imported>Fdom5997: /* Phonology */ +symbols, Siegel (1984)

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Phonology: +symbols, Siegel (1984)

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{{Short description|Austronesian language of Papua New Guinea}}
{{Infobox language
|name=Lebu
|states=[[Papua New Guinea]]
|region=[[Morobe Province]]
|ethnicity=1,500 (2000)<ref name=e25>{{e25|lbu}}</ref>
|speakers=?
|familycolor=Austronesian
|fam2=[[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]
|fam3=[[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]]
|fam4=[[Western Oceanic languages|Western Oceanic]]
|fam5=[[North New Guinea languages|North New Guinea]] ?
|fam6=[[Ngero–Vitiaz languages|Ngero–Vitiaz]] ?
|fam7=[[Huon Gulf languages|Huon Gulf]]
|fam8=[[Markham languages|Markham]]
|fam9=[[Lower Markham languages|Lower Markham]]
|iso3=lbu
|glotto=labu1248
|glottorefname=Labu
}}
{{GeoGroup}}

'''Labu''' (called '''Hapa''' by its speakers) is an [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language]] of [[Papua New Guinea]].

==Locations==
Labu is spoken by 1,600 people (1989) in three older villages and one new one across the [[Markham River]] from [[Lae]] in [[Morobe Province]], [[Papua New Guinea]]. The three older villages are Labubutu (locally known as Dusuku) ({{coord|-6.752271|146.960701|type:city_region:PG|name=Labubutu}}), Labumeti (Ehalo) ({{coord|-6.772936|146.955698|type:city_region:PG|name=Labumiti}}), and Labutali (Kakala) ({{coord|-6.87921|146.951178|type:city_region:PG|name=Labutale}}) in [[Wampar Rural LLG]].<ref name="Holzknecht">{{cite book | first=Susanne | last=Holzknecht | title=The Markham Languages of Papua New Guinea | publisher=Pacific Linguistics| year=1989 | isbn=0-85883-394-8}}</ref><ref name="UN-PNG">{{cite web |url=https://data.humdata.org/dataset/village-coordinates-lookup |title=Papua New Guinea Village Coordinates Lookup |author=United Nations in Papua New Guinea |work=Humanitarian Data Exchange |version=1.31.9 |date=2018}}</ref>

==Contact==
Although it belongs to the [[Lower Markham languages]], Labu appears to have been strongly influenced by the coastal languages of the [[Huon Gulf]], [[Bukawa language|Bukawa]] in particular. For instance, Labu shows tonal contrasts, like Bukawa but unlike any of the Markham languages; and Labu numerals show separate forms for '3', '4', and '5', like Bukawa, even though ''salu'' '2', ''sidi'' '3', and ''sôha'' '4' contain the Lower Markham numeral classifier *sV-. (The pattern for numerals in the other Markham languages is '1', '2', '2+1', '2+2', then 'hand' or '2+2+1', and so on.)

==Phonology==
Labu distinguishes 7 [[vowels]] and 17 [[consonants]]. The vowels also exhibit contrasts between high and low [[Pitch accent|pitch]] (or "[[Tone (linguistics)|tone]]"), just as in [[Yabem language|Yabêm]], the Lutheran mission [[lingua franca]] for the coastal languages of Morobe Province during much of the 20th century. The [[orthography]] of Labu is based on that of Yabêm (= Jabêm), except that ''y'' replaces Yabêm ''j''.

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[High vowel|High]]
| i
|
| u
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Upper mid]]
| ɪ
|
| ʊ
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Lower mid]]
| ɛ
|
| ɔ
|-
! [[Low vowel|Low]]
|
| a
|
|}

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! [[Voiceless consonant|Voiceless stop]]
| p
| t
| k
|
|-
! [[Voiced consonant|Voiced stop]]
| b
| d
| ɡ
|
|-
! [[Prenasalized consonant|Prenasalized]]
| ᵐb
| ⁿd
| ᵑɡ
|
|-
! [[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| m
| n
| ŋ
|
|-
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|
| s
|
| h
|-
! [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
| l
|
|
|-
! [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| w
| j
|
|
|}

