotek.com/wordpress_159256135/?p=22 \|date=2014-07-14 }}.</ref> 4-, 8- or 12-bit processors are widely integrated into microcontrollers operating embedded systems. Where a system is expected to handle larger volumes of data or require a more flexible [[user interface]], 16-, 32- or 64-bit processors are used. An 8- or [[16-bit]] processor may be selected over a 32-bit processor for [[system on a chip]] or microcontroller applications that require extremely [[low-power electronics]], or are part of a [[mixed-signal integrated circuit]] with noise-sensitive on-chip [[analog electronics]] such as high-resolution analog to digital converters, or both.

imported>Chris the speller: /* SMP and multi-core design */ replaced: hotly-contested → hotly contested

2025-06-13T03:39:59Z

SMP and multi-core design: replaced: hotly-contested → hotly contested

← Previous revision		Revision as of 03:39, 13 June 2025
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	A '''microprocessor''' is a [[computer]] [[processor (computing)\|processor]] for which the data processing logic and control is included on a single [[integrated circuit]] (IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's [[central processing unit]] (CPU). The IC is capable of interpreting and executing program instructions and performing arithmetic operations.<ref>{{cite web \|last=Orion \|first=Veritas \|date=2024-08-23 \|title=What distinguishes a microprocessor from a microcontroller? \|url=https://www.ampheo.com/blog/microprocessor-vs-microcontroller-comparison \|website=Ampheo Electronics \|publisher=Orion Veritas}}</ref> The microprocessor is a multipurpose, [[Clock signal\|clock]]-driven, [[Processor register\|register]]-based, [[digital integrated circuit]] that accepts [[binary code\|binary]] data as input, processes it according to [[instruction (computing)\|instruction]]s stored in its [[computer memory\|memory]], and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain both [[combinational logic]] and [[sequential logic\|sequential digital logic]], and operate on numbers and symbols represented in the [[binary number]] system.		A '''microprocessor''' is a [[computer]] [[processor (computing)\|processor]] for which the data processing logic and control is included on a single [[integrated circuit]] (IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's [[central processing unit]] (CPU). The IC is capable of interpreting and executing program instructions and performing arithmetic operations.<ref>{{cite web \|last=Orion \|first=Veritas \|date=2024-08-23 \|title=What distinguishes a microprocessor from a microcontroller? \|url=https://www.ampheo.com/blog/microprocessor-vs-microcontroller-comparison \|website=Ampheo Electronics \|publisher=Orion Veritas}}</ref> The microprocessor is a multipurpose, [[Clock signal\|clock]]-driven, [[Processor register\|register]]-based, [[digital integrated circuit]] that accepts [[binary code\|binary]] data as input, processes it according to [[instruction (computing)\|instruction]]s stored in its [[computer memory\|memory]], and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain both [[combinational logic]] and [[sequential logic\|sequential digital logic]], and operate on numbers and symbols represented in the [[binary number]] system.

	The integration of a whole CPU onto a single or a few integrated circuits using [[Very-Large-Scale Integration]] (VLSI) greatly reduced the cost of processing power. Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[semiconductor device fabrication\|fabrication processes]]~~, resulting~~ in a relatively low [[unit price]]. Single-chip processors increase reliability because there are fewer electrical connections that can fail. As [[Processor design\|microprocessor designs]] improve, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size) generally stays the same according to [[Rock's law]].		The integration of a whole CPU onto a single or a few integrated circuits using [[Very-Large-Scale Integration]] (VLSI) greatly reduced the cost of processing power. Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[semiconductor device fabrication\|fabrication processes]]. This results in a relatively low [[unit price]]. Single-chip processors increase reliability because there are fewer electrical connections that can fail. As [[Processor design\|microprocessor designs]] improve, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size), generally stays the same, according to [[Rock's law]].

	Before microprocessors, small computers had been built using racks of [[circuit board]]s with many [[medium-scale integration\|medium-]] and [[small-scale integration\|small-scale integrated circuits]], typically of [[Transistor–transistor logic\|TTL]] type. Microprocessors combined this into one or a few [[large-scale integration\|large-scale]] ICs. While there is disagreement over who deserves credit for the invention of the microprocessor, the first commercially available microprocessor was the [[Intel 4004]], designed by [[Federico Faggin]] and introduced in 1971.<ref name = "IEEE">{{cite web \| url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors \| title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors \| date=30 August 2016 \| access-date=4 October 2022 \| archive-date=4 October 2022 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004011825/https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors \| url-status=live }}</ref>		Before microprocessors, small computers had been built using racks of [[circuit board]]s with many [[medium-scale integration\|medium-]] and [[small-scale integration\|small-scale integrated circuits]]. These were typically of the [[Transistor–transistor logic\|TTL]] type. Microprocessors combined this into one or a few [[large-scale integration\|large-scale]] ICs. While there is disagreement over who deserves credit for the invention of the microprocessor, the first commercially available microprocessor was the [[Intel 4004]], designed by [[Federico Faggin]] and introduced in 1971.<ref name = "IEEE">{{cite web \| url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors \| title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors \| date=30 August 2016 \| access-date=4 October 2022 \| archive-date=4 October 2022 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004011825/https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors \| url-status=live }}</ref>

	Continued increases in microprocessor capacity have since rendered other forms of computers almost completely obsolete (see [[history of computing hardware]]), with one or more microprocessors used in everything from the smallest [[embedded system]]s and [[handheld device]]s to the largest [[mainframe]]s and [[supercomputer]]s.		Continued increases in microprocessor capacity have since rendered other forms of computers almost completely obsolete (see [[history of computing hardware]]), with one or more microprocessors used in everything from the smallest [[embedded system]]s and [[handheld device]]s to the largest [[mainframe]]s and [[supercomputer]]s.
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	The Power4 won "''Analysts’ Choice Award for Best Workstation/Server Processor of 2001", and'' it broke notable records, including winning a contest against the best players on the Jeopardy!<ref>{{Cite web\|url = https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/watson/\|title = IBM100 - A Computer Called Watson\|website = [[IBM]]\|date = 7 March 2012\|access-date = 19 July 2021\|archive-date = 19 July 2021\|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210719124129/https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/watson/\|url-status = live}}</ref> U.S. television show.		The Power4 won "''Analysts’ Choice Award for Best Workstation/Server Processor of 2001", and'' it broke notable records, including winning a contest against the best players on the Jeopardy!<ref>{{Cite web\|url = https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/watson/\|title = IBM100 - A Computer Called Watson\|website = [[IBM]]\|date = 7 March 2012\|access-date = 19 July 2021\|archive-date = 19 July 2021\|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210719124129/https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/watson/\|url-status = live}}</ref> U.S. television show.

	Intel's [[Yonah (microprocessor)\|codename Yonah]] CPU's launched on Jan 6, 2006, and were manufactured with two dies packaged on a [[multi-chip module]]. In a hotly-contested marketplace [[List of AMD processors\|AMD]] and others released new versions of multi-core CPU's, AMD's SMP enabled [[Athlon MP]] CPU's from the [[Athlon-XP\|AthlonXP]] line in 2001, Sun released the [[UltraSPARC T1\|Niagara]] and [[Niagara 2]] with eight-cores, AMD's [[Athlon 64 X2\|Athlon X2]] was released in June 2007. The companies were engaged in a never-ending race for speed, indeed more demanding software mandated more processing power and faster CPU speeds.		Intel's [[Yonah (microprocessor)\|codename Yonah]] CPU's launched on Jan 6, 2006, and were manufactured with two dies packaged on a [[multi-chip module]]. In a hotly contested marketplace [[List of AMD processors\|AMD]] and others released new versions of multi-core CPU's, AMD's SMP enabled [[Athlon MP]] CPU's from the [[Athlon-XP\|AthlonXP]] line in 2001, Sun released the [[UltraSPARC T1\|Niagara]] and [[Niagara 2]] with eight-cores, AMD's [[Athlon 64 X2\|Athlon X2]] was released in June 2007. The companies were engaged in a never-ending race for speed, indeed more demanding software mandated more processing power and faster CPU speeds.

	By 2012 ''dual and quad-core'' processors became widely used in PCs and laptops, newer processors - similar to the higher cost professional level Intel Xeon's - with additional cores that execute instructions in parallel so software performance typically increases, provided the software is designed to utilize advanced hardware. Operating systems provided support for multiple-cores and SMD CPU's, many software applications including large workload and resource intensive applications - such as 3-D games - are programmed to take advantage of multiple core and multi-CPU systems.		By 2012 ''dual and quad-core'' processors became widely used in PCs and laptops, newer processors - similar to the higher cost professional level Intel Xeon's - with additional cores that execute instructions in parallel so software performance typically increases, provided the software is designed to utilize advanced hardware. Operating systems provided support for multiple-cores and SMD CPU's, many software applications including large workload and resource intensive applications - such as 3-D games - are programmed to take advantage of multiple core and multi-CPU systems.