===Tone contrasts===
The vowels of some words in Labu are distinguished by lowered pitch, which is marked orthographically by a grave accent. Labu distinctions in [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]] are thus based on register tone, not contour tone as in [[Mandarin Chinese]]. Register tone contrasts are a relatively recent innovation of the [[North Huon Gulf languages]], which many Labu speakers include in their linguistic repertoires, so one should not look back to voice contrasts in Proto-Oceanic (POc) or some other ancestral language to explain the origins of tone contrasts in Labu. Instead, one should look to areal influences, primarily from neighboring [[Bukawa language|Bukawa]].
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[Tone (linguistics)|High]]
! [[Tone (linguistics)|Low]]
|-
| a 'sun'
| à 'tree, wood' (POc *kayu)
|-
| ani 'centipede' (POc *qalipan)
| ànì 'one' (indefinite article)
|-
| maya 'shame'
| mayà 'dead' (POc *mate)
|-
| ôpa 'crocodile' (POc *puqaya)
| ôpà 'thouGght'
|-
| ô 'breadfruit' (POc *kuluR)
| ồ 'garden' (POc *quma)
|-
| u 'rain' (POc *qusan)
| ù 'clay pot' (POc *kuron)
|}

==[[Morphology (linguistics)|Morpho]]-[[Syntax (linguistics)|syntax]]==
===Pronouns and person markers===
====Free pronouns====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! [[Grammatical person|Person]]
! [[Grammatical number|Singular]]
! [[Grammatical number|Dual]] (D)
! [[Grammatical number|Trial]] (T)
! [[Grammatical number|Plural]] (P)
|-
! [[Inclusive and exclusive we|1st person inclusive]]
|
| a(lu)
| (ê)sidi
| a(ha)
|-
! [[Inclusive and exclusive we|1st person exclusive]]
| ai
| (ê)ma(lu)
| êmidi
| (ê)ma(ha)
|-
! [[Grammatical person|2nd person]]
| yê
| (yê)môlu
| (yê)môdi
| (yê)môha
|-
! [[Grammatical person|3rd person]]
| ini
| (ê)salu
| (ê)sidi
| (ê)sôha
|-
|}

===[[Possession (linguistics)|Possession]]===
In Labu, there are two types of possessive noun phrases: the [[Genitive case|genitive]] and the [[Nominal (linguistics)|nominal]] (Siegel, 1984, p. 95).

==== Genitive possession ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! [[Grammatical person|Person]]
! [[Grammatical number|Singular]]
! [[Grammatical number|Plural]]
|-
! [[Inclusive and exclusive we|1st person inclusive]]
|
| la
|-
! [[Inclusive and exclusive we|1st person exclusive]]
| nda
| mê
|-
! [[Grammatical person|2nd person]]
| na
| mê
|-
! [[Grammatical person|3rd person]]
| na
| sê
|-
|}
The genitive possessive [[noun phrase]] (PNP) conforms to the following structure:

PNP → NP1 (=possessor) POS (=possessive marker) NP2 (=possessed) (Siegel, 1984, p. 95)

If the possessor has already been established earlier in the [[discourse]] and it is clear to both the speaker and listener, then the NP1 can be omitted from the possessive phrase (Siegel, 1984, p. 95). If the omitted NP1 is an inanimate object then the possessive marker ''êna'' is used (Siegel, 1984, p. 96).

Some examples of the genitive possessive noun phrase (taken from Siegel's ''Introduction of the Labu Language'', p. 95-96) are as follows:

(a) ai yu-dumala kô yê na ana

''I'' 1S.PT-''look at'' ''you'' 2S.POS ''mother''

''I saw your mother.''

(b) amêna ŋatô salu le sê hanô nda mêna

''man old two this'' 3P.POS ''house stay village''

''These two old men's house was in the village.''

(c) êmôha mô-kôna êna taiya mê-nda nôsôlô

''we''.XD 1X-''look.at'' POS ''tyre'' 1P-''stay rubbish''

''We looked at its tyre in the rubbish dump.''