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← Previous revision		Revision as of 14:58, 29 May 2026
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	}}		}}

	A '''microprocessor''' is a ~~[[computer]]~~ [[processor (computing)\|processor]] for which the data processing logic and control is included on a single [[integrated circuit]] (IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's [[central processing unit]] (CPU). The IC is capable of interpreting and executing ~~program instructions~~ and performing arithmetic operations.<ref>{{cite web \|last=Orion \|first=Veritas \|date=2024-08-23 \|title=What distinguishes a microprocessor from a microcontroller? \|url=https://www.ampheo.com/blog/microprocessor-vs-microcontroller-comparison \|website=Ampheo Electronics \|publisher=Orion Veritas}}</ref> The microprocessor is a multipurpose, [[Clock signal\|clock]]-driven, [[Processor register\|register]]-based, [[digital integrated circuit]] that accepts [[binary ~~code\|binary~~]] ~~data~~ as input, processes it according to [[instruction (computing)\|instruction]]s stored in its [[computer memory\|memory]], and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain both [[combinational logic]] and [[sequential logic\|sequential digital logic]], and operate on numbers and symbols represented in the [[binary number]] system.		A '''microprocessor''' is a [[processor (computing)\|computer processor]] for which the data processing logic and control is included on a single [[integrated circuit]] (IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's [[central processing unit]] (CPU). The microprocessor is capable of interpreting and executing [[machine code]] and performing arithmetic operations.<ref>{{cite web \|last=Orion \|first=Veritas \|date=2024-08-23 \|title=What distinguishes a microprocessor from a microcontroller? \|url=https://www.ampheo.com/blog/microprocessor-vs-microcontroller-comparison \|website=Ampheo Electronics \|publisher=Orion Veritas}}</ref> The microprocessor is a multipurpose, [[Clock signal\|clock]]-driven, [[Processor register\|register]]-based, [[digital integrated circuit]] that accepts [[binary data]] as input, processes it according to [[instruction (computing)\|instruction]]s stored in its [[computer memory\|memory]], and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain both [[combinational logic]] and [[sequential logic\|sequential digital logic]], and operate on numbers and symbols represented in the [[binary number]] system.

	The integration of a whole CPU onto a single or a few integrated circuits using [[very-large-scale integration]] (VLSI) greatly reduced the cost of ~~processing power~~. Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[semiconductor device fabrication\|fabrication processes]], resulting in a relatively low [[unit price]]. Single-chip processors increase reliability because there are fewer electrical ~~connections~~ that can fail. As [[~~Processor~~ design~~\|microprocessor designs~~]] improve, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size) generally stays the same, according to [[Rock's law]].		The integration of a whole CPU onto a single or a few integrated circuits using [[very-large-scale integration]] (VLSI) greatly reduced the cost of computing. Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[semiconductor device fabrication\|fabrication processes]], resulting in a relatively low [[unit price]]. Single-chip processors increase reliability because there are fewer [[electrical connection]]s that can fail. As [[microprocessor design]]s improve, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size) generally stays the same, according to [[Rock's law]]. Continued increases in microprocessor capacity have since rendered other forms of computers almost completely obsolete (see [[history of computing hardware]]), with one or more microprocessors used in everything from the smallest [[embedded system]]s and [[handheld device]]s to the largest [[mainframe]]s and [[supercomputer]]s.

	Before microprocessors, small computers had been built using racks of [[circuit board]]s with many [[medium-scale integration\|medium-]] and [[small-scale integration\|small-scale integrated circuits]]. These were typically of the [[Transistor–transistor logic\|TTL]] type. Microprocessors combined this into one or a few [[large-scale integration\|large-scale]] ICs. While there is disagreement over who deserves credit for the invention of the microprocessor, the first commercially available microprocessor was the [[Intel 4004]], designed by [[Federico Faggin]] and introduced in 1971.<ref name = "IEEE">{{cite web \| url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors \| title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors \| date=30 August 2016 \| access-date=4 October 2022 \| archive-date=4 October 2022 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004011825/https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors \| url-status=live }}</ref>		Before microprocessors, small computers had been built using racks of [[circuit board]]s with many [[medium-scale integration\|medium-]] and [[small-scale integration\|small-scale integrated circuits]]. These were typically of the [[Transistor–transistor logic\|TTL]] type. Microprocessors combined this into one or a few [[large-scale integration\|large-scale]] ICs. While there is disagreement over who deserves credit for the invention of the microprocessor, the first commercially available microprocessor was the [[Intel 4004]], designed by [[Federico Faggin]] and introduced in 1971.<ref name = "IEEE">{{cite web \| url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors \| title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors \| date=30 August 2016 \| access-date=4 October 2022 \| archive-date=4 October 2022 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004011825/https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors \| url-status=live }}</ref>

	Continued increases in microprocessor capacity have since rendered other forms of computers almost completely obsolete (see [[history of computing hardware]]), with one or more microprocessors used in everything from the smallest [[embedded system]]s and [[handheld device]]s to the largest [[mainframe]]s and [[supercomputer]]s.		A microprocessor is distinct from a [[microcontroller]], a type of [[system on a chip]].<ref name="Warnes 2003 pp. 443–477">{{cite book \| last=Warnes \| first=Lionel \| title=Electronic and Electrical Engineering \| chapter=Microprocessors and microcontrollers \| publisher=Macmillan Education UK \| publication-place=London \| date=2003 \| isbn=978-0-333-99040-7 \| doi=10.1007/978-0-230-21633-4_23 \| pages=443–477 \| quote=microprocessor is not a stand-alone computer, since it lacks memory and input/output control. These are the missing parts that the microcontroller supplies, making it more nearly a complete computer on a chip.}}</ref> A microprocessor is related but distinct from a [[digital signal processor]], a specialized microprocessor chip, with its architecture optimized for the operational needs of [[digital signal processing]].<ref>{{cite book \|editor-last1=Yovits \|editor-first1=Marshall C. \|last1=Dyer \|first1=Stephen A. \|last2=Harms \|first2=Brian K. \|chapter=Digital Signal Processing \|title=Advances in Computers \|date=1993-08-13 \|volume=37 \|pages=59{{hyphen}}118 \|publisher=[[Academic Press]] \|doi=10.1016/S0065-2458(08)60403-9 \|isbn=978-0120121373 \|issn=0065-2458 \|lccn=59015761 \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vL-bB7GALAwC&pg=PA104 \|ol=OL10070096M \|oclc=858439915 \|df=dmy-all}}</ref>{{rp\|pages=104{{hyphen}}107}}<ref name="Liptak">{{cite book \|last=Liptak \|first=B. G. \|title=Process Control and Optimization \|series=Instrument Engineers' Handbook \|edition=4th \|year=2006 \|volume=2 \|pages=11–12 \|publisher=CRC Press \|isbn=978-0849310812 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TxKynbyaIAMC&pg=PA11 \|via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

	A microprocessor is distinct from a [[microcontroller]] ~~including~~ a [[system on a chip]].<ref name="Warnes 2003 pp. 443–477">{{cite book \| last=Warnes \| first=Lionel \| title=Electronic and Electrical Engineering \| chapter=Microprocessors and microcontrollers \| publisher=Macmillan Education UK \| publication-place=London \| date=2003 \| isbn=978-0-333-99040-7 \| doi=10.1007/978-0-230-21633-4_23 \| pages=443–477 \| quote=microprocessor is not a stand-alone computer, since it lacks memory and input/output control. These are the missing parts that the microcontroller supplies, making it more nearly a complete computer on a chip.}}</ref> A microprocessor is related but distinct from a [[digital signal processor]], a specialized microprocessor chip, with its architecture optimized for the operational needs of [[digital signal processing]].<ref>{{cite book \|editor-last1=Yovits \|editor-first1=Marshall C. \|last1=Dyer \|first1=Stephen A. \|last2=Harms \|first2=Brian K. \|chapter=Digital Signal Processing \|title=Advances in Computers \|date=1993-08-13 \|volume=37 \|pages=59{{hyphen}}118 \|publisher=[[Academic Press]] \|doi=10.1016/S0065-2458(08)60403-9 \|isbn=978-0120121373 \|issn=0065-2458 \|lccn=59015761 \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vL-bB7GALAwC&pg=PA104 \|ol=OL10070096M \|oclc=858439915 \|df=dmy-all}}</ref>{{rp\|pages=104{{hyphen}}107}}<ref name="Liptak">{{cite book \|last=Liptak \|first=B. G. \|title=Process Control and Optimization \|series=Instrument Engineers' Handbook \|edition=4th \|year=2006 \|volume=2 \|pages=11–12 \|publisher=CRC Press \|isbn=978-0849310812 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TxKynbyaIAMC&pg=PA11 \|via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