'''Nominal possession'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Nominal possessive markers
!Singular
!Plural (D,T,P)
|-
!1st person inclusive
|
|lêêna
|-
!1st person exclusive
|ndêêna
|mêêna
|-
!2nd person
|nôôna
|môôna
|-
!3rd person
|nêêna
|sêêna
|}
The nominal possessive phrase (PNP) conforms to the following structure:

PNP → NP1 (possessor) POSN (nominal possessive marker) (Siegel, 1984, p. 96)

When the thing being possessed is not explicitly stated within the phrase then the nominal possessive phrase is used (Siegel, 1984, p. 96). If the possessor has already been established earlier in the discourse then the NP1 can be omitted from a possessive phrase (Siegel, 1984, p. 97).

Some examples of the nominal possessive phrase (taken from Jeff Siegel's ''Introduction to the Labu Language'', p. 96-97) are as follows:

(a) ini gwê yê nôôna

''he'' (3S.PT-)''take you'' 2S.POSN

''He took yours.''

(b) tawala lene hanô lênê nêêna

''door this house that'' 3S.POSN

''This door is that house's.''

(c) ai ya-gwê ndêêna

''I'' 1S.PT-''take'' 1S.POSN

''I took mine.''

===Deictics===
Labu [[deictic]]s correlate with first, second, and third person, the first two of which have long and short forms. The third person singular free pronoun can also take deictic [[suffix]]es: ''ini-ne'' 'this/these one(s)', ''ini-lê'' 'that/those one(s)'. Deictics may occur either in place of nouns or postposed to nouns, as in ''hanô lene'' 'that house'.
* ''le(ne)'' 'near speaker'
* ''lê(nê)'' 'near addressee'
* ''laê'' 'away from speaker or addressee'

===Numerals===
Traditional Labu counting practices started with the digits of one hand, then continued on the other hand, and then the feet to reach '20', which translates as 'one person'. Higher numbers are multiples of 'one person'. Nowadays, most counting above '5' is done in Tok Pisin.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left;"
! [[Numeral system|Numeral]]
! Term
! Gloss
|-
! 1
| tôgwatô/ànì
| 'one'
|-
! 2
| salu
| 'two'
|-
! 3
| sidi
| 'three'
|-
! 4
| sôha
| 'four'
|-
! 5
| ma-ipi
| 'hands-half/part'
|-
! 6
| ma-ipi anêndi tôgwatô (''or'' maipa tômôlô)
| 'hands-half offspring/addition one'
|-
! 7
| ma-ipi anêndi salu (''or'' maipa salu)
| 'hands-half offspring/addition two'
|-
! 8
| ma-ipi anêndi sidi (''or'' maipa sidi)
| 'hands-half offspring/addition three'
|-
! 9
| ma-ipi anêndi sôha (''or'' maipa sôha)
| 'hands-half offspring/addition four'
|-
! 10
| nômusu
| 'ten'
|-
! 20
| asamô-ni
| 'whole-one' (''samô'' 'whole', ''ànì'' 'one')
|-
! 60
| asamô sidi
| 'whole three'
|-
|}

===Names===
Like most of the coastal languages around the Huon Gulf, Labu has a system of birth-order names.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Birth order
! Sons (''ai'')
! Daughters (''ahêna'')
|-
| 1
| aso
| amê
|-
| 2
| amoa
| hiya
|-
| 3
| aŋgi
| aya
|-
| 4
| aŋgu
| êta
|-
| 5
| ôlôndi
| hênamu
|-
| 6
| ?
| asô`lô`/amênamu
|-
| 7
| asô`lô`
| asôlô
|-
| 8
| asôlô
| ?
|-
| 9
| paloa
| ?
|}

=== [[Negation (linguistics)|Negation]] ===
In order to express negation within simple sentences in Labu, either a dubitative (DUB) or a potential (POT) [[Modal verb|modal]] must be used in order to begin the [[Predicate (grammar)|predicate]], with the negative marker ''-ki'' used to end the sentence.