	==Structure==		==Structure==
	[[File:Z80 arch.svg\|thumb\|600px\|The [[Computer architecture\|architecture]] of the [[Zilog Z80\|Z80]] microprocessor (1976) internally uses an 8-bit [[Arithmetic logic unit\|arithmetic and logic section]] and [[~~Processor register\|~~register]] ~~file~~, but accesses external memory using 16-bit [[Memory address\|addresses]]]]		[[File:Z80 arch.svg\|thumb\|600px\|The [[Computer architecture\|architecture]] of the [[Zilog Z80\|Z80]] microprocessor (1976) internally uses an 8-bit [[Arithmetic logic unit\|arithmetic and logic section]] and [[register file]], but accesses external memory using 16-bit [[Memory address\|addresses]]]]

	The complexity of an integrated circuit is bounded by physical limitations on the number of [[transistors]] that can be put onto one chip, the number of package terminations that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number of interconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can [[Thermal management (electronics)\|dissipate]]. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture.		The complexity of an integrated circuit is bounded by physical limitations on the number of [[transistors]] that can be put onto one chip, the number of package terminations (pins) that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number of interconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can [[Thermal management (electronics)\|dissipate]]. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture.

	A minimal hypothetical microprocessor might include only an [[arithmetic logic unit]] (ALU), and a [[control logic]] section. The ALU performs addition, subtraction, and operations such as AND or OR. Each operation of the ALU sets one or more ~~[[Bit field\|flag]]s~~ in a [[status register]], which indicate the results of the last operation (zero value, negative number, [[Integer overflow\|overflow]], or others). The control logic retrieves ~~instruction codes~~ from memory and initiates the sequence of operations required for the ALU to carry out the instruction. A single ~~[[operation code]]~~ might affect many individual data paths, registers, and other elements of the processor.		A minimal hypothetical microprocessor might include only an [[arithmetic logic unit]] (ALU), and a [[control logic]] section. The ALU performs addition, subtraction, and [[bitwise operations]] such as AND or OR. Each operation of the ALU sets one or more flags in a [[status register]], which indicate the results of the last operation (zero value, negative number, [[Integer overflow\|overflow]], or others). The control logic retrieves [[opcode]]s from memory and initiates the sequence of operations required for the ALU to carry out the instruction. A single opcode might affect many individual data paths, registers, and other elements of the processor.<!--[[User:Kvng/RTH]]-->

	As integrated circuit technology advanced, it was feasible to manufacture more and more complex processors on a single chip. The size of data objects became larger; allowing more transistors on a chip allowed [[Word (computer architecture)\|word]] sizes to increase from [[4-bit computing\|4-]] and [[8-bit]] words up to today's [[64-bit]] words. Additional features were added to the processor architecture; more on-chip registers sped up programs, and complex instructions could be used to make more compact programs. [[Floating-point arithmetic]], for example, was often not available on 8-bit microprocessors, but had to be carried out in [[software]]. Integration of the [[floating-point unit]], first as a separate integrated circuit and then as part of the same microprocessor chip, sped up floating-point calculations.		As integrated circuit technology advanced, it was feasible to manufacture more and more complex processors on a single chip. The size of data objects became larger; allowing more transistors on a chip allowed [[Word (computer architecture)\|word]] sizes to increase from [[4-bit computing\|4-]] and [[8-bit]] words up to today's [[64-bit]] words. Additional features were added to the processor architecture; more on-chip registers sped up programs, and complex instructions could be used to make more compact programs. [[Floating-point arithmetic]], for example, was often not available on 8-bit microprocessors, but had to be carried out in [[software]]. Integration of the [[floating-point unit]], first as a separate integrated circuit and then as part of the same microprocessor chip, sped up floating-point calculations.
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	==History==		==History==
	{{See also\|Microprocessor chronology}}		{{See also\|Microprocessor chronology}}
	The advent of low-cost [[computers]] on [[integrated circuits]] has transformed [[modern society]]. General-purpose microprocessors in [[personal computer]]s are used for computation, text editing, [[multimedia\|multimedia display]], and communication over the [[Internet]]. Many more microprocessors are part of [[embedded system]]s, providing digital control over myriad objects from appliances to automobiles to [[cellular phone]]s and industrial [[process control]]. Microprocessors perform binary operations based on [[Boolean logic]], named after [[George Boole]]. The ability to operate computer systems using Boolean logic was first proven in a 1938 thesis by master's student [[Claude Shannon]], who later went on to become a professor. Shannon is considered "The Father of Information Theory". In 1951, [[microprogramming]] was invented by [[Maurice Wilkes]] at the [[ University of Cambridge]] from the realization that the central processor could be controlled by a specialised program in a dedicated [[ROM]].<ref>{{Cite journal \| last1 = Wilkes \| first1 = M. V. \| title = The Growth of Interest in Microprogramming: A Literature Survey \| doi = 10.1145/356551.356553 \| journal = ACM Computing Surveys \| volume = 1 \| issue = 3 \| pages = 139–145 \| year = 1969 \| s2cid = 10673679 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> Wilkes is also credited with the idea of symbolic labels, macros and subroutine libraries.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Sir Maurice Wilkes, The Father Of Computing, Dies \|website=Silicon UK \|date=3 December 2010 \|url=https://www.silicon.co.uk/workspace/sir-maurice-wilkes-the-father-of-computing-dies-aged-97-14967\|access-date=28 November 2023}}</ref>		The advent of low-cost [[computers]] on [[integrated circuits]] has transformed [[modern society]]. General-purpose microprocessors in [[personal computer]]s are used for computation, text editing, [[multimedia\|multimedia display]], and communication over the [[Internet]]. Many more microprocessors are part of [[embedded system]]s, providing digital control over myriad objects from appliances to automobiles to [[cellular phone]]s and industrial [[process control]].