Labu has three different forms of this negative marker, which are:

* naki
* ŋaki
* ki

The negative marker of -''ki'' is derived from a verb stem, which explains why it uses the third person prefixes ''na-'' and ''ŋa-,'' which only otherwise attach to verbs. Despite deriving from a verb stem, because ''ki'' cannot stand alone within a verb phrase (VP), it cannot be classified as a verb.

The three forms of the negative marker, depending on the prefixes attached, are used in varying circumstances, dependent on the tense and mood of the utterance.

==== Naki ====

Naki is the negative marker used with the [[irrealis mood]], specifically [[Dubitative mood|dubitative]] and [[Imperative sentence|imperative]] sentences. Examples of each are as follows (Siegel, 1984, p. 111-112):
{|
|+
!yê
!mba
!nu-kusu
!naki
|-
|''you''
|''POT''
|''2S.IR-spit''
|''IR.NEG''
|-
| colspan="4" |''Don't spit.''
|}
{|
|+
!pita
!wa
!ŋgwa
!na-sê
!gwà
!naki
|-
|''Peter''
|''DUB''
|''FUT''
|''3S.IR-go.up''
|''canoe''
|''IR.NEG''
|-
| colspan="6" |''Peter might not get on the canoe.''
|}

==== ŋaki ====

The negative marker ŋaki is used in the [[realis mood]], when declaring a statement of fact, as long as it is not past tense. This means that it is used for present and [[Habitual aspect|habitual]] events. An example of this marker in use can be seen in the following sentence (Siegel, 1984, p. 111):
{|
|+
!ai
!mbi
!ndu-dumala
!kô
!gwà
!ŋaki
|-
|''I''
|''POT''
|''1S.NR-look''
|''at''
|''canoe''
|''NR.NEG''
|-
| colspan="6" |''I'm not looking at the canoe OR I don't see the canoe.''
|}

==== Ki ====

Ki is used to mark negation in sentences that utilise the past tense, meaning that it is used for events that have already occurred. An example is (Siegel, 1984, p. 111-112):
{|
|+
!ai
!mba
!yô-nô
!ni
!ki
|-
|''I''
|''POT''
|''1S.OT-drink''
|''coconut''
|''NEG''
|-
| colspan="5" |''I didn't drink the coconut.''
|}

==== Negative verbs ====
As well as the use of the negative marker -ki in its various forms, Labu also has verbs which are inherently negative. These are the verbs -''le'' to not want, or -''ya pale'' to not know. As with other verbs within Labu, prefixes are added to the verb to signal number and tense. Examples are as follows (Siegel, 1984, p. 122):
{|
|+
!ai
!yêgi
!palê
!mba
!ŋgwa
!nda-di
!pô
|-
|''I''
|''1S.PT.hit''
|''not.know''
|''SUB''
|''FUT''
|''1S.IR-swim''
|''water''
|-
| colspan="7" |''I don't know if I'll go swimming.''
|}
{|
!ai
!ya-le
!mba
!ndêna
!ê
|-
|''I''
|''1S.PT-not.want''
|''SUB''
|''1S.IR.eat''
|''fish''
|-
| colspan="5" |''I don't want to eat fish.''
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* Anon. (2004). Labu organized phonology data. Summer Institute of Linguistics. [http://www.sil.org/pacific/png/pubs/0000199/Labu.pdf]
* Siegel, Jeff (1984). "Introduction to the Labu language." In Malcolm Ross, Jeff Siegel, [[Robert Blust]], Michael A. Colburn, W. Seiler, ''Papers in New Guinea Linguistics, No. 23,'' 83-159. Series A-69. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
* Ross, Malcolm (1988). ''Proto Oceanic and the Austronesian languages of western Melanesia.'' Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.

{{Languages of Papua New Guinea}}
{{North New Guinea languages}}
{{Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages}}

[[Category:Markham languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Morobe Province]]

Labu language - Revision history

imported>Fdom5997: /* Phonology */ +symbols, Siegel (1984)