	Following the development of [[MOS integrated circuit]] chips in the early 1960s, MOS chips reached higher [[transistor density]] and lower manufacturing costs than [[bipolar junction transistor\|bipolar]] [[integrated circuits]] by 1964. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by [[Moore's law]], leading to [[large-scale integration]] (LSI) with hundreds of [[transistors]] on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to [[computing]] was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete [[computer processor]] could be contained on several MOS LSI chips.<ref name="ieee">{{cite journal\|last1=Shirriff\|first1=Ken\|date=30 August 2016\|title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors\|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors\|journal=[[IEEE Spectrum]]\|publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]]\|volume=53\|issue=9\|pages=48–54\|doi=10.1109/MSPEC.2016.7551353\|access-date=13 October 2019\|s2cid=32003640\|url-access=subscription\|url-status=live\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124080014/http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-history/silicon-revolution/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors\|archive-date=2017-11-24}}</ref> Designers in the late 1960s were striving to integrate the [[central processing unit]] (CPU) functions of a computer onto a handful of MOS LSI chips, called microprocessor unit (MPU) chipsets.		Following the development of [[MOS integrated circuit]] chips in the early 1960s, MOS chips reached higher [[transistor density]] and lower manufacturing costs than [[bipolar junction transistor\|bipolar]] [[integrated circuits]] by 1964. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by [[Moore's law]], leading to [[large-scale integration]] (LSI) with hundreds of [[transistors]] on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to [[computing]] was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete [[computer processor]] could be contained on several MOS LSI chips.<ref name="ieee">{{cite journal\|last1=Shirriff\|first1=Ken\|date=30 August 2016\|title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors\|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors\|journal=[[IEEE Spectrum]]\|publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]]\|volume=53\|issue=9\|pages=48–54\|doi=10.1109/MSPEC.2016.7551353\|access-date=13 October 2019\|s2cid=32003640\|url-access=subscription\|url-status=live\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124080014/http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-history/silicon-revolution/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors\|archive-date=2017-11-24}}</ref> Designers in the late 1960s were striving to integrate the [[central processing unit]] (CPU) functions of a computer onto a handful of MOS LSI chips, called microprocessor unit (MPU) chipsets.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 22:52, 20 June 2025
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	{{Short description\|Computer processor contained on an integrated-circuit chip}}		{{Short description\|Computer processor contained on an integrated-circuit chip}}
	{{Use dmy dates\|date=June 2022}}		{{Use dmy dates\|date=June 2022}}
	{{EngvarB\|date=June 2022}}		{{EngvarB\|date=June 2022}}[[File:C4004 two lines.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.9\|4-bit [[Intel 4004]] (1971) ]]
			[[File:Motorola XC6800A 1.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.9\|8-bit [[Motorola 6800]] (1974)]]
	[[File:~~TI TMS1000NLL 1~~.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.9\|~~Texas Instruments~~ [[~~Texas Instruments TMS1000\|TMS1000~~]]]]		[[File:Intel C8086 1.jpg\|thumb\|16-bit [[Intel 8086]] (1978)]]
	[[File:~~C4004 two lines~~.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.9\|[[~~Intel 4004~~]] ]]		[[File:KL IBM PowerPC 601.jpg\|thumb\|32-bit [[PowerPC 601]] (1993)]]
	[[File:~~Motorola XC6800A~~ 1.jpg\|thumb\|~~upright=0~~.9\|[[~~Motorola 6800~~]] (~~MC6800~~)]]		[[File:Scan des AMD Ryzen Threadripper 7970X 20240407 075.jpg\|thumb\|[[64-bit]], 32-core (64-threads), AMD Ryzen Threadripper 7970X based on [[x86-64]] [[Zen 4]] (2023)]]A '''microprocessor''' is a [[computer]] [[processor (computing)\|processor]] for which the data processing logic and control is included on a single [[integrated circuit]] (IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's [[central processing unit]] (CPU). The IC is capable of interpreting and executing program instructions and performing arithmetic operations.<ref>{{cite web \|last=Orion \|first=Veritas \|date=2024-08-23 \|title=What distinguishes a microprocessor from a microcontroller? \|url=https://www.ampheo.com/blog/microprocessor-vs-microcontroller-comparison \|website=Ampheo Electronics \|publisher=Orion Veritas}}</ref> The microprocessor is a multipurpose, [[Clock signal\|clock]]-driven, [[Processor register\|register]]-based, [[digital integrated circuit]] that accepts [[binary code\|binary]] data as input, processes it according to [[instruction (computing)\|instruction]]s stored in its [[computer memory\|memory]], and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain both [[combinational logic]] and [[sequential logic\|sequential digital logic]], and operate on numbers and symbols represented in the [[binary number]] system.
	[[File:Scan des AMD Ryzen Threadripper 7970X 20240407 075.jpg\|thumb\|~~A modern~~ [[64-bit]] ~~[[x86~~-64~~]] processor (~~AMD Ryzen Threadripper 7970X, based on [[~~Zen 4]], 2023)~~]]
	~~[[File:AMD Ryzen 7 1800X.jpg\|thumb\|AMD Ryzen 7 1800X (2017, based on~~ [[Zen ~~(microarchitecture)\|Zen~~]]) ~~processor in an [[socket AM4\|AM4]~~] ~~socket on a motherboard~~]]

	A '''microprocessor''' is a [[computer]] [[processor (computing)\|processor]] for which the data processing logic and control is included on a single [[integrated circuit]] (IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's [[central processing unit]] (CPU). The IC is capable of interpreting and executing program instructions and performing arithmetic operations.<ref>{{cite web \|last=Orion \|first=Veritas \|date=2024-08-23 \|title=What distinguishes a microprocessor from a microcontroller? \|url=https://www.ampheo.com/blog/microprocessor-vs-microcontroller-comparison \|website=Ampheo Electronics \|publisher=Orion Veritas}}</ref> The microprocessor is a multipurpose, [[Clock signal\|clock]]-driven, [[Processor register\|register]]-based, [[digital integrated circuit]] that accepts [[binary code\|binary]] data as input, processes it according to [[instruction (computing)\|instruction]]s stored in its [[computer memory\|memory]], and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain both [[combinational logic]] and [[sequential logic\|sequential digital logic]], and operate on numbers and symbols represented in the [[binary number]] system.

	The integration of a whole CPU onto a single or a few integrated circuits using [[Very-Large-Scale Integration]] (VLSI) greatly reduced the cost of processing power. Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[semiconductor device fabrication\|fabrication processes]]. This results in a relatively low [[unit price]]. Single-chip processors increase reliability because there are fewer electrical connections that can fail. As [[Processor design\|microprocessor designs]] improve, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size), generally stays the same, according to [[Rock's law]].		The integration of a whole CPU onto a single or a few integrated circuits using [[Very-Large-Scale Integration]] (VLSI) greatly reduced the cost of processing power. Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated [[metal–oxide–semiconductor]] (MOS) [[semiconductor device fabrication\|fabrication processes]]. This results in a relatively low [[unit price]]. Single-chip processors increase reliability because there are fewer electrical connections that can fail. As [[Processor design\|microprocessor designs]] improve, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size), generally stays the same, according to [[Rock's law]].
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	==Structure==		==Structure==
	[[File:Z80 arch.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.7\|~~A block diagram of the~~ architecture of the [[Zilog Z80\|Z80]] microprocessor~~, showing the~~ [[Arithmetic logic unit\|arithmetic and logic section]], [[Processor register\|register]] file, ~~[[control logic]] section, and [[Data buffer\|buffer]]s to~~ external [[Memory address\|~~address~~]] ~~and data lines~~]]		[[File:Z80 arch.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.7\|The [[Computer architecture\|architecture]] of the [[Zilog Z80\|Z80]] microprocessor (1976) internally uses an 8-bit [[Arithmetic logic unit\|arithmetic and logic section]] and [[Processor register\|register]] file, but accesses external memory using 16-bit [[Memory address\|addresses]]]]

	The complexity of an integrated circuit is bounded by physical limitations on the number of [[transistors]] that can be put onto one chip, the number of package terminations that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number of interconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can [[Thermal management (electronics)\|dissipate]]. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture.		The complexity of an integrated circuit is bounded by physical limitations on the number of [[transistors]] that can be put onto one chip, the number of package terminations that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number of interconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can [[Thermal management (electronics)\|dissipate]]. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture.
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	===Speed and power considerations===		===Speed and power considerations===
	~~[[File:Intel i9-9900K.jpg\|thumb\|Intel Core i9-9900K (2018, based on [[Coffee Lake]])]]~~
	Microprocessors can be selected for differing applications based on their word size, which is a measure of their complexity. Longer word sizes allow each [[clock cycle]] of a processor to carry out more computation, but correspond to physically larger integrated circuit dies with higher standby and operating [[power consumption]].<ref name="cmicrotek">CMicrotek.		Microprocessors can be selected for differing applications based on their word size, which is a measure of their complexity. Longer word sizes allow each [[clock cycle]] of a processor to carry out more computation, but correspond to physically larger integrated circuit dies with higher standby and operating [[power consumption]].<ref name="cmicrotek">CMicrotek.
	[http://cmicrotek.com/wordpress_159256135/?p=22 "8-bit vs 32-bit Micros"] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714123158/http://cmicrotek.com/wordpress_159256135/?p=22 \|date=2014-07-14 }}.</ref> 4-, 8- or 12-bit processors are widely integrated into microcontrollers operating embedded systems. Where a system is expected to handle larger volumes of data or require a more flexible [[user interface]], 16-, 32- or 64-bit processors are used. An 8- or [[16-bit]] processor may be selected over a 32-bit processor for [[system on a chip]] or microcontroller applications that require extremely [[low-power electronics]], or are part of a [[mixed-signal integrated circuit]] with noise-sensitive on-chip [[analog electronics]] such as high-resolution analog to digital converters, or both.		[http://cmicrotek.com/wordpress_159256135/?p=22 "8-bit vs 32-bit Micros"] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714123158/http://cmicrotek.com/wordpress_159256135/?p=22 \|date=2014-07-14 }}.</ref> 4-, 8- or 12-bit processors are widely integrated into microcontrollers operating embedded systems. Where a system is expected to handle larger volumes of data or require a more flexible [[user interface]], 16-, 32- or 64-bit processors are used. An 8- or [[16-bit]] processor may be selected over a 32-bit processor for [[system on a chip]] or microcontroller applications that require extremely [[low-power electronics]], or are part of a [[mixed-signal integrated circuit]] with noise-sensitive on-chip [[analog electronics]] such as high-resolution analog to digital converters, or both